Boston Electronics
(800)347-5445 or boselec@boselec.com
• SPADs: Single Photon Counting APDs:
Silicon: 350 - 900 nm (VIS)
InGaAs: 900 - 1700 nm (NIR)
Gated and Free-running
TCSPC and Quantum Physics
Correlation Electronics
• Short pulse diode lasers:
1310 and 1550 nm telecom wavelengths
• RNG: random number generators
110100010001110111…
• QKD: quantum key distribution &
encryption systems
From
Boston Electronics Corporation
91 Boylston Street, Brookline, Massachusetts 02445 USA
(800)347-5445 or (617)566-3821 fax (617)731-0935
www.boselec.com
boselec@boselec.com
Page 1
Photon
ing
t Countin
C
for Brainies.
s
0. Preamble
This document gives a general overview on InGaAs/InP, APD based photon counting at telecom
wavelengths. In common language telecom wavelengths are the O band, centered around 1310nm
(1260 to 1360 nm) and the C band, centered around 1550nm (1530 to 1565 nm) where the fibre
attenuation is the lowest. Also the principles of photon counting at visible wavelengths are similar; the
performance are very different. Values for VIS photon counter are given in chapter 10 of this
document.
Page 2
Table of contents
1. Avalanche photodiodes
2. Principle of photon counting
3. Terminology and explanation
4. Analogue versus Geiger mode
5. Free running versus gated mode
6. Effect of deadtime /afterpulsing
7. Nominal versus Effective Gate width
8. Linearity of Detection Probability
9. Photon counting at VIS wavelength
10. Our photon counters products
11. Our other products
12. Remark
Page 3
1. Avalanche photodiodes
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with an asymmetric transfer characteristic, with low (ideally
zero) resistance to current flow in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode,
the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p-n junction connected to two
electrical terminals. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the
diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction).
A photodiode is a type of photodetector capable of converting light into either current or voltage, depending upon the
mode of operation. Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either exposed or
packaged with a window or optical fiber connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes
designed for use specifically as a photodiode use a PIN junction rather than a p-n junction, to increase the speed of
response. A photodiode is designed to operate in reverse bias.
An avalanche photodiode (APD) is a highly sensitive semiconductor electronic
device that exploits the photoelectric effect (Figure 1) to convert light to electricity.
APDs can be thought of as photodetectors that provide a built-in first stage of gain
through avalanche multiplication. By applying a high reverse bias voltage, APDs show
an internal current gain effect due to impact ionization (avalanche effect). In general,
the higher the reverse voltage the higher the gain. For APD the reverse voltage is
always below the breakdown voltage and APD are not sensitive enough to detect single
photon
Figure 1
Single-Photon Avalanche Diode (SPAD) (also known as a Geiger-mode APD) identifies a class of solid-state
photodetectors based on a reverse biased p-n junction in which a photo-generated carrier can trigger an avalanche current
due to the impact ionization mechanism. This device is able to detect low intensity signals (down to the single photon).
SPADs, like the avalanche photodiode (APD), exploit the photon-triggered avalanche current of a reverse biased p-n
junction to detect an incident radiation. The fundamental difference between SPAD and APD is that SPADs are specifically
designed to operate with a reverse bias voltage well above the breakdown voltage (on the contrary APDs operate at a bias
lesser than the breakdown voltage). This kind of operation is also called Geiger mode in literature, for the analogy with the
Geiger counter.
2. Principle of photon counting
Figure 2 represents the I-V characteristics of an APD and illustrates
how single-photon sensitivity can be achieved. This mode is also
known as Geiger mode. The APD is biased, with an excess bias
voltage, above the breakdown value VBr and is in a metastable state
(point A). It remains in this state until a primary charge carrier is
created. In this case, the amplification effectively becomes infinite,
and even a single-photon absorption causes an avalanche resulting
in a macroscopic current pulse (point A to B), which can readily be
detected by appropriate electronic circuitry. This circuitry must also
limit the value of the current flowing through the device to prevent
its destruction and quench the avalanche to reset the device (point
B to C). After a certain time, the excess bias voltage is restored
(point C to A) and the APD is again ready to detect a single photon.
The actual value of the breakdown voltage depends on the
semiconductor material, the device structure and the temperature.
For InGaAs/InP APD’s, it is typically around 50V. The detection
efficiency but also the noise of an APD in Geiger mode depends o
n the excess bias voltage.
Above
A
VBr
I
Below
V
C
B
Figure 2
Page 4
3. Terminology and explanation
a) Detection efficiency
The performance of an avalanche photodiode APD in single-photon detection mode is characterized first by its detection
efficiency. This quantity corresponds to the probability for a photon impinging on the photodiode to be detected. The
detection efficiency results from two different factors:
- The probability that a photon is absorbed in the InGaAs layer
- The probability that the photo-generated carrier triggers an avalanche when crossing the multiplication zone
In fiber based photon counter there can be some coupling losses between the fiber and the active area. In order to
compensate this the bias voltage is slightly increase in order to get the same detection efficiency, thus slightly increasing
the dark count rate.
The quantum detection efficiency increases when the excess bias voltage is raised. At 1550 nm, a detection efficiency value
as high as 25% is typical, for an InGaAs/InP photodiode. For InGaAs/InP photon counter modules the detection efficiency
is adjustable.
Example for an InGaAs/InP photodiode
b) Dark counts
In an APD, avalanches are not only caused by the absorption of a photon, but can also be randomly triggered by carriers
generated in thermal, tunnelling or trapping processes taking place in the junction. They cause self triggering effects called
dark counts.
The easiest way to reduce dark counts is to cool the detector. This reduces the occurrence of thermally generated carriers.
At low temperature, dark counts are thus dominated by carriers generated by band to band tunnelling and more importantly
trapped charges (see below). Raising the excess bias voltage increases the occurrence of dark counts, increases the
detection efficiency and decreases the timing jitter. The operation point, in terms of bias voltage, must thus carefully be
selected. In gated mode, one typically quantifies this effect as a dark count probability per nanosecond of gate duration.
Example: Dark counts in [Hz]: 1’350 counts
gate width: 20 [ns]
trigger rate: 10 [MHz]
Dark counts in ns of gate = 2’000 / 20 / 10’000’000 = 6.75E-06
c) Afterpulses
Perhaps the major problem limiting the performance of present InGaAs/InP APD’s is the enhancing of the dark count rate
by so-called afterpulses. This spurious effect arises from the trapping of charge carriers during an avalanche by trap levels
inside the high field region of the junction, where impact ionization occurs. When subsequently released, these trapped
carriers can trigger a so-called afterpulse. The lifetime of the trapped charges is typically a few µs for InGaAs/InP APD’s.
The probability of these events is also proportional to the number of filled traps, which is in turn proportional to the charge
Page 5
crossing the junction in an avalanche before the quenching takes place. The total charge can be limited by ensuring prompt
quenching of the avalanches.
It is also important to note that reducing the operation temperature of the APD increases the lifetime of the
trapped charges. The cooling temperature must thus carefully be chosen to minimize the total dark count probability
(including afterpulses). Although it depends on the counting rate, this optimal temperature is typically around 220 K for
current InGaAs/InP APD’s.
So far, the cure to get rid of the dark count enhancement by afterpulses has been to use the gated mode detection scheme
(see below). If the voltage across the APD is kept below the breakdown voltage for a sufficiently long time interval, longer
than the trap lifetime, between two subsequent gates, trap levels are empty and cannot trigger an avalanche. With typical
trapping time in the µs range for InGaAs/InP APD’s. Using a deadtime to inhibit gates for a time long compared to the
trapped charges lifetime after each avalanche also proves useful. At a trigger rate of 100MHz the time interval between 2
gates is 10ns; so a deadtime of 1us will inhibit the next 100 gates and the maximum counting rate will be limited at 1 MHz.
d) Timing resolution
For many applications, the timing resolution, or jitter, of the detector is also important. Jitter is the undesired deviation
from true periodicity of an assumed periodic signal. It is the time variation of the electric output signal of the detector for a
constant arriving light signal. Timing performance typically improves with an increase of the excess bias voltage. In order
to quantify it, one sends short (shorter than 100 ps) and weak pulses on the detector. The spread of the onset of the
avalanche pulses is then monitored with a time-to-amplitude converter. At a 25% detection efficiency, a timing resolution
of about 200 ps FWHM is typical. In the future, optimisation of the photodiode structure could lead to improvements.
Timing jitter measurement on the InGaAs/InP id210 device
Page 6
4. Analogue versus Geiger mode
a) Avalanche mode (linear modes)
Avalanche photodiodes (APD) are working in so-called analogue mode.
Means the bias-voltage applied on the diode is always below break down voltage.
The output signal is proportional to the incoming light intensity.
APD in analogue mode are NOT sensitive enough to detect single photons.
b) Single photon avalanche mode (Geiger mode)
Our products id100, id210, id220 and id400 are SPAD (=Single Photon Avalanche Diode) based module.
SPAD (Single Photon Avalanche Diode) also called photon counter
They are working in digital mode, also called Geiger mode.
Means the bias-voltage applied on the diode is above breakdown.
When a photon is detected it creates an avalanche which has to be quenched, means the bias-voltage is brought below
breakdown in order to stop (quench) the avalanche and then brought back above break down to make it sensitive
again.
The detector is only sensitive when the bias voltage is above break down.
The output signal is NOT proportional to the incoming light intensity.
SPAD are sensitive enough to detect single photons!!!!!!!!!!
Avalanche mode (linear) vs single photon avalanche mode
Page 7
5. Free running versus gated mode
Free running mode:
Only after an avalanche the bias voltage is for a very short time brought below break down, called dead time, in order to
quench the avalanche.
When the bias voltage is above break down: the APD state is ON. When an avalanche occurs in the APD after detection of
a photon or a dark count, it is sensed by the capture electronics. A pulse of adjustable width is produced on the detection
output of the device and the quenching electronics stops the avalanche. In order to limit afterpulsing, the APD bias voltage
is maintained below breakdown (APD state is OFF) until the end of the dead time.
The free-running mode is very convenient for application where the photon arrival is unknown.
Free-running mode description
Deadtime can be set by the user for InGaAs/InP devices:
• id210 from 1us to 100us.
• id220 from 1us to 25us.
Gated mode:
In order to reduce dark count rate, the APD can be biased above breakdown voltage during a short period of time. This
period of time (=duration) is called the gate and is adjustable in width and frequency. This gate is then periodically
repeated. This is the trigger frequency (external or internal trigger).
The detector is only sensitive during the gates. So, the gated mode is used for applications where the photon arrival is
known and this mode significantly reduces dark count.
A photon won't be detected if there gate is not open OR a deadtime is applied (after a previous detection).
When an avalanche occurs within the gate because of a detection of a photon or a dark count, a pulse of adjustable width is
output at the detection connector. The quenching electronics closes the gate and a dead time can be applied, resulting in one
or more blanked pulses.
Gated mode description
Page 8
Free running versus gated mode
Gated mode
Free running mode
Vbd
Vbd
time
output
time
output
time
time
6. Effect of deadtime /afterpulsing
The deadtime is applied after each detection (real or dark count). If the voltage across the APD is kept below the
breakdown voltage for a sufficiently long time interval, longer than the trap lifetime, trap levels are empty and cannot
trigger an avalanche. The typical trapping time is in the µs range for InGaAs/InP APD’s.
id220: Typical DCR vs deadtime at 10%, 15% and 20% detection efficiencies
When a photon arrives on the InGaAs/InP photodiode and creates an avalanche, a deadtime has to be applied after the
Quenching (stopping the avalanche). Thanks to the deadtime (time while no voltage is applied on the photodiode), the
number of carriers and holes decreases significantly and so it avoid an high afterpulsing probability: if too many carriers
are trapped in the photodiode, when the next gate will be open or when the deadtime ends, a new avalanche will occur and
you will have a count which is an afterpulse (=”noise”).
If you use a short deadtime (or no deadtime), you will have a large amount of afterpulses. Then you can believe that you
have a high count rate and a good quantum efficiency, but this is just some noise.
Page 9
Please see below the shape of the curves “Count rate vs trigger rate” with different deadtimes. Please note that this
measurements were done with ambient light to have a significant number of counts and huge afterpulsing rate.
id210: Number of counts vs Frequency depending on the deadtime in gated mode
Thus you would see clearly the impact of deadtime on afterpulsing rate. As an example, you can clearly see that a 5us
deadtime has a significant effect on the afterpulsing rate when the trigger rate is higher than 1MHz. Let us remind you
kindly that those measurements were done with ambient light to have a significant number of counts and huge afterpulsing
rate; it means that the deadtime reduces the afterpulsing rate but also the number of detections coming from light.
Page 10
7. Nominal versus Effective Gate width
In the timing diagram below, a realistic chronogram is shown taking into account the slew rates of the different electronic
stages (the transit time in the electronic stages are assumed negligible). One can note that the gate control signal width
differs from the gate output signal width. More important, the gate control signal width (the width applied by the user
through the id210 interface) is larger than the effective gate width. The difference decreases when the excess voltage
voltage i.e. the efficiency is raised. Note that this effect can also be seen by building an histogram in memory of the dark
counts using a time-to-digital or time-to-analog converters.
This simplified explanation done, we inform the users that:
- a difference exists between the gate width set through the id210 interface and the effective gate width,
- a setting of a small gate width through the id210 interface may result in a lower peak efficiency than that of the current set
level, even in no efficiency (possible at low excess bias voltage),
- the dark count rate specified for the id210 is fairly evaluated with a measured FWHM effective gate width of 1ns. Indeed,
a dark count rate expressed per ns of the gate control signal width would be significantly underestimated in case of a gate
control signal width greatly larger than the effective gate width.
Note finally that the shrinkage of the effective gate width finds also explanation in the avalanche current build up duration.
high detection efficiency
low detection efficiency
time
time
Gate Control Signal
Gate Control Signal
Gate Output Signal
VAC-APD
Gate Output Signal
Ve
Ve
VAC-APD
VBD
VBD
VDC-APD
VDC-APD
Detection
Count
Rate
Detection
Count
Rate
effect ve gate w dth
effective gate width
Page 11
8. Linearity of Detection Probability
Linearity of Detection Probability
a) Gated mode
When using a photon counter, you can easily saturate the device:
If you use a laser source sending in average 2 photons per pulse you will have a count rate double as if you would send in
average one photon per pulse; this what is called linearity of the photon counters.
If no optical signal is sent on the APD, then the detection rate would be your dark count rate.
Between the saturation region and the dark count rate region, your detector is "linear": the count rate of the detector is
proportional to the number of photons arriving on the APD. Attention: this is valid only if a deadtime is applied (cf
paragraph 6 "Effect of deadtime /afterpulsing").
b) Free-running mode
This will be very similar except that the saturation region is defined by your deadtime:
For a 5us deadtime, the maximum count rate is 1/5us = 200kHz => saturation.
9. Photon counting at VIS wavelength
Silicon devices (for visible wavelength 350-900nm) does
normally not have an adjustable quantum efficiency.
Deadtime is 45ns for the silicon photon counter id100 and
is NOT adjustable.
For silicon devices, the trapping time is in the range of
few tens of nanoseconds and the afterpulsing probability
is low.
Silicon device have a lower jitter, as low as 45ps for the
id100, and works usually in free running mode only.
Detection efficiency for silicon based photon counter
Page 12
10. Our photon counters products
Product & Wavlength id100 (350-900 nm)
range
Si
Diode material
35% @ 500 nm
Quantum Efficiency:
Up to less than 2 Hz
Dark Count Rate:
40 ps
Timing jitter:
Free running mode
Operating mode
id400 (1064 nm)
id210 (900-1700 nm) id220(900-1700 nm)
InGaAsP/InP
InGaAs/InP
InGaAs/InP
Up to 30%
Up to 25%
Up to 20%
150 Hz at 7.5%
SPDE
Typically 300 ps
1.10-5 per gate
1 kHz at 10% SPDE
200 ps
250 ps
Gated or
free running mode
Gated or
free running mode
Free running mode
11. Our other products:
id300 short pulse laser source
Wavelength: 1310nm or 1550nm
Electrical input: NIM, ECL, TTL
Laser: Fabry-Perot or DFB
Pulse duration: < 300ps
Peak power: 1mW
Output power at 1MHz: -35dBm
Max trigger frequency: 500MHz
id300
id800-TDC; time to digital converter
Functionalities:
Time to Digital Converter
Time interval analyser
Coincidence counter
Figures of merits:
8 channel TDC
81ps resolution
count rates up to 12.5 million
Deadtime from 1us to 25us
USB interface
id800-TDC
Clavis2: Quatum Key Distribution (QKD) system for R&D
Applications:
Quantum cryptography research
Implementation of novel protocols
Education and training
Demonstrations and technology evaluation
Clavis 2
Quantis: Physical random number generator exploiting an elementary quantum optics process.
Applications:
Cryptography
Secure printing
Mobile prepaid system
Numerical simulations
Gambling, lotteries
PIN number generation
Statistical research
PCI Express
PCI
USB
OEM
12. Remark
Part of the information have been taken from http://en.wikipedia.org/
/ ID Quantique, March 2013
W
E
N
with NEW devices
and NEW grades
REDEFINING PRECISION
id100 SERIES
SINGLE-PHOTON DETECTORS FOR VISIBLE LIGHT WITH BESTIN-CLASS TIMING ACCURACY
IDQ’s id100 series consists of compact and affordable single-photon detector modules with best-in-class
timing resolution and state-of-the-art dark count rate based on a reliable silicon avalanche photodiode
sensitive in the visible spectral range. The id100 series detectors come as:
free-space modules, the id100-20 and
photosensitive area,
id100-50 with a 20 m and respectively a 50 m diameter
fiber-coupled modules, the id100-SMF20, id100-MMF50 and the id100-MMF100 coming with a standard
FC/PC optical input.
The modules are available in three dark count grades, with dark count rate as low as 2Hz.
With a timing resolution as low as 40ps and a remarkably short dead time of 45ns, these modules outperform
existing commercial detectors in all applications requiring single-photon detection with high timing accuracy
and stability up to count rates of at least 10MHz.
K EY FEATURES
APPLICATIONS
Best-in-class timing resolution (40ps)
Time correlated single photon counting (TCSPC)
Low dead time (45ns)
Fluorescence and luminescence detection
Small IRF shift at high count rates
Single molecule detection, DNA sequencing
Standard and Ultra-Low Noise grades
Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy
Peak photon detection at
Flow cytometry, spectrophotometry
= 500nm
Active area diameter of 20 m or 50 m
Quantum cryptography, quantum optics
Free-space or fiber coupling
Laser scanning microscopy
Not damaged by strong illumination
Adaptive optics
No bistability
ID Quantique SA
Chemin de la Marbrerie 3
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
T +41 22 301 83 71
F +41 22 301 83 79
info@idquantique.com
om
www.idquantique.com
com
SPECIFICATIONS
1 Timing Resolution
Parameter
Min
Wavelength range
350
2
1
40
Single-photon detection probability (SPDE)
Units
900
nm
60
ps
50k
15
18
%
at 500nm
30
35
%
at 600nm
20
25
%
at 700nm
15
18
%
at 800nm
5
7
%
at 900nm
3
4
%
4
5
Output pulse width
5
Output pulse amplitude
Deadtime
5
3
3
%
9
10
15
ns
1.5
2
2.5
V
45
50
ns
6
7
Maximum count rate (pulsed light)
Supply voltage
20
5.6
4
Supply current
60k
3
at 400nm
Afterpulsing probability
70k
Storage temperature
Counts [Hz]
1
Max
10k
0
0.0
150
mA
70
°C
20k
5
s
10k
W
NE
4 Afterpulsing
< 200Hz
W
NE
< 60Hz
< 2Hz
< 200Hz
< 80Hz
< 20Hz
5 Output Pulse
7
Autocorrelation Function
30k
0
00
05
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
6
5
Extremely low shift of instrument response function with
output count rate (less than 70ps from 10kHz to 8MHz).
3 Photon Detection Probability versus
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
400
4
500
3
600
700
800
Wavelength [nm]
10ns
2
6 Dead Time
1
1
10
100
1000
Time [ s]
Typical autocorrelation function of a constant laser
signal, recorded at a count rate of 10kHz.
Typical pulse of 2V amplitude and 10ns width observed at
the output of an id100 terminated with 50 load.
Recommended trigger level: 1V. For timing applications,
triggering on rising edge is recommended to take full
advantage of the detector´s timing resolution.
1
Optimal timing resolution is obtained when incoming
photons are focused on the photosensitive area.
4
Universal network adapter provided (110/220V).
2
The id100 is free of indicating LEDs to maintain
complete darkness during measurements.
5
See on page 4 the A PPI D pulse shaper for
negative input equipment compatibility.
3
The detector output is designed to avoid distorsion
and ringing when driving a 50 load.
6
The id100 SMF20 contains a single mode fiber optimized to
your operating wavelength
W
NE
7
The id100 MMF50 contains a 50/125 m multi mode fiber
optimized for visible spectral range with 0.22 numerical
aperture. The coupling efficiency is larger than 80%.
hold-off time
dead time
10ns
Measurement obtained with an
oscilloscope in infinite persistance mode:
the dead time consists of the output pulse
width and the hold off time during which
The id100 MMF100 contains a 100/140 m multi mode fiber
optimized for visible spectral range with 0.22 numerical
W aperture. The coupling efficiency is larger than 50%.
NE
8
IID
D Quantique SA
Chemin
C
in de la Marbrerie 3
3.0
Time [ns]
35
8
0
0.1
3.0
40k
100
Ultra-Low Noise
2.5
50k
V
Standard
20
60k
MHz
Regular
15
70k
Photon Detection Probability [%]
7
8
TE cooled
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
10
2 IRF Shift with Output Count Rate
Dark count rate: IDQ´s modules are available in three grades: Regular, Standard and
Ultra-Low Noise, depending on dark count rate specifications.
Active Area Diameter
20 m
W
6
NE
50 m
05
Time [ns]
6.5
-40
FWHM Timing Resolution 40ps
30k
6
Cooling time
id100-20
id100-SMF20
id100-50
id100-MMF50
id100-MMF100
40k
20k
Counts [Hz]
Timing resolution [FWHM]
Typical
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
T +41 22 301 83 71
F +41 22 301 83 79
info@idquantique.com
www.idquantique.com
com
900
(in mm)
id100-SMF20 Front View
id100-MMF50 Front View
id100-MMF100 Front View
id100-20 / id100-50 Front View
C-MOUNT
O1inch-32threads/inch
C-MOUNT adapter
FC/PC connector
39 0 +/- 0 5
39 0 +/- 0 5
C-MOUNT
20 m or 50 m active area
20ns
61 0 +/- 0 5
61.0 +/- 0.5
87.0 +/- 0.5
The short dead time of the id100 allows
operation at very high repetition frequencies,
up to 20MHz.
87.0 +/- 0.5
id100-SMF20 Top View
id100-MMF50 Top View
id100-MMF100 Top View
id100-20 / id100-50 Top View
FC/PC connector
C-MOUNT adapter
79.0 +/- 0.5
MOUNTING OPTIONS
8.0 +/- 0.2
127 3 +/-0 5
57 0 +/-0 5
8.0 +/- 0.2
80 0 +/- 0 5
The id100 series comes with different
mounting options:
Use mounting brackets supplied with the
module using screws with diameters up
to 4mm.
Use a standard optical post holder (not
supplied)using the M4 thread located on
the bottom side of the id100-20 & id10050 detectors.
Use the C-MOUNT adapter to add optical
elements in front of the detector (id10020 & id100-50 only).
4 0 + -0 5
4.0 +/-0.5
79.0 +/- 0.5
+
+
151 1 +/- 0 5
DIMENSIONAL OUTLINE
7 Maximum Count Rate - Pulsed Light
id100-20 / id100-50 Bottom View
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The id100 consists of an avalanche
photodiode (APD) and an active quenching
circuit integrated on the same silicon chip.
The chip is mounted on a thermo-electric
cooler and packaged in a standard TO5
header with a transparent window cap. A
thermistor is used to measure temperature.
The APD is operated in Geiger mode, i.e.
biased above breakdown voltage. A high
voltage supply used to bias the diode is
provided by a DC/DC converter. The
quenching circuit is supplied with +5V. The
module output pulse indicates the arrival of
a photon with high timing resolution. The
pulse is shaped using a hold-off time circuit
and sent to a 50 output driver. All internal
settings are preset for optimal operation at
room temperature.
+
+
M4
+
+
BLOCK DIAGRAM
+6V
Input Filter
&
Linear
Regulator
TO5 header
+5V
R(T)
DC
DC
SMB jack
(female)
2V
10ns
Temperature
Controller
TEC
Quenching
Circuit
Detection
50W
Output
Driver
Hold-off
Time
Circuit
High Voltage Supply
In the fiber-coupled version, a fiber pigtail
with FC/PC connector is coupled to the
detector.
IID
D Quantique SA
Chemin
C
in de la Marbrerie 3
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
Chip
APD
T +41 22 301 83 71
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info@idquantique.com
www.idquantique.com
com
ACCESSORY - OPTIONAL PULSE SHAPER
IDQ provides as an option a pulse shaper (A-PPI-D)
which can be used with equipments requiring
negative input pulses. The id100 output pulse leading
edge is converted in a sharp negative pulse of typical
amplitudes 1.4V in 50 load and 2.5V in high
impedance load. The pulse shaper is delivered with
two SMA/BNC adapters.
Typical output pulse of an id100 equipped Typical output pulse of an id100 equipped with a
A PPI D pulse shaper in high impedance load.
with a A PPI D pulse shaper in 50 load.
id101 SERIES - THE WORLD´S SMALLEST PHOTON COUNTER
For large-volume OEM applications, IDQ offers the id101 series, consisting of a standard
TO5 - 8pins optoelectronic package with a CMOS silicon chip (single photon avalanche
diode and fast active quenching circuit) mounted on top of a thermoelectric cooler. A
thermistor is available for temperature monitoring and control. An evaluation board is
available upon request. When properly biased, the performance is comparable with that of
the id100-50. IDQ's engineering team offers technical support to simplify integration. A fiber
coupled version, the id101-MMF50, is also available. See the id101 datasheet for more
information.
OTHER PRODUCTS
id101
id110
id150
id210
id220
id300
id400
Quantis
Clavis2
Cerberis
Centauris
Arcis
Miniature single-photon detector for the visible spectral range (see above)
Single-photon detection system for visible wavelength operating in gated mode
Monolithic linear array of single-photon detectors for the visible range
Single-photon detection system for telecom wavelengths
Free-running single photon detection module - Near infrared range
Short pulse laser source
Single photon counting module for the 900-1150nm spectral range
Quantum Random Number Generator
Quantum Key Distribution System for R&D
Layer 2 encryptor with Quantum Key Distribution
Layer 2 encryptor
Adjustable bandwidth encryptors which offer multi-layer (L3, L4) encryption
SUPPLIED ACCESSORIES
Mounting brackets (4x)
C-Mount adapter (except for fiber couple devices)
Coaxial cable (1m, BNC-SMB)
Power supply with universal input plugs
Operating guide
Angled 2.5mm hexagonal key to remove C-Mount adapter
Angled T10 Torx key to remove mounting brackets
C-MOUNT
fiber coupled version:
id100 MMF50
ORDERING INFORMATION
id100-20-XXX
id100-50-XXX
id100-SMF20-XXX
id100-MMF50-XXX
id100-MMF100-XXX
Photon counter with 20 m active area.
Photon counter with 50 m active area.
Photon counter with singlemode f ber pigtail (FC/PC connector).
Photon counter with multimode f ber pigtail (50/125 m, FC/PC connector).
Photon counter with multimode f ber pigtail (100/140 m, FC/PC connector).
free space version:
id100 20 & id100 50
Select dark count grade:
XXX = REG for Regular; STD for Standard; ULN for Ultra-Low Noise.
Disclaimer
The information and specification set forth in this document are subject to change at any time by ID Quantique without prior notice.
Copyright© 2005-2011 ID Quantique SA - All rights reserved - id100 v4.1 - Specifications as of November 2011
IID
D Quantique SA
Chemin
C
in de la Marbrerie 3
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
T +41 22 301 83 71
F +41 22 301 83 79
info@idquantique.com
www.idquantique.com
com
Boston Electronics
(800)347-5445 or boselec@boselec.com
REDEFINING PRECISION
id101 SERIES
MIN
NIATU
URE
E PHOTON
N COUN
NTER
R FOR
R OEM
M APP
PLICAT
TIONS
Intended for large-volume OEM applications, the id101 is the smallest, most reliable and most
efficient single photon detector on the market. It consists of a CMOS (Complementary Metal
Oxide Semiconductor) silicon chip packaged in a standard TO5-8pin header with a transparent
window cap. The chip combines either a 20μm (id101-20) or a 50μm diameter (id101-50) singlephoton avalanche diode and a fast active quenching circuit, which guarantees a dead time of less
than 50ns. The chip is mounted on top of a single-stage thermoelectric cooler (TEC). A fibercoupled version, the id101-MMF50, is also available. The maximum photon detection probability
is measured in the blue spectral range (35% at 500nm). An outstanding timing resolution of less
than 60ps allows high accuracy measurements. The performance of the id101 detectors is
comparable to that of the id100-20 and id100-50 modules.
The id101 can be mounted on a printed circuit board and integrated in apparatuses such as
spectrometers or microscopes. The module is used in biological/chemical instrumentation,
quantum optics, aerospace and defense applications.
Contrary to legacy photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) and other silicon-based counters manufactured
tor is fabricated using a qualified commercial
with non-standard custom process, the id101 detector
CMOS process, which guarantees high reliability.
K EY
Y FEA
ATUR
RES
A PPLICA
ATION
NS
Best-in-class timing resolution (40ps)
Time correlated single photon counting (TCSPC)
Low dead time (45ns)
Fluorescence and luminescence detection
Small IRF shift at high count rates
Single molecule detection, DNA sequencing
Peak photon detection at λ = 500nm
Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy
Active area diameter of 20μm or 50μm
Flow cytometry, spectrophotometry
Free-space or multimode fiber coupling
Quantum cryptography, quantum optics
Not damaged by strong illumination
Laser scanning microscopy
Integrated thermoelectric cooler and thermistor
Adaptive optics
ID Quan
n tique SA
1227 Carouge/Geneva
T +41 22 301 83 71
info@idquantique.com
om
Boston Electronics
PR
RINC
CIP
PLE OF OP
PERA
ATION
(800)347-5445 or boselec@boselec.com
B LOCK
K DIAGRAM
2
The id101 is based on a 0.8x0.8mm CMOS silicon chip
containing a 20μm or 50μm diameter avalanche diode and
its active quenching circuit. To operate in the Geiger mode,
the diode anode is biased with a negative voltage Vop. The
cathode is linked to VDD through a polysilicon resistor Rq.
Before the photon arrival, the switch is open (nonconducting) and the cathode is at VDD. When a photon
strikes the diode, the voltage drop induced on the cathode is
sensed by the sensing circuit. The output pin OUT switches
to VDD. The feedback circuit closes the switch: the diode is
biased below its breakdown voltage resulting in the
avalanche quenching. The diode is then kept below
breakdown and the recharge takes place with the opening of
the switch. The full cycle is defined as the sensor dead time.
In any single photon avalanche diode, thermally generated
carriers induce false counts, called dark counts. A singlestage thermoelectric cooler (TEC) allows to cool the device
to reduce the dark count rate. Furthermore, the photon
detection probability in a single photon avalanche diode is
dependent on the excess bias voltage above breakdown.
The breakdown voltage being temperature dependent, it is
often crucial to keep the sensor at a constant temperature.
The thermistor included in the id101 allows one to
implement a temperature control circuit.
VDD
Rq
sensing
circuit
output
driver
OUT
GND
VOP
TEC
TEC(-)
TEC(+)
R(T)
THERM
M(2)
DIM
MEN
NSIONA
A L OU
UTLIN
NE (in mm) AND
D PINO
OUT
thermistor
single-stagg e TEC
THERM(1)
silicon chip including
the single photon avalanche
photodiode and the active
quenching circuit
∅ 20.0
+/-0.5
id1001-MM
MF50 fibeer-coo upll edd version
feedback
circuit
TO
O5 - 8 pins header
50.0
FC
C/PC
connector
∅ 91
∅ 8 33
- Window material: glass
- Pin material: gold plated
- The 20μm or 50μm active area is aligned with the centre
of the glass window. The positioning accuracy is +/100microns.
IID
D Quantique SA
1227 Carouge/Geneva
1.9
6.6
c onnectio
on
VOP
VDD
thermistor
thermistor
GND
OUT
TEC(-)
TEC(+)
+/ 0 1
+/-0.2
pin #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
+/ 0 1
+/-0.2
multimode fiber
typ.length=150mm
0.6 +/-0.1
TO5 fibb er pigtail
∅ 0.43
+/ 0 05
T +41 22 301 83 71
UNIT: millimeters
info@idquantique.com
Boston Electronics
(800)347-5445 or boselec@boselec.com
SP
PECIFICA
ATION
NS
1 Timing Resoll ution
Paramett er
Wavelength range
Active area diameter
Min
350
Typii cal
Maxx
900
Unii ts
nm
70k
60k
20
μm
50k
50
40
μm
ps
40k
1
15
30
20
15
5
3
18
35
25
18
7
4
%
%
%
%
%
%
FWHM
M Timingg Resolutionn 40ps
30k
20k
10k
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Timee [ns]
2 Photon Detectt ion Probability versus λ
30
40
4b
50
300
3
Hz
Hz
%
40
50
ns
ns
V
mA
35
45
VDD
4
Photon Detection Probability [%]
35
15
100
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
400
500
600
700
800
900
Wavelengthh [nm]
30
40
35
45
40
50
ns
ns
5.0
28
22
5.2
2.2
-26
MHz
MHz
V
mA
V
100
μA
70
°C
3 A fterpulsing
8
7
4.8
0.25
-24
Current on VOP
Storage temperature
60
-40
Autocorrelation Function
id101-50
Timing resolution [FWHM] 1
Single-photon detection probability (SPDE) 2
at 400nm
at 500nm
at 600nm
at 700nm
at 800nm
at 900nm
Dark count rate (DCR)
id101-20
id101-50
Afterpulsing probability 3
Output pulse width
id101-20
4a 5a
id101-50 and id101-MMF50 4b 5b
Output pulse amplitude (in high impedance) 4a
Output driver capability
Deadtime
id101-20
id101-50 and id101-MMF50
Maximum count rate (pulsed light)
id101-20
6a
id101-50 and id101-MMF50 6b
VDD supply voltage
Current on VDD
VOP supply voltage
Counts [Hz]
id101-20
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0.1
1
10
100
1000
Tii mee [ μs]
1 The id101-MMF50 comes with a 50/125μm multimode fiber pigtail
with a 0.22 numerical aperture. The overall coupling efficiency
exceeds 80%.
Typical autocorrelation function of a
constant laser signal, recorded at a
count rate of 10kHz.
THER
RMOELECTRIC CO
OOLER SPECIFICA
ATION
NS
Parameter
Resistance ACR
Unit
Value (conditions)
Ω
3.56 +/- 0.16 (at Tr=300K)
Maximum Current Imax
A
0.4 +/- 0.02 (at ΔTmax)
Maximum Voltage Drop Umax
V
1.35 +/- 0.07 (at ΔTmax)
Maximum Delta-T Δtmax
K
67.0 +/- 2.0 (Vacuum, Q=0, Tr=300K)
Maximum Cooling Capacity Qmax
W
0.29 +/- 0.01 (at ΔT=0)
THERMO
OSEN
NSOR SPECIFICA
ATION
NS
Parameter
MOUN
NTIN
NG DETA
A ILS
Unit
Value (conditions)
TEC mounting
Resistance R0
kΩ
2.2 +/- 0.16 at 293K
Thermosensor mounting
Beta Constant β
K1
2918.9 +/- 5%
Wire mounting
soldering, 117°C
epoxy glue
soldering, 183°C
The thermistor resistance can be calculated by:
RT = R293K*exp(β(293-T)/(293*T))
IID
D Quantique SA
1227 Carouge/Geneva
T +41 22 301 83 71
info@idquantique.com
Boston Electronics
(800)347-5445 or boselec@boselec.com
10nn s
1V
10ns
10ns
1V
1V
4a
5a
6a
10nn s
1V
10ns
10ns
1V
1V
4b
5b
Typical pulses observed at the id101-20
(4a) and id101-50 or id101-MMF50 (4b)
outputs in high impedance.
6b
Extended pulses observed at the id101-20
(5a) and id101-50 or id101-MMF50 (5b)
outputs at high illumination level. When an
avalanche is triggered during the recharge
process, the output remains high, giving
an extended pulse. This effect leads to a
decrease of the output count rate.
The short dead time of the id101
allows operation at very high
repetition frequencies, up to 28MHz
for the id101-20 (6a) and 22MHz for
the id101-50 or id101-MMF50 (6b).
id1001-EV
VA EV
VALUATION
N BO
OARD
An evaluation board has been developed for
preliminary optical and electrical testing of the
id101. The id101 under test can be plugged into a
socket intended for TO5 headers. The evaluation
board comes with a power supply with universal
range of input plugs and a 1m coaxial cable
ended with a BNC connector.
APPLICA
ATIO
ON EX
XAMPLE - COMBINA
ATION
N IN
N ARRAY
Electronic Circuits foo r:
-power supply
-outpp ut driveer
-temperature c ontrol
Many industrial applications would greatly benefit
from a single photon detector array. When the
required array size is reasonably small (i.e. <
10x10), it is possible to assemble several closely
spaced TO5 headers to form an array. As
illustrated in the figure, opposite, for a 3x3 array,
several TO headers can be mounted on a printed
circuit board. The minimum center-to-center pitch
is 9.5 mm. Common electronic circuits for power
supply, output stage and temperature control can
be implemented on the PCB. If a high accuracy
for the distance from pixel to pixel is required or if
a large array is needed, IDQ offers a custom
design service for the design of an applicationspecific CMOS chip.
IID
D Quantique SA
1227 Carouge/Geneva
T +41 22 301 83 71
info@idquantique.com
Boston Electronics
(800)347-5445 or boselec@boselec.com
TY
YPICA
A L A PPLICA
ATION
N CIRCUIT
Power Stage
The id101 requires two power supplies, VDD and VOP. A standard inverting DC/DC converter can convert the +5V level
to the high negative voltage level VOP. The remaining electronic circuits on the PCB board can be supplied with the
same +5V power. Two 100nF capacitances must be added as close as possible to the output pins for decoupling
purpose.
Outp
p ut Stage
The id101 output can be shaped for the back-end electronic circuits (e.g. counter, TDC, TAC) using the circuit shown
below. A D-type Flip-Flop with asynchroneous clear combined with a delay generator (RC for instance) and an inverter
with a Schmitt trigger input allows to set the pulse width and the dead time.
Temperature Control
For proper operation, it is highly recommended to implement a thermal stabilisation circuit on the final printed circuit
board, using the single-stage TEC and the 2.2kΩ thermistor provided. Integrated temperature controllers for Peltier
modules are commercially available.
VDD
+5V
feedback
circuit
Rq
sensing
circuit
inverting
DC/DC
converter
1
output
driver
C
CP
OUT
1
GND
D
Q
delay
OUT
VOP
TEC
TEC(-)
TEC(+)
+5V
TH
HERM
M(2)
THE
ERM(1)
R(T)
temperature
controller
A CCESSORY
Y - OP
PTIONA
A L PULSE SHAP
PER
IDQ provides as an option a pulse shaper (APPI-D) which can be used with equipments
requiring negative input pulses. The id100
output pulse leading edge is converted in a
sharp negative pulse of typical amplitudes
1.4V in 50Ω load and 2.5V in high impedance
load. The pulse shaper is delivered with two
SMA/BNC adapters.
IID
D Quantique SA
Typical output pulse of an id100 equipped Typical output pulse of an id100 equipped with a
A-PPI-D pulse shaper in high impedance load.
with aA-PPI-D pulse shaper in 50Ω load.
1227 Carouge/Geneva
T +41 22 301 83 71
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W
E
N
REDEFINING PRECISION
id110 - VIS - GATED
GATED VISIBLE SINGLE PHOTON DETECTOR
AR
Y
avalanche signal (also called post-gating), the
id110 operates in real GATED MODE and offers
the best discrimination performance. The figure
below shows the detection rate after sending an
intense light pulse on the APD (1000 photons) at
100kHz repetition rate. The extra-noise originated
by the strong pulses in free-running mode (due to
afterpulsing effect) is larger than the one in gated
mode (due to charge persistence) whereas the
noise level is higher in free-running mode.
Additionnaly, in gated mode, the APD is NOT
blinded.
K EY FEATURES
la ser pulse
1 00 00 00
10 00 00
APD w orkin g in ga ted mo de ( 20 ns
p ulse w idth)
APD w orkin g in fr ee -runn ing m od e
(70 ns de ad t im e & 10n s co incid ence
p ulse w idth)
1 00 00
C ou nt (Hz)
LI
M
IN
The id110 brings a major breakthrough for single
photon detection at visible wavelengths in
demanding conditions. Conventional singlephoton detectors based on Silicon Avalanche
Photodiodes (APD) are typically operated in freerunning mode. Their performance can be strongly
impacted by intense optical pulses. The detector
is blinded by the intense pulse due to the deadtime effect occurring after each detection. This
deadtime can extend to 100's of ns. In addition,
the charges trapped in the APD junction, as a
result of intense optical pulses, increase the noise
level, potentially masking the signal of interest.
The id110 Gated Visible Single Photon Detector
brings a solution to these problems by operating
the APD in GATED MODE. The bias voltage is
kept below breakdown to deactivate the detector
and enhance trap discharge, except when
detection is specifically enabled. Contrary to other
products on the market, which simulate GATED
MODE by controlling the activation of the output
10 00
1 00
10
1
0 .1
1 00
10 00
1 00 00
D elay ( ns)
PR
E
Up to 100MHz external / internal gating frequency
Free gating mode
Adjustable photon detection probability
Adjustable delays, gate width and deadtime
Universal Inputs/Outputs
Two-channel auxiliary event counter
Auxiliary coincidence counter
APPLICATIONS
Setup storage in internal memory
Quantum optics
Real time statistics, charts, sound alarms
Quantum memory
Optical tomography
Data export through USB memory
Photoluminescence
Ethernet remote control (Option)
Fluorescence, fluorescence life time
ID Quantique SA
Chemin de la Marbrerie 3
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
T +41 22 301 83 71
F +41 22 301 83 79
info@idquantique.com
om
www.idquantique.com
com
1
The System hardware
The system hardware allows the id110 to operate in free-running, free-gating, internal gated or external gated modes.
Internal-gating mode:
RY
The APD is biased above breakdown during gates of adjustable width and frequency. Internal gating is a
synchronous mode based on a clock provided by the internal clock generator. The 50% duty cycle clock signal is
available at the clock output and counted by the HF clock counter. A user-adjustable trigger delay can be set between
the clock and the gate signals. A gate of width set by the user is opened on the rising edge of the delayed trigger. An
avalanche event within the gate increments the HF detection counter and causes a pulse of adjustable width at
detection1 and detection2 connectors. The quenching electronics closes the gate and, if selected by the user, a dead
time is applied resulting in one or several blanked pulses after a detection.
Internal gated mode
1/Internal Gating Frequency
Clock Output
Dead Time
Trigger Delay
Gate Width
n
bla
Gate Output
k ed
g at
e
Quenching
Width Detection 1&2
Detection 1&2 Outputs
+1
HF Clock Counter
+1
+1
+1
+1
+1
LI
M
HF Gate Counter
+1
+1
HF Detection Counter
External-gating mode:
The operation in external gating mode is very similar to the internal gating mode except that the clock is provided by the
user at the trigger input.
External gated mode
Trigger Input
Dead Time
Trigger Delay
at
dg
e
nke
Gate Width
bla
Gate Output
Quenching
Width Detection 1&2
Detection 1&2 Outputs
HF Clock Counter
HF Gate Counter
+1
+1
+1
+1
+1
+1
+1
HF Detection Counter
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2
Free-gating mode:
The user supplies an electrical signal at the reset/enable input. When no avalanche occurs, the gate output that
reflects the APD state (On/Off) is identical to the reset/enable input signal. When an avalanche occurs during a gate, a
pulse of adjustable width is produced at detection1 and detection2 outputs, the HF detection counter is incremented
and the quenching electronics stops the gate. When a dead time is applied for limiting the afterpulsing, the gate signal
remains at low level whatever the reset/enable state. This results in blanked gate(s) or partially blanked gates. The HF
gate counter provides the effective gates rate applied to the APD.
Y
Free-gating mode
Reset/Enable Input
Dead Time
d
bla
Gate Output
n
g at
k ed
nke
e
Quenching
lly
g at
Quenching
e
tia
p ar
bla
Quenching
Width Detection 1&2
Detection 1&2 Outputs
+1
+1
+1
+1
HF Detection Counter
+1
IN
HF Gate Counter
+1
Free-running mode (asynchronous mode):
+1
LI
M
Until photon absorption or dark count generation, the APD is biased above its breakdown voltage in Geiger mode. The
gate output that reflects the APD state (i.e. On:photosensitive or Off:blind) is at high level. When an avalanche takes
place in the APD, it is sensed by the capture electronics. A pulse of adjustable width is produced on detection1 and
detection2 outputs, the detection HF counter is incremented and the quenching electronics stops the avalanche. To
limit afterpulsing, the APD is maintained below breakdown until the end of the dead time. In this mode, the HF gate
counter and HF detection counter rates are equal.
Free-running mode (asynchronous)
Dead Time
Gate Output
Quenching
Quenching
Quenching
Width Detection 1&2
Detection 1&2 Outputs
+1
HF Gate Counter
+1
+1
+1
+1
P
HF Detection Counter
+1
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www.idquantique.com
com
3
SPECIFICATIONS
Parameter
Min
Wavelength range
350
Optical fiber type
Typical
Max
Units
900
nm
1
versus l
MMF (diam. 105 um)
Single-photon detection probability (SPDE)
1
at 405nm
13
%
at 530nm
24
%
at 590nm
24
%
at 660nm
17
%
at 850nm
4
Deadtime range
0.070
%
100
us
200
ps
10
2
External trigger frequency
ns
AR
Deadtime step
Timing resolution at max. efficiency (25%)
100
Internal trigger frequency
Photon Detection Probability
MHz
1,2,5,10,20,50,100,200,500 kHz 1,2,5,10,20,50,100 MHz
Effective gate width range
0.5
Gate width step
25
ns
10
Trigger delay range
ps
20
Trigger delay resolution
10
Calibrated at l
=530 nm.
ps
FC/APC
IN
Optical connector
2
ns
Probability of dark count rate at 530nm for a 1ns effective gate width in gated mode:
Freq.=100kHz, 70ns deadtime
10% efficiency
20% efficiency
10% efficiency
20% efficiency
0.1Hz
0.25Hz
100Hz
250Hz
id110-MMF105
LI
M
Model
Freq.=100MHz, deadtime=1m
s
SUPPLIED ACCESSORIES
Power Cable
Optical fiber cleaner
User guide on USB key
1m FC/APC patch cord MMF105
Compact USB keyboard
Ethernet cable (optional)
ORDERING INFORMATION
module with multimode fibre input (core diameter 105um)
100MHz internal / external trigger rate
PR
E
id110-MMF105-100MHz
OTHER SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTATION PRODUCTS
id100: Photon counter module in the VIS spectrum
id150: Miniature 8-channel photon counter for OEM applications in the VIS spectrum
id400: Single photon detection system for 1064nm (900 to 1150nm)
id210: Single photon detection system - Telecom wavelength
id220: Free-running single photon detection module - Near infrared
id300: Short-pulse laser source at 1310nm or 1550nm
id800: 8 channel Time to Digital Converter TDC
Disclaimer
The information and specification set forth in this document are subject to change at any time by ID Quantique without prior notice.
Copyright© 2013 D Quantique SA - All rights reserved - id110 v2013 04 24 - Specifications as of April 24 2013
IID
D Quantique SA
Chemin
C
in de la Marbrerie 3
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
T +41 22 301 83 71
F +41 22 301 83 79
info@idquantique.com
www.idquantique.com
com
4
W
E
N
REDEFINING PRECISION
Single Photon Counter Visible
AR
Y
Large active area 500um - High Quantum
Efficiency at 650nm and at 800nm
IDQ’s id100 series consists of compact and affordable single-photon detector modules based on a reliable
silicon avalanche photodiode sensitive in the visible spectral range. Up to now, the id100 series was limited to
detectors with high efficiency values in the green region (around 500nm). The two new detectors of id100
series have high efficiency values in the red region of the visible spectrum and ultra high active area. These
new detectors come as :
free-space module, passive quenching, maximal efficiency value around 650nm
free-space module, passive quenching, maximal efficiency value around 800nm
KEY FEATURES
LI
M
IN
Those two detection modules are highly versatile thanks to an USB connexion and a Labview interface
allowing the user to change the bias voltage and the temperature of the diode. The modules are equiped of a
dual universal output signal port which can be set through the software interface. The modules are compatible
with the C-mount, SM1 and cage technologies from Thorlabs. This allows an easy coupling of the light beam
onto the active area of the detectors.
One module optimized around 650nm
One module optimized around 800nm
Tunable efficiency
Tunable temperature of the diode
Adjustable deadtime
Universal dual output
PR
E
Labview interface
C-mount, SM1, cage compatible
APPLICATIONS
Time correlated single photon counting (TCSPC)
Fluorescence and luminescence detection
Single molecule detection, DNA sequencing
Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy
Spectrophotometry
Laser scanning microscopy
ID Quantique SA
Chemin de la Marbrerie 3
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
T +41 22 301 83 71
F +41 22 301 83 79
info@idquantique.com
om
www.idquantique.com
com
SPECIFICATIONS
The id120 is a versatile device allowing you to adjust the excess bias, the deadtime and the temperature. Please note that the
values in the specification table are dependent on the user-defined parameters. To have a fair overview of the specifications,
it is recommended to carefully review the curves «Efficiency vs excess bias» and «Dark count rate vs temperature».
ID120-500-800nm
ID120-500-650nm
Parameter
Min
Wavelength range
350
Active area
Typical
Max
Min
1000
350
Typical
Max
Units
1000
nm
500
500
um
Single-photon detection probability (SPDE)
at 650nm (at max. excess bias)
1
at 800nm (at max. excess bias)
60
1
40
55
%
80
%
Dark Count Rate
Down to
500
Timing resolution [FWHM]
200
1000
Hz
1000
1
NIM & LVTTL & Variable
40
1 Efficiency versus Excess Bias @ 655nm
2 id120-500-650nm:
Dark count rate versus temperature
1227 Carouge/Geneva
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40
70
ns
70
1 Efficiency versus Excess Bias @ 808nm
3 id210-500-800nm:
Dark count rate versus temperature
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ps
us
100
100
Storage temperature
3
400
1
Output pulse width
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200
NIM & LVTTL & Variable
Deadtime
Output pulse
400
2
°C
REDEFINING PRECISION
id150 SERIES
MINIATURE 8-CHANNEL PHOTON COUNTER
FOR OEM APPLICATIONS
The id150-1x8 is the only multichannel solid-state single photon detector on the market. It
consists of a CMOS silicon chip packaged in a standard TO8-16pin header with a transparent
window cap. The chip combines 8 in-line single photon avalanche diodes that can be accessed
simultaneously for parallel processing. The square diodes are 40x40μm in area with a center-tocenter pitch of 60μm . A fast active quenching circuit is integrated within each pixel in order to
operate each diode in photon counting regime. The chip is mounted on a printed circuit board on
top of a single-stage thermoelectric cooler (TEC). A thermistor can be used to measure the
temperature of the chip. Two power supplies (+5V and -25V) are sufficient for operation in photon
counting mode. The fast active quenching circuit leads to a dead time of less than 50ns per
channel. An outstanding timing resolution of less than 60ps allows high accuracy measurements.
The id150-1x8 can be mounted on a printed circuit board and integrated in apparatus such as
spectrometers or microscopes. The module is used in biological/chemical instrumentation,
quantum optics, aerospace and defense applications. The small detector size is ideal for portable
device applications.
Contrary to legacy photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) and other silicon-based counters manufactured
with non-standard custom process, the id150-1x8 is fabricated using a qualified commercial
CMOS process, which guarantees high reliability.
KEY FEATURES
APPLICATIONS
High-throughput single molecule detection
1x8 linear array with independent outputs
Pixel active area of 40x40μm
2
Parallel DNA sequencing
Center-to-center pitch of 60μm
Multi-Channel TCSPC
Best-in-class timing resolution (40ps)
Fluorescence and luminescence detection
Low dead time (45ns) and dark count rate
Decay and multiple decay time measurements
Peak photon detection at λ = 500nm
Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy
No crosstalk
Flow cytometry, spectrophotometry
Not damaged by strong illumination
Quantum optics
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PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
LINEAR ARRAY PICTURE
2
The id150-1x8 is based on a 1.2x1.4mm CMOS silicon chip
containing 8 in-line independent single photon detectors.
Each pixel combines a square avalanche photodiode of
40x40μm2 area and its active quenching circuit. The pixel
center-to-center pitch is 60μm (fill factor exceeds 75%).
To operate in the Geiger mode, each diode anode is biased
with a negative voltage. In the id150-1x8, the cathode of
pixels 1, 3, 5 and 7 are connected together to Vop1 pad,
while the cathode of pixels 2, 4, 6 and 8 are connected to
Vop2 pad. Each cathode is linked to VDD through a
polysilicon resistor Rq. Prior to the detection of a photon on a
pixel, the switch is open (non-conducting) and the cathode is
at VDD. When a photon strikes the diode, the voltage drop
induced on the cathode is sensed by the active quenching
circuit. The corresponding output pin OUTi switches to VDD.
The feedback circuit closes the switch: the diode is biased
below its breakdown voltage resulting in the avalanche
quenching. The diode is then kept below breakdown and the
recharge takes place with the opening of the switch. The full
cycle is defined as the pixel dead time.
In any single photon avalanche diode, thermally generated
carriers induce false counts, called dark counts. A singlestage thermoelectric cooler (TEC) allows one to cool the
device to reduce the dark count rate. Furthermore, the
photon detection probability in a single photon avalanche
diode depends on the excess bias voltage.
active quenching circuits
1x8 SPAD array
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
active quenching circuits
The breakdown voltage being temperature
dependent, it is often crucial to keep the sensor at a
constant temperature. The thermistor included in the
id150-1x8 allows one to implement a temperature
control circuit. For efficient cooling, an additional
heat-sink combined with a air fan must be added by
the user. The heat-sink can either surround the TO8
header or be fixed using the UNC 4-40 thread.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
OUT1
OUT2
OUT3
OUT4
OUT5
OUT6
OUT7
OUT8
VDD
Rq
Rq
AQC
Rq
AQC
Rq
AQC
Rq
Rq
AQC
AQC
Rq
AQC
Rq
AQC
AQC
GND
VOP1
VOP2
TEC
TEC(-)
TEC(+)
R(T)
THERM(2)
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SPECIFICATIONS
1 Timing Resolution
Min
Wavelength range
350
Pixel active area
Center-to-center pitch
Timing resolution [FWHM]
1
Single-photon detection probability (SPDE)
Typical
Max
Units
900
nm
40x40
μm
60k
60
40
μm
ps
50k
60
2
at 400nm
15
18
%
at 500nm
30
35
%
at 600nm
20
25
%
at 700nm
15
18
%
at 800nm
5
7
%
at 900nm
3
4
%
FWHM Timing Resolution 40ps
30k
20k
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Time [ns]
1
DCR / channel
15
kHz
Mean DCR over the 8 channels
3.5
kHz
Afterpulsing probability
40k
10k
3
Output pulse width
40
Output pulse amplitude (in high impedance)
45
3
%
50
ns
VDD
Output driver capability
4
Deadtime
VDD supply voltage
VOP supply voltage
4.8
-24
Storage temperature
-40
5.0
2 IRF Shift with Output Count Rate
70k
60k
V
50k
mA
40k
50
ns
5.2
-26
V
V
70
°C
Counts [Hz]
Dark count rate (DCR)
70k
Counts [Hz]
Parameter
30k
20k
10k
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Time [ns]
3 Afterpulsing
Measured at 273K with VOP = -25.5V
8
7
Autocorrelation Function
1
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0.1
1
10
100
1000
Time [μs]
Typical autocorrelation function of a
constant laser signal, recorded at a
count rate of 10kHz.
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DIMENSIONAL OUTLINE (in mm) AND PINOUT
TO8 - 16pins header
8
7
6
9
4
10
3
11
2
12
1
TOP VIEW
+/ 0 2
∅ 15.3
+/ 0 2
∅ 14.0
+/ 0 2
printed circuit board
glued on top of a 1-stage TEC
- Window material: glass
- Pin material: gold plated
9.50 +/-0.25
1.50 +/-0.30
0.25 +/-0.15
0.88 +/-0.15
13 14 15 16
∅ 11.1
connection
TEC(-)
thermistor
thermistor
TEC(+)
OUT8
OUT6
OUT4
OUT2
VOP2
VDD
GND
VOP1
OUT1
OUT3
OUT5
OUT7
pin #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
silicon chip including
8 single photon avalanche diodes
and active quenching circuits
5
Recommended Footprint
∅ 0.43
+/ 0 05
1.90
6.50
> 3.0
9.50
0.70
THERMOELECTRIC COOLER SPECIFICATIONS
Parameter
3.50
UNC4-40
Unit
THERMOSENSOR SPECIFICATIONS
Value (conditions)
Parameter
Unit
Value (conditions)
Maximum Current Imax
A
1.15 +/- 0.02 (at ΔTmax)
Resistance R0
kΩ
2.2 +/- 0.16 at 293K
Maximum Voltage Drop Umax
V
2.90 +/- 0.07 (at ΔTmax)
Beta Constant β
K1
2918.9 +/- 5%
Maximum Delta-T Δtmax
K
69.0 +/- 2.0 (Vacuum, Q=0, Tr=300K)
Maximum Cooling Capacity Qmax
W
1.85 +/- 0.01 (at ΔT=0)
The thermistor resistance can be calculated by:
RT = R293K*exp(β(293-T)/(293*T)
MOUNTING DETAILS
TEC mounting
Thermosensor mounting
Wire mounting
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soldering, 117°C
epoxy glue
soldering, 183°C
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ACCESSORIES
To accelerate integration of the id150-1x8 in an optical set-up, the following accessories are available.
id150-1x8-TM option:
The id150-1x8-TM consists of a id150-1x8 welded on a
47.8mmx36.8mm printed circuit board. Required decoupling
capacitances are mounted on the PCB bottom side, close to id150-1x8
pins. A heat sink is glued around the id150-1x8 TO8 package. Electrical
connections are provided by 4 straight pin headers. Each 4-poles header
consists of 0.63mmx0.63mm gold-plated pins with 2.54mm pitch. The
recommended footprint and pinout are given below.
unit: millimeters
47.8
45.3
27.7
25.2
22.6
20 1
9
8
7
6
5
3
11
2
12
1
3 14 15 16
Vop1
GND
VDD
Vop2
4
10
36 8
34 3
22 3
19.7
17.2
TEC(-)
thermistor
thermistor
TEC(+)
2.4
14.6
OUT7
OUT5
OUT3
OUT1
2.4
3.5
1.2 [16x]
OUT8
OUT6
OUT4
OUT2
id150-1x8-TM
id150-1x8-TM recommended footprint
id150-1x8-TM pinout
The outputs are provided at SMB-type connectors. For Vop, GND, VDD,
OUT1
OUT3
OUT7
The id150-1x8-TM is provided with the id150-1x8-EVA evaluation board
of 66mmx107mm in size. The id150-1x8-TM is inserted on the id1501x8-EVA board using four 4-poles sockets. Assembly marks ensure a
proper insertion.
OUT5
id150-1x8-EVA option:
TEC(-)
TEC(+), TEC(-) and thermistor, 4mm banana connectors are used.
thermistor
The bias voltages Vop1 and Vop2 can be disconnected by removing the
thermistor
Vop1&2
GND
VDD
TEC(+)
corresponding jumpers .
id150-1x8-EVA
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OUT2
OUT4
OUT6
OUT8
Vop1 & Vop2 jumpers
assembly marks
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REDEFINING PRECISION
id210
ADVANCED SYSTEM FOR SINGLE PHOTON DETECTION
The id210 brings a major breakthrough for single photon detection at telecom wavelengths. Its
performance in high-speed gating at internal or external frequencies up to 100MHz by far surpasses the
performance of existing detectors and of its predecessor, the id200-id201, that has been used by
researchers around the globe since first launched in 2002. Photons can be detected with probability up to
25% at 1550nm, while maintaining low dark count rate. A timing resolution lower than 200ps can be
achieved. The id210 provides adjustable delays, adjustable gate duration from 0.5ns to 25ns and adjustable
deadtime up to 100us. For applications requiring an asynchronous detection scheme, the id210 can operate
in free-running mode with detection probability up to 10%. Beside performance, a particular effort has been
made for providing a practical user interface, universal compatibility with scientific equipment, applicationoriented functionalities including statistics and coincidence counting. Built around an advanced embeddedPC and FPGA, the id210 allows remote control, connection of external screen and keyboard, data export on
USB key and setups saving.
KEY FEATURES
Up to 100MHz external / internal gating frequency
Asynchronous detection mode (free-running)
Free gating mode
Adjustable photon detection probability
Adjustable delays, gate width and deadtime
Universal Inputs/Outputs
Two-channel auxiliary event counter
APPLICATIONS
Auxiliary coincidence counter
Quantum optics, quantum cryptography
Setup storage in internal memory
Fiber optics characterization
Real time statistics, sound alarms
Single-photon source characterization
5.7" VGA TFT-LED color display
Failure analysis of electronic circuits
Data export through USB memory
Eye-safe Laser Ranging (LIDAR)
VGA HD15 output for external monitor / projector
Spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy
Ethernet remote control (or USB with adapter)
Stand alone application and Labview Vi
Photoluminescence
Singlet oxygen measurement
SMF or MMF optical input
Fluorescence, fluorescence life time
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1
Block Diagram
BLOCK DIAGRAM
Threshold
Trigger
Relay
Trigger
High Level
Clock
Internal Clock Generator
Comp.
Trigger
Coupling
Trigger
Slope/Logic
Trigger
Logic
Clock
Frequency
50W
Trigger
Input
HF Clock
Counter
Pulse Shaping
Trigger
Trigger
Delay
Load
Gate
Width
Mode
Trigger input block
HF Gate
Counter
Dead
Time
DC High / Free-running
DC Low / Disabled
Internal
Reset
Mode
Threshold
Clock output block
High Level
Gate
Reset/Enable
Comp.
R/E
Slope/Logic
Pulse ID
Reset
Mode
Reset/Enable input block
Pulse ID
Mode
Buffer
Gate
Gate
Output
50W
Low Level
Gate
HF Counter
Detection
Reset
Internal
Reset
Polarization
Reset/Enable
Logic
Gate
Reset/Enable
50W
Relay
Reset/Enable
Clock
Output
50W
Internal
Reset
Polarization
Trigger
Reset/Enable
Input
Buffer
Clock
Low Level
Clock
Load
System hardware
Gate output block
Threshold
Aux1
Comp.
Aux1
Relay
Aux1
Slope/Logic
Aux1
Pulse Shaping
Aux1
50W
Aux1
Input
HF Counter
Aux1
High Level
Detection1
Pulser
Electronics
Internal
Reset
Width
Detection1
Logic
Detection1
Buffer
Detection 1
Detection 1
Output
50W
Low Level
Detection1
Load
Pulse Shaping
Aux1&Aux2
Polarization
Aux1
HF Counter
Aux1&Aux2
Cooled
APD
Aux1 input block
Quenching
Electronics
Detection 1 output block
Internal
Reset
Threshold
Aux2
Comp.
Aux2
Relay
Aux2
Slope/Logic
Aux2
50W
Aux2
Input
Pulse Shaping
Aux2
HF Counter
Aux2
Capture
Electronics
Internal
Reset
APD bias control
Efficiency
Optical
Input
Polarization
Aux2
Aux2 input block
2-channel event counter / coincidence counter
cooled APD & associated electronic
HF Detection
Counter
HF Counter
Detection
Reset
High Level
Detection2
Width
Detection2
Logic
Detection2
Buffer
Detection2
Detection 2
Output
50W
Low Level
Detection2
Load
Detection 2 output block
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The id210 Advanced System for Single Photon Detection is built around the following blocks:
Trigger, Reset/Enable, Aux1 and Aux2 inputs blocks with SMA connectors on the id210 front panel.
Through the id210 user interface, each input can be set independently for receiving LVTTL-LVCMOS, NIM, NECL,
PECL3.3V or PECL5V signals. A VAR mode is also provided with a large input voltage range, an adjustable threshold
and slope/logic definition. AC/DC coupling selection is possible for the Trigger input. (see Inputs Specifications on
page 6 for more details).
Clock, Gate, Detection1 and Detection2 outputs blocks with SMA connectors on the id210 front panel.
Through the id210 user interface, each output can be set independently for providing LVTTL-LVCMOS, NIM, NECL,
PECL3.3V or PECL5V signals. The user can also switch to VAR mode in which the pulse width, the logic definition, the
high and low signal levels and the load can be adjusted. (see Outputs Specifications on page 6 for more details).
an avalanche photodiode and associated electronics.The key component at the heart of the id210 is a
cooled InGaAs fiber-coupled avalanche photodiode (APD). The fiber (single mode or multi-mode) is connectorized to a
FC/PC connector on the id210 front panel. The APD terminals are connected to:
- a DC high voltage controlled by the system to reach the efficiency set through the id210 interface,
- a Pulser Electronics that produces constant amplitude pulses for operation in single photon regime.
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2
The Capture Electronics detects the avalanche events (resulting from photon absorption or dark generation) and feeds
the Detection 1&2 outputs blocks and the HF (high frequency) detection counter. The Quenching Electronics inhibits
the pulser until avalanche quenching.
the System hardware
The system hardware allows the id210 operation in internal gated, external gated, free-running or free-gating modes.
Internal-gating mode:
The APD is biased above breakdown during gates of adjustable Width and Frequency. Internal gating is a synchronous
mode based on a clock provided by the internal clock generator. The 50% duty cycle clock signal is available at the
Clock Output and counted by the HF Clock Counter. A user-adjustable Trigger Delay can be set between the Clock and
the Gate signals. A gate of Width set by user is open on the rising edge of the delayed trigger. As consequence of an
avalanche event within the gate, the HF Detection Counter is incremented and a pulse of adjustable Width is outputted
at Detection1 and Detection2 connectors. The Quenching Electronics closes the gate and, if selected by the user, a
Dead Time is applied resulting in one or several blanked pulses after a detection.
The HF Gate Counter provides an exact count of the effective gates seen by the APD.
Internal gated mode
1/Internal Gating Frequency
Clock Output
Dead Time
Trigger Delay
ate
dg
nke
Gate Width
bla
Gate Output
Quenching
Width Detection 1&2
Detection 1&2 Outputs
+1
HF Clock Counter
+1
+1
HF Gate Counter
+1
+1
+1
+1
+1
HF Detection Counter
External-gating mode:
The operation in external gating mode is very similar to the internal gating mode except that the clock is provided by the
user at the Trigger input.
External gated mode
Trigger Input
Dead Time
Trigger Delay
ate
dg
nke
Gate Width
bla
Gate Output
Quenching
Width Detection 1&2
Detection 1&2 Outputs
HF Clock Counter
HF Gate Counter
+1
+1
+1
+1
+1
+1
+1
HF Detection Counter
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3
W
Free-running mode (asynchronous mode): NE
A DC control signal travels through multiplexers and the Dead Time stage and sets the Pulser Electronics to High. Until
photon absorption or dark count generation, the APD is biased above its breakdown voltage in Geiger mode. The Gate
Output that reflects the APD state (i.e. On:photosensitive or Off:blind) is at high level. When an avalanche takes place in
the APD, it is sensed by the Capture Electronics. A pulse of adjustable Width is produced on Detection1 and Detection2
outputs, the Detection HF Counter is incremented and the Quenching Electronics stops the avalanche. For limiting
afterpulsing, the APD is maintained below breakdown until the end of the Dead Time. In this mode, the HF Gate Counter
and HF Detection Counter rates are equal.
Free-running mode (asynchronous)
Dead Time
Gate Output
Quenching
Quenching
Quenching
Width Detection 1&2
Detection 1&2 Outputs
+1
HF Gate Counter
HF Detection Counter
+1
+1
+1
+1
+1
W
Free-gating mode: NE
The user feeds an electrical signal at the Reset/Enable input. The signal, after transit in the input block, passes through
multiplexers and the Dead Time stage. When no avalanche occurs, the Gate Output that reflects the APD state (On/Off)
is identical to the Reset/Enable input signal. When an avalanche occurs during a gate, a pulse of adjustable Width is
produced at Detection1 and Detection2 outputs, the Detection HF Counter is incremented and the Quenching
Electronics stops the gate. When a Dead Time is applied for limiting the afterpulsing, the Gate signal remains at low
level whatever the Reset/Enable state. This results in blanked gate(s) or partially blanked gates. The HF Gate Counter
provides the effective gates rate applied to the APD.
Free-gating mode
Reset/Enable Input
Dead Time
e
d
nke
gat
bla
Gate Output
Quenching
ked
lan
yb
tiall
ar
te p
ga
Quenching
Quenching
Width Detection 1&2
Detection 1&2 Outputs
HF Gate Counter
HF Detection Counter
+1
+1
+1
+1
+1
+1
+1
A two-channel event counter and a coincidence counter as an auxiliary independent block.
The signals outputted by Aux1 and Aux2
inputs blocks feed HF Counter Aux1 and HF
Counter Aux2 after pulse shaping. The block
also performs a logic AND of the two inputs
that feeds a coincidence counter: HF Counter
Aux1&Aux2.
Aux1 Input
Aux2 Input
Aux1&Aux2
HF Counter Aux1
HF Counter Aux2
HF Counter Aux1&Aux2
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4
SPECIFICATIONS
Parameter
Min
Wavelength range
900
Optical fiber type
Typical
Max
Units
1700
nm
1
SMF or MMF
Efficiency range (except free-running mode)
Efficiency range in free-running mode
5
1 1
4
3
25
2
2.5
%
%
Deadtime range
0.1
Deadtime step
100
us
200
ps
100
MHz
100
Timing resolution at max. efficiency (25%)
2
External trigger frequency
Internal trigger frequency
30
2.5
ns
1,2,5,10,20,50,100,200,500 kHz 1,2,5,10,20,50,100 MHz
Effective gate width range
0.5
Gate width resolution
25
ns
20
ns
10
Trigger delay range
Trigger delay resolution
+10
Dimensions LxWXH
Optical connector
0
900
kg
230
VAC
Cooling time
7
InGaAs/InP APD
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
Wavelength [nm]
mm
8.2
10%
5
FC/PC
110
10
°C
387x256x167
Power supply
15
ps
+30
Weight
20
ps
10
Operating temperature
25%
25
Efficiency [%]
Efficiency resolution (all modes)
10
Calibrated at l
=1550nm
1
Efficiency versus wavelength at 10% and 25% levels (l
=1550nm)
4
30% Quantum Efficiency at 1550 nm version available on request
(Dark Count Rate to be discussed)
min
Telcordia GR-468-CORE
2
A 20MHz trigger rate limited version is also available. The id210 can be later on remotely upgraded to 100MHz.
3
A version of the id210 without free-running mode is also available.
IDQ´s SMF modules are available in three grades: Standard (STD) and Ultra-Low Noise (ULN) and Ultra-Ultra Low Noise
(UULN), depending on dark count rate specifications.
Dark count rate for a 1ns effective gate width in gated mode:
Freq.=100kHz, no deadtime
Freq.=100MHz, deadtime=10m
s
10% efficiency
25% efficiency
id210-SMF-A
0.4Hz
2Hz
id210-SMF-B
1Hz
id210-SMF-C
id210-MMF
Model
10% efficiency
25% efficiency
0.4kHz
2kHz
5Hz
1kHz
5kHz
6Hz
30Hz
6kHz
30kHz
8Hz
40Hz
8kHz
40kHz
4
4
Dark count rate (maximum values) in free-running mode with 50m
s deadtime:
2.5% efficiency
5% efficiency
7.5% efficiency
10% efficiency
id210-SMF-A
1kHz
1.5kHz
2.2kHz
3kHz
id210-SMF-B
1kHz
1.5kHz
2.2kHz
3kHz
id210-SMF-C
6.5kHz
9kHz
11.5kHz
13.5kHz
id210-MMF
7.5kHz
10kHz
12.5kHz
14.5kHz
Model
ID Quantique SA
Chemin
in de la Marbrerie 3
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
Note that the effective gate
width is evaluated by
measuring the full width at
half-maximum of the
histogram of time interval
between the gate signal (start) and the
detection signal (stop) in the dark. This
provides a true evaluation of the dark
count rate in contrast with dark count rate
assessment based on the gate electrical
signal. To take into account the electrical
signal width always leads to a huge
underestimation of the DCR.
Please contact IDQ for more details about
the assessment of the dark count rate in
gated mode.
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5
Block Diagram
INPUTS SPECIFICATIONS
Parameter
Min
Typical
Frequency (Aux1, Aux2)
Frequency (Reset/Enable, Trigger)
Pulse duration
500
Voltage range in VAR mode
-2.5
Max
Units
300
MHz
100
MHz
ps
+2.5
Impedance
V
50
Pulse amplitude
1
For NECL, PECL3.3V and PECL5V, the id210 input
provides standard termination scheme (NECL: 50W
to -2V,
PECL3.3V: 50W
to +1.3V, PECL5V: 50W
to +3V).
W
+0.1
+5
Coupling (Trigger)
2
The Inputs parameters or Predefined Standards are
included in setup files that can be saved on internal memory.
V
DC or AC
Coupling (Aux1, Aux2, Reset/Enable)
DC
Threshold voltage range in VAR mode
-2.5
+2.5
Threshold voltage resolution in VAR mode
1
Predefined standards
V
+10
2
mV
LVTTL/LVCMOS - NIM - NECL - PECL3.3V - PECL5V
Connectors
SMA
Protection
ESD
OUTPUTS SPECIFICATIONS
Parameter
Min
High level voltage range (high Z to ground)
High level voltage range (50W
to ground)
Low level voltage range (high Z to ground)
Low level voltage range (50W
to ground)
Voltage swing (high Z to ground)
Voltage swing (50W
to ground)
1
3
1
3
2
4
Typical
-2.0
Max
Units
+7.0
V
-1.0
+3.5
V
-3.0
+5.0
V
-1.5
+2.5
V
+0.1
+7.0
V
+3.5
V
+0.05
Logic
1
Starting with a Predefined Standard, all the parameters
can be modified by the user.
2
The Outputs parameters or Predefined Standards are
included in setup files that can be saved on internal memory.
+ or -
Short pulse width (Detection1, Detection2)
4.5
5
5.5
ns
Large pulse width (Detection1, Detection2)
90
100
110
ns
Rise/fall times at 5V swing (10%-90%)
1
Predefined standards
2.5
2
ns
LVTTL/LVCMOS - NIM - NECL - PECL3.3V - PECL5V
Connectors
SMA
Protection
ESD
High level [V]
+ 10
High Z to ground
+ 7
Max.
Voltage swing [V]
High level [V]
Voltage swing [V]
+ 4
High Z to ground
50W
to ground
Max.
+ 9
+ 6
+ 3
+ 8
+ 5
+ 5
50W
to ground
+ 4
+ 7
+ 4
+ 2
+ 6
+ 3
+ 3
+ 5
+ 1
+ 2
+ 2
+ 4
+ 1
+ 3
0
0
Min.
-2
-1
Min.
+ 1
-1
0
0
-2
-3
+ 1
Low level [V]
+ 2
Low level [V]
-1
0
+ 1
+ 2
+ 3
+ 4
+ 5
1
Low level and high level voltage ranges
when the output is loaded at high impedance
to ground.
ID Quantique SA
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-3
-2
2
-1
0
+ 1
+ 2
+ 3
+ 4
+ 5
Low level [V]
Minimum and maximum voltage swings
when the output is loaded at high impedance
to ground.
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
-2
-1
0
+ 1
+ 2
+ 3
-1
0
+ 1
+ 2
Low level [V]
3
Low level and high level voltage ranges
when the output is loaded at 50W
to ground.
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4
Minimum and maximum voltage swings
when the output is loaded at 50W
to ground.
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6
USER INTERFACE - DATA & SETUP RECOVERY
All the user parameters are intuitively adjustable with direct access buttons (Detector, Inputs/Outputs, Display, System,
Setups and Acquisition), submenus control buttons and the control wheel on the id210 front panel.
optical window for automatic
backlight intensity adjustement 5.7" VGA TFT-LED color display submenu control buttons
direct access buttons
control wheel
id210 - Advanced System for Single Photon Detection
Detector
Inputs/Outputs
Display
Help
System
Start/Stop
help
access
start/stop
button
Setups
FC/PC
optical fiber
input
Acquisition
USB
Power
Aux 1
Aux 2
Trigger
Reset/Enable
Clock
Inputs
ON/OFF power button
with status LED
Inputs/Outputs SMA connectors
and indicating LEDs
Gate
Detection 1 Detection 2
Outputs
USB connectors
(keyboard, storage key)
The bicolor indicating LEDs associated to SMA connectors inputs or outputs provide relevant informations such as valid
triggers, pulses traffic at the outputs or unused inputs/outputs in the selected mode. Two USB connectors on the front
panel can be used for connecting a keyboard or for data export on a storage key. The backlight intensity is adjusted
automatically. The id210 is equipped with a buzzer that can be optionally used for indicating, for instance, the end of the
cooling phase. On the rear panel, Ethernet and USB connectors can be used for remote control. A VGA HD-15
connector for external monitor/projector is accessible as well on the rear panel.
The id210 contains 6 HF counters providing the Detection, Clock, Gate, Aux1, Aux2 and Aux1&Aux2 coincidence rates.
The id210 displays indicators associated to counters. Up to 5 different views can be set, saved and restored. A view
defines the number of indicators displayed simultaneously (selected between 1 and 4) and the counter associated to
each indicator.
REMOTE CONTROL (OPTIONAL)
A stand-alone application allowing you to control your
id210, to plot graphics and to export measurements of
counters remotely is delivered. No additional program is
necessary to drive the id210.
The remote control "id210 Front panel" application, built
using Labview, is delivered with its Labview Vi file - thus,
you can modify the remote control application if you own a
Labview license from National Instruments.
Additionally, a command reference guide is provided,
enabling you to write your own remote control application
in any programming language such as C or C++.
ID Quantique SA
Chemin
in de la Marbrerie 3
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
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7
REDEFINING PRECISION
id220-FR
COST-EFFECTIVE MODULE FOR ASYNCHRONOUS SINGLE
PHOTON DETECTION AT TELECOM WAVELENGTHS
The id220-FR brings a major breakthrough for single photon detection in free-running mode at telecom
wavelengths. It provides a cost-effective solution for applications in which asynchronous photon detection
is essential. The cooled InGaAs/InP avalanche photodiode and associated electronics have been specially
designed for achieving low dark count and afterpulsing rates in free-running mode. The module can operate
at three detection probability levels of 10%, 15% and 20% with a deadtime that can be set between 1 s and
25 s. Arrival time of photons is reflected by a 100ns LVTTL pulse available at the SMA connector with a
timing resolution as low as 250ps at 20% efficiency. A simple USB interface allows the user to set the
efficiency level and the deadtime. A standard FC/PC connector followed by a single mode fiber is provided as
optical input. The id220-FR comes with a +12V 60W adapter .
!
EW
in
F
M
t
pu
av
o
ls
b
ai l a
le
a
M
N
K EY FEATURES
APPLICATIONS
Asynchronous detection mode (free-running)
Quantum optics, quantum cryptography
10%-15%-20% photon detection probability levels
Fiber optics characterization
1 s-25 s adjustable deadtime
Single-photon source characterization
Timing resolution as low as 250ps
Failure analysis of electronic circuits
Low dark and afterpulsing rates
Eye-safe Laser Ranging (LIDAR)
SMF or MMF optical input
Spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy
100ns LVTTL output pulse at SMA connector
Photoluminescence
Singlet oxygen measurement
Fluorescence, fluorescence life time
ID Quantique SA
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1
In contrast with usual gated operation of detectors based on InGaAs/InP avalanche photodiodes (APDs), the
id220-FR operates in free-running (asynchronous) mode. The APD is biased above its breakdown voltage in
the so-called Geiger mode. Upon photon absorption, the photon arrival time is reflected by the rising edge of
a 100ns width LVTTL pulse at the output.The id220-FR has been designed for providing a fast avalanche
quenching, thus limiting the afterpulsing rate. This allows the operation at reasonably short deadtimes of
values that can be optimized depending on the applications and the efficiency level.
Free-running mode (asynchronous)
Photon
arrival
Time [0 to
No detection !
Detector is OFF
s]
Avalanche
Detection
Detection
100ns Detection
Output Pulse
100ns Detection
Output Pulse
Detection Output
Quenching
Quenching
ON
Dead Time [1 to 25 s]
APD State
Dead Time [1 to 25 s]
OFF
SPECIFICATIONS
Parameter
Min
Wavelength range
900
3
Optical fiber type
Efficiency range
Typical
1
Dark count rate (10us deadtime)
Max
Units
1700
nm
1
Calibrated at =1.55 µm.
2
SMF or MMF
10, 15 or 20
%
2
SMF 10% 15% 20% efficiency
1 / 2.5 / 5
kHz
MMF 10% 15% 20% efficiency
1.2 / 3 / 6
kHz
Timing resolution (FWHM)
10% 15% 20% efficiency
Deadtime range
400 / 300 / 250
1
25
Deadtime step
Weight
s
LVTTL / 100ns width
4
Output connector
Dimensions LxWXH
s
1
Detection output pulse
Operating temperature
ps
Typical DCR versus Deadtime at 10%, 15% and
20% efficiencies.
SMA
+10
+30
°C
230x110x120
mm
2.5
Optical connector
kg
FC/PC
60W AC/DC +12V green power adapter
Input voltage
Frequency range
AC current
Cooling time
90~264 VAC - 135~370VDC
47~63 Hz
1.4A/115VAC 1A/230VAC
3
min
3 Single Mode Fibre SMF28, Numerical Aperture = 0.14
or
Multi Mode Fibre with a 62.5um core diameter, Numerical Aperture = 0.275
4 SMA Female connector: Male body (outside threads) with female inner hole.
IID
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2
SOFTWARE
The id220-FR comes with a software that allows
the user to set the efficiency level and the
deadtime through a simple USB interface.
The module can also operate disconnected from
the PC. The settings are reloaded upon each
power up.
ACCESSORY - OPTIONAL PULSE SHAPER
IDQ provides as an option a pulse shaper (A-PPID) which can be used with devices requiring
negative input pulses. The leading edge of the
id220 output pulse is converted into a sharp
negative pulse with typical amplitudes of 1.4V for
a 50W load and 2.5V for a high impedance load.
The pulse shaper comes with two SMA/BNC
adapters.
Ordering information:
idacc-A-PPI-D
Pulse shaper
Typical output pulse of an id220 Typical output pulse of an id220
equipped with a A-PPI-D pulse equipped with a A-PPI-D pulse shaper
shaper in 50W load.
in high impedance load.
ACCESSORY - OPTIONAL SMA ELECTRICAL CABLE
To connect your id220 to other devices, such as the pulse shaper
(A-PPI-D) or certain acquisition card (SPC-130 from Becker &
Hickl), IDQ recommends this SMA Male / SMA Male Cable. SMA
Male means Female body (inside threads) with male inner pin
(see picture)
Ordering information:
idacc-SMA-SMA-1m
SMA Male to SMA Male electrical Cable
ACCESSORY - METALLIC OPTICAL FIBRE
The standard optical patchcord can be transparent. Unwanted
photons from the ambient environment can pass by the cladding
of the fiber and so perturbate your measurement.
The metallic jacket fiber is delivered with FC/PC connectors
Ordering information:
idacc-SMF-Steel-2m
idacc-MMF-Steel-2m
IID
D Quantique SA
Chemin
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SMF28 fiber and length 2m.
core diameter 62.5um and length 2m.
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3
REDEFINING PRECISION
id300 SERIES
SUB-NANOSECOND PULSED LASER SOURCE
IDQ’s id300 Short-Pulse Laser Source has been designed to meet the specific requirements
of researchers who need to generate short laser pulses at a wavelength of 1310nm or
1550nm.
The laser source, based on Fabry-Perot (FP) or on distributed-feedback (DFB) laser diodes,
is triggered externally via a trigger input to produce sub-nanosecond laser pulses with a
repetition rate ranging from 0 to 500MHz.
The id300 laser source is ideally suited to work in combination with IDQ’s Single Photon
Detection and Counting Modules (id210 series).
The laser source can be directly triggered by the id210's internal clock. Used in combination
with a variable optical attenuator, this short-pulse laser source makes an ideal cost-effective
single-photon source.
APPLICATIONS
K EY FEATURES
Sub-nanosecond laser pulses
Quantum optics
Repetition rate from 0 to 500MHz
Fiber optics characterization
Wavelength: 1310nm or 1550nm
Optical measurements
(DWDM ´s available upon request)
External trigger
Compact and reliable stand-alone unit
FC/PC connector
ID Quantique SA
Chemin de la Marbrerie 3
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
T +41 22 301 83 71
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om
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REDEFINING PRECISION
id300 SERIES
SPECIFICATIONS (T=25ºC)
Parameter
Min
Typical
Max
Units
Wavelength
1290
1310
1330
nm
Wavelength
1520
1550
1580
nm
7
15
nm
0.6
1.5
nm
500
MHz
0.5
ns
Spectral width (FWHM) - FP laser type
Spectral width (FWHM) - DFB laser type
Frequency range
0
Pulse duration
0.3*
Peak power
0.7
1
Output power at 1MHz
-36
-35
Trigger input**
mW
-34
dBm
NIM, ECL, PECL, LVPECL, TTL, TTL 50
* can be increased up to 2ns upon request
** choose one trigger input from this list. See ordering information below.
GENERAL INFORMATION
OPERATING PRINCIPLE
Electrical input: e.g. N M signal (example: frequency = 1MHz)
Optical output:
Peak power
= 0 dBm
0.3ns
1 s
Average power
= -35 dBm
Operating Temperature
+10°C to +30°C
Dimensions LxWxH
185 mm x 172 mm x 55 mm
Weight
915 g
Optical Connector
FC-PC
Electronic Connector
BNC
Fiber Type
SMF
Power Supply
100 - 240 VAC (autoselect)
WARNING
CLASS 1 LASER PRODUCT
CLASSIFIED PER IEC 60825-1, Ed 1.2, 2001-08
ORDERING INFORMATION AND SALES CONTACT
Part number: id300-XXXX-YYY-ZZZ
XXXX: Select wavelength. Choose between 1310 and 1550.
YYY:
Select laser type. Choose between FP (Fabry-Perot) and DFB (distributed
feedback).
ZZZ:
Select trigger input signal specifications. Choose between NIM, ECL, PECL,
LVPECL, TTL, TTL 50 .
Disclaimer
The information and specification set forth in this document are subject to change at any time by ID Quantique without prior notice.
Copyright© 2006-2011 ID Quantique SA - All rights reserved - id300 v4 0 - Specifications as of March 2012
IID
D Quantique SA
Chemin
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in de la Marbrerie 3
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Switzerland
T +41 22 301 83 71
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www.idquantique.com
com
REDEFINING PRECISION
id400 SERIES
SINGLE-PHOTON DETECTOR FOR 1064NM
The id400 single photon detection module consists of a detection head and a control unit.
The detection head is built around a cooled InGaAsP/InP avalanche photodiode (APD)
optimized for 1064nm single-photon detection and a fast sensing and quenching electronic
circuit. Single-photon detection efficiency can be adjusted at three preset levels and the
detector can be operated both in free running or gated modes.
The control unit performs APD temperature control and regulation, power supply, gate
generation and dead time setting. It also includes BNC connectors for input-output signals
and a USB interface. The detector is controlled using a LabVIEW virtual instrument, which
offers intuitive menus and a graphical interface.
The id400 includes invaluable functions, such as an adjustable deadtime or electronic delay
lines, which allow the optimization of its performance and make it a simple tool to use.
KEY FEATURES
APPLICATIONS
Adjustable detection probability up to 30%
Free-space optical communications
Gated or free running modes
Satellite laser ranging
Internal or external gated modes
Atmospheric research and meteorology
Adjustable gate width from 500ps to 2μs
Laser range finder
Adjustable deadtime up to 100μs
Free-space quantum cryptography
Adjustable internal clock up to 4MHz
Quantum optics
Adjustable delays up to 1μs by steps of 50ps
Spectroscopy
Internal counters
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PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The id400 is a complete single photon counting system based on a cooled InGaAsP/InP avalanche photodiode
(APD) optimized for 1064nm. The APD temperature is set to -40°C upon assembly to optimize the id400 overall
performance. The id400 offers advanced functionalities, including:
Free-running, internal gating or external gating modes:
In free-running or asynchronous mode, the APD is biased above the breakdown voltage in the so-called
Geiger mode. Upon a photon arrival (or a dark count generation), an avalanche takes place in the APD. The
avalanche is sensed by the id400 and reflected at Detection OUT by the rising edge of a TTL pulse. The id400 pulser
provides a fast avalanche quenching required to limit the afterpulsing rate. The operating voltage is then restored at
the end of the dead time and the id400 is ready to detect a subsequent photon.
In gating or synchronous mode, a voltage pulse is applied to raise the bias above APD breakdown voltage
upon triggering. The gating can be either internal or external. The APD is only active during gates. The gating mode
is used in applications where the arrival time of the photon is known. It allows a reduction of the dark count rate.
Adjustable single photon detection probability level. In any avalanche photodiode, the single photon detection
probability increases with the excess bias voltage (difference between operating and breakdown voltages). The
timing resolution is also improved at high excess bias voltages. On the other hand, the dark count and afterpulsing
rates increase with the excess bias voltage. The id400 provides three levels of single photon detection probability
(7.5 %, 15% and 30%, measured at 1064nm).
Adjustable dead time. At high gating frequencies or when operated in free-running mode, afterpulsing may
significantly deteriorate performances. To suppress detrimental afterpulsing effects, the id400 includes a deadtime
(1μs to100μs by step of 1μs). In deadtime mode, the id400 monitors the effective gate rate.
Gate generator (for internal gating mode) with adjustable gate duration (500ps to 2μs by step of 10ps) and
frequency (1Hz to 4MHz).
Electronic delays (for internal gating mode) between Reference OUT(clock signal) and Gate OUT and between
Reference OUT(clock signal) and the actual detector gate for simple detector synchronization.
Internal counters, whose results are displayed on the Labview Virtual Instrument monitor detection and effective
gate rates. For each detection, the module also produces a TTL pulse available on the id400 control unit front panel
BNC connector.
All the user-adjustable parameters can be easily set using the Labview Virtual Instrument. They can also be stored
by the control unit for operation without PC.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
id400 control unit
+12V
Temperature
Control
Micro
controller
Det.Proba.
7.5/15/30 %
USB
FPGA
Counter
id400 detection head
Power/Control DB9 cable
Gate Command
Pulser
TEC
APD
Gate OUT
Mode
free-running
int. gating
ext. gating
Dead Time
1/100us
step 1us
Gate
Width
500ps/2us
step 10ps
Internal
Gate
Frequency
Delays
Ref-Gate OUT
Ref-Actual Gate
Reference OUT
Detection OUT
Detection
External Trigger IN
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com
SPECIFICATIONS
Parameter
Conditions
Min
Typical
Max
Units
Internal External
Gating
Gating
Free
Running
nm
üüü
μm
%
üüü
üüü
Timing resolution at 7.5% SPDE 2
Timing resolution at 15% SPDE 2
ps
üüü
ps
üüü
Timing resolution at 30% SPDE 2
Dark count rate at 7.5% SPDE
ps
üüü
with 20μs deadtime
150
Hz
ü
Dark count rate at 15% SPDE
with 20μs deadtime
400
Hz
ü
Dark count rate at 30% SPDE
with 20μs deadtime
2000
Hz
ü
100
μs
üüü
Wavelength range
900
Effective optical diameter
Single-photon detection probability (SPDE)
80
7.5, 15, 30
1
Adjustable deadtime range
1
μs
üüü
1
6
4x10
Hz
ü
5
2000
ns
ü
ps
ps
ü
ü
ps
ps
ü
ü
ns
ü
ü
Adjustable deadtime step
Internal gating frequency (fint gating) 3
1150
1
4
5
Gate width (tgate out) 4
Gate adjustment step
Δtref out/gate out adjustable delay range
10
0
Δtref out/actual gate adjustable delay range
Adjustable delay step
0
Reference OUT pulse width
8
3
3
50
10
Reference OUT pulse amplitude (50Ω)
2.3
3.3
V
Detection OUT pulse width
100
130
ns
Detection OUT pulse width
90
6
ns
Detection OUT pulse amplitude (50Ω)
2.3
3.3
V
üüü
Gate OUT pulse amplitude (50Ω)
2.3
3.3
V
ü
7
ns
ü
4x106
10
Hz
ns
ps
ü
ü
ü
Trigger IN pulse width
Trigger IN frequency 7
Δext trigger/actual gate adjustable delay range
Adjustable delay step
1
0
50
External Trigger IN amplitude
1.6
External Trigger IN load
3.8
50
Cooling time
at 25°C room temperature
5
Electronic connectors
ü
V
ü
Ω
ü
min
üüü
üüü
BNC
Detection head dimensions LxWxH
üü
ü
97x90x36
mm
üüü
225x170x50
mm
üüü
Detection head weight
290
g
üüü
Control unit weight
1180
g
üüü
Control unit dimensions LxWxH
Operating temperature
0
25
°C
üüü
Storage temperature
0
40
°C
üüü
1
Calibrated at 1064nm.
2
Contact IDQ for more information.
5
Uncertainty on internal frequency
given by (fint gating)2 / 1.2x108.
For a frequency of 1MHz,
uncertainty amounts to 8.333kHz.
6
In internal gating mode, output
pulse width depends on photon
arrival time, but is less than the
gating period 1 / fint gating.
7
Duty cycle (ton / ton + toff) of external
gating signal must be less than
70%.
IID
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Maximum delay values versus
internal gating frequency
1227 Carouge/Geneva
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4
Maximum gate width versus internal
gating frequency
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LabVIEW APPLICATION
DETECTION HEAD DIMENSIONAL OUTLINE
Supported Operating Systems:
Windows XP, Windows Vista 32 bits
(in mm)
97.0
The id400 detector comes with a id400.exe LabVIEW
application operating in two different modes:
DB9
SMB
Standard mode: adjustment of parameters, display
of count rate and effective gate rate.
SMB
63.5
APD
mounting plate
APD
mounting plate
mounting plate
One M4 hole for mounting on
standard post assemblies,
36.0
30.0
APD
The id400 detection head includes a
mounting plate with:
4 holes (∅ 6.5mm) with “metric”
spacing (75mm and 50mm) for
mounting on standard plates or
translation stages,
mounting plate
4 holes with “US” spacing (3 and 2
inches) for mounting on standard
plates or translation stages.
90.0
M4
mounting plate
37.5
38.1
APD
37.5
20 0
30 4
38.1
79.0
30 0
20 4
Acquisition mode: plot of the mean detector count
rate over the specified integration time.
OTHER PRODUCTS
id100
id201
id300
Quantis
Clavis2
Cerberis
Centauris
Single photon counting module for the visible spectral range
Single photon counting module for the 1100-1700nm spectral range
Short pulse laser source
Quantum Random Number Generator
Quantum Key Distribution System for R&D
Layer 2 encryptor with Quantum Key Distribution
Layer 2 encryptor
SUPPLIED ACCESSORIES
ORDERING INFORMATION
id400-80-1064
Detector module including:
1 x APD detection head with mounting plate
(effective active diameter: 80μm)
1 x Control Unit
Composite cable (2m): 2x BNC-SMB, 1x DB9-DB9
USB cable (4.5m)
Power supply (12V/2.5A)
CD-Rom with User Guide, LabVIEW Run-time
Engine Version 7.0, LabVIEW application installer
Disclaimer
The information and specification set forth in this document are subject to change at any time by ID Quantique without prior notice.
Copyright© 2008-2010 ID Quantique SA - All rights reserved - id400 v3.2 - Specifications as of May 2010
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D Quantique SA
Chemin
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Switzerland
T +41 22 301 83 71
F +41 22 301 83 79
info@idquantique.com
www.idquantique.com
com
W
E
N
REDEFINING PRECISION
id800-TDC
8 CHANNEL TIME TO DIGITAL CONVERTER
IDQ’s id800-TDC is an 8-channel time-to-digital converter, coincidence counter, and time interval analyzer.
This system is used to transfer the time-tags of registered events with picosecond precision and at high rates
to a PC. Additionally, it can count single and multiple channel coincident events at even higher rates
internally and report the totals to a PC.
The id800-TDC registers incoming signal events on 8 independent channels, records their exact time (bin
size 81 ps) and channel number and broadcasts these to a PC. A graphical user interface is supplied for
Windows®, software examples are available for C and Labview™.
APPLICATIONS
KEY FEATURES
8 Channels
Time correlated single photon counting (TCSPC)
Easy to use control Software
Fluorescence lifetime imaging
High timing resolution with bin size
as low as 81 ps
High energy physics
High event count rates up to 12.5 million
events per second
Single photon counting
USB 2.0 Interface
Integrated coincidence counter
Precision time measurement
Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy
Quantum cryptography
Data transfer up to 2.5 million events per second
Minimal time between two consecutive counts in
the same channel is 5.5ns
LIDAR
Correlation measurement
Quantum Optics
Optical measurements
ID Quantique SA
Chemin de la Marbrerie 3
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
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om
www.idquantique.com
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1
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The id800 contains an ASIC which time-tags events on 8 input channels and multiplexes them together. An
FPGA takes these tags, sorts and compresses them for output. The FPGA also counts coincidences
between channels, allowing accurate real-time reporting of coincidences at high signal rates.
200 MHz 40 MHz
ASIC
2.5 MEvents/s
FPGA
Sorting
Output is limited only by the speed of the
USB 2.0 connection: up to 2.5 million
events per second.
Signal
Compression
Test Signal
Generator
USB Output
APPLICATION #1: Time Interval Analyzer
id300: laser
The id800 is supplied with software for
building histograms of time differences
between time-tags. This is useful for
analysing timing jitter or after-pulsing
probabilities of detectors. For example, a
function generator can be used to
generate pulses from an id300 shortpulse laser source, which are then
attenuated and detected by an id220 function generator
free-running single photon detection
module. The time differences can be
measured by the id800, and investigated
with the id800's provided software. In
this example, the start of the
measurement is triggered with a pulse
from the user. The id800 can also
perform continuous timing
measurements without requiring an
external trigger.
IID
D Quantique SA
Chemin
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1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
id220:SPDM
id800:TDC
Stop
Start
PC
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2
APPLICATION #2: Coincidence Counter
Laser BBO crystal
id800:TDC
Detectors
PC
The id800 can be used as a real-time
coincidence counter. This mode of
operation is especially useful in
applications such as the optimization
of coupling paired photons from a
spontaneous parametric downconversion (SPDC) source, where it is
necessary to simultaneously optimize
coupling of individual photons as well
as the number of pairs.
Indirect Measurement (Post-Processing)
Direct Measurement
Using a supplied LabView program, real-time plots of
singles and coincidence rates can be generated, useful
for real-time experiment optimization. Histograms and
raw time-tags can also be displayed.
The supplied software can write time-tags
to file, and from this file coincidences can
be counted after detection.
INTERFACES WITH THE id800
There are four provided ways of interfacing with the id800:
Graphical User Interface Software
Command Line Interface
LabView sub-VIs and sample program
C user libraries
IID
D Quantique SA
Chemin
C
in de la Marbrerie 3
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
T +41 22 301 83 71
F +41 22 301 83 79
info@idquantique.com
www.idquantique.com
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3
REDEFINING PRECISION
id800-TDC
SPECIFICATIONS
Parameter
Bin size, timing resolution
81 ps
Channels
8
Maximum Count Rate, Total
12.5 Mhz
Data Transfer Rate
2.5 MHz
Minimum Pulse Interval
5.5 ns
Minimum Pulse Width
4 ns
Maximum Count Rate per Channel
10 MHz
Input Connectors
BNC
Input levels
LVTTL (5V tolerant)
PC Interface
USB 2.0
Dimensions
25cm x 10cm x 30cm (width, height, depth)
Power supply
110 - 230 VAC
OTHER PRODUCTS
id100
id101
id110
id150
id210
id220
id300
id400
Quantis
Clavis2
Cerberis
Centauris
Arcis
Single-photon detector for the visible spectral range
Miniature single-photon detector for the visible spectral range (see above)
Single-photon detection system for visible wavelength operating in gated mode
Monolithic linear array of single-photon detectors for the visible range
Single-photon detection system for telecom wavelengths
Free-running single photon detection module - Near infrared range
Short pulse laser source
Single photon counting module for the 900-1150nm spectral range
Quantum Random Number Generator
Quantum Key Distribution System for R&D
Layer 2 encryptor with Quantum Key Distribution
Layer 2 encryptor
Adjustable bandwidth encryptors which offer multi-layer (L3, L4) encryption
IDQ Partner
ORDERING INFORMATION
Part number: id800-TDC
Disclaimer
The information and specification set forth in this document are subject to change at any time by ID Quantique without prior notice.
Copyright© 2006-2012 ID Quantique SA - All rights reserved - id800 v20121105 - Specifications as of November 2012
IID
D Quantique SA
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Switzerland
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www.idquantique.com
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4
Page 2
Table of contents
1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................. 3
2. Cryptography............................................................................................................................................................. 3
Box 1: Quantum Random Number Generator (RNG) .............................................................................................. 4
3. Key Distribution......................................................................................................................................................... 5
Box 2: One-way Functions ....................................................................................................................................... 5
4. Quantum Cryptography ............................................................................................................................................ 6
4.1. Principle.................................................................................................................................................................. 6
4.2 Quantum Communications ..................................................................................................................................... 6
4.3. Quantum Key Distribution Protocols ..................................................................................................................... 7
Box 3: The Polarization of Photons.......................................................................................................................... 7
4.4. Key Distillation ....................................................................................................................................................... 8
Box 4: Quantum Key Distribution Protocol ............................................................................................................. 8
Box 5: Rudimentary Privacy Amplification Protocol................................................................................................ 9
4.5. Real World Quantum Key Distribution................................................................................................................. 10
4.6. State-of-the-Art QKD............................................................................................................................................ 11
4.7. Perspectives for Future Developments................................................................................................................ 11
5. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................... 12
ID Quantique SA
Ch. de la Marbrerie, 3
1227 Carouge
Switzerland
Tel: +41 (0)22 301 83 71
Fax: +41 (0)22 301 83 79
www.idquantique.com
info@idquantique.com
Information in this document is subject to change without notice.
Copyright © 2012 ID Quantique SA. Printed in Switzerland.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means – electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise – without the permission of ID Quantique.
Trademarks and trade names may be used in this document to refer to either the entities claiming the marks and names or their products. ID
Quantique SA disclaims any proprietary interest in the trademarks and trade names other than its own.
Page 3
computer, possessing massively parallel processing
capabilities.
1. Introduction
Classical physics is adequate for the description of
macroscopic objects. It applies to systems larger than
one micron (1 micron = 1 millionth of a meter). It was
developed gradually and was basically complete by the
th
end of the 19 century.
Despite great progress in recent years this goal is still a
challenge. However the first applications of quantum
information
processing
have
already
been
commercialized by ID Quantique (IDQ). The first one,
the generation of random numbers, will only be briefly
mentioned in this paper. It exploits the fundamentally
random nature of quantum physics to produce high
quality random numbers. IDQ’s Quantis random
number generator was the first commercial product
based on this principle. It has been used in security,
online gaming and other applications since 2001.
At that time, the fact that classical physics did not
always provide an adequate description of physical
phenomena became clear. A radically new set of
theories - quantum physics - was then developed by
physicists such as Max Planck and Albert Einstein
th
during the first thirty years of the 20 century.
Quantum physics describes the microscopic world
(molecules, atoms, elementary particles), while
classical physics remains accurate for macroscopic
objects. The predictions of quantum physics drastically
differ from those of classical physics. For example,
quantum physics features intrinsic randomness, while
classical physics is deterministic. It also imposes a
limitation on the accuracy of the measurements that
can be performed on a system (Heisenberg's
uncertainty principle).
Although quantum physics had a strong influence on
th
the technological development of the 20 century – it
allowed for example the invention of the transistor or
the laser – its impact on the processing of information
has only been understood more recently. “Quantum
information processing” is a new and dynamic
research field at the crossroads of quantum physics
and computer science. It looks at the consequence of
encoding digital bits – the elementary units of
information – on quantum objects. Does it make a
difference if a bit is written on a piece of paper, stored
in an electronic chip, or encoded on a single electron?
Applying quantum physics to information processing
yields revolutionary properties and possibilities
without any equivalent in conventional information
theory. In order to emphasize this difference, in this
context a digital bit is called a quantum bit or a "qubit"
With the miniaturization of microprocessors, which
will reach the quantum limit in the next ten or so
years, this new field will gain in importance. Its
ultimate goal is the development of a fully quantum
The second application – the main focus of this paper
– is called quantum cryptography. It exploits
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle to allow two
remote parties to exchange a cryptographic key in a
provably secure manner.
2. Cryptography
Cryptography is the art of rendering information
exchanged between two parties unintelligible to any
unauthorized person. Although it is an old science, its
scope of applications remained mainly restricted to
military and diplomatic purposes until the
development
of
electronic
and
optical
telecommunications. In the past twenty-five years,
cryptography evolved out of its status of "classified"
science, and it is now increasingly mandated by
regulations governing data protection for commercial
and public institutions. Although confidentiality is the
traditional application of cryptography, it is also used
nowadays to achieve broader objectives, such as data
authentication,
digital
signatures
and
non1
repudiation .
The way cryptography works is illustrated in Fig. 1.
Before transmitting sensitive information, the sender
1
For a comprehensive discussion of cryptography, refer to “Applied
Cryptography”, Bruce Schneier, Wiley. “The Codebook”, Simon
Singh, Fourth Estate, presents an excellent non-technical
introduction and historical perspective on cryptography.
Page 4
combines the plain text with a secret key, using some
encryption algorithm, to obtain the cipher text. This
scrambled message is then sent to the recipient who
reverses the process, recovering the plain text by
combining the cipher text with the secret key using
the decryption algorithm. An eavesdropper cannot
deduce the plain message from the scrambled one
without knowing the key. To illustrate this principle,
imagine that the sender puts his message in a safe and
locks it with a key. The recipient uses in turn a copy of
the key, which he must have in his possession, to
unlock the safe. The scheme relies on the fact that
both sender and receiver have symmetric keys, and
that these keys are known only to the authorized
persons (also referred to as secret or symmetric key
cryptography)
key is changed, the better the security. In the very
special case where the key is as long as the plain text
and used only once – a “one-time pad” – it can be
proven that decryption is impossible and that the
scheme is absolutely secure.
In commercial applications the encryption algorithm is
normally public – with the effectiveness of the
encryption deriving from the fact that the key is
secret.
This means firstly, that the key generation process
must be appropriate, in the sense that it must not be
possible for a third party to guess or deduce it. Truly
random numbers must thus be used for the key. Box 1
describes a quantum random number generator.
Box 1: Quantum Random Number
Generator (RNG)
Figure 1: Principle of Cryptography
Numerous encryption algorithms exist. Their relative
strengths essentially depend on the length of the key
they use. The more bits the key contains, the better
the security. The DES algorithm – Data Encryption
Standard – played an important role in the security of
electronic communications. It was adopted as a
standard by the US federal administration in 1976. The
length of its keys is however only 56 bits. Nowadays
traditional DES can be cracked in a few hours. It has
been replaced by the Advanced Encryption Standard –
2
AES – which has a minimum key length of 128 bits .
In addition to its length, the amount of information
encrypted with a given key also influences the
strength of the scheme. In general, the more often a
2
For recommendations on minimum key lengths and the longevity of
protection provided by each key scheme refer to
http://www.keylength.com/
Classical physics is deterministic. If the state of a
system is known, physical laws can be used to
predict its evolution. On the contrary, the outcome
of certain phenomena is, according to quantum
physics, fundamentally random. One example is the
reflection or transmission of an elementary light
“particle” – a photon – on a semi-transparent
mirror. In such a case, the photon is transmitted or
reflected by the mirror with a probability of 50%. It
is thus impossible for an observer to predict the
outcome. Because of this intrinsic randomness, it is
natural to use this to generate strings of highquality random numbers. IDQ’s Quantis is a
quantum RNG exploiting this principle.
Page 5
Secondly, it must not be possible for a third party to
intercept the secret key during its exchange between the
sender and the recipient. This so-called “key distribution
problem” is absolutely central in cryptography.
3. Key Distribution
For years, it was believed that the only possibility to solve
the key distribution problem was to send some physical
medium – a disk for example – containing the key. In the
digital era, this requirement is clearly unpractical. In
addition it is impossible to check whether this medium
has been intercepted and its content copied.
In the late sixties and early seventies, researchers of the
British "Government Communication Headquarters"
(GCHQ) invented an algorithm to solve this key
distribution problem. To take an image, it is as if they
replaced the safe mentioned above by a padlock. Before
the communication, the intended recipient sends an open
padlock to the party who will be sending valuable
information. The recipient keeps the key to the padlock.
Before transmitting the information the sender closes the
padlock, thus protecting the data he sends. The recipient
is then the only person who can unlock the data with the
key he kept. “Public key cryptography” was born. This
invention however remained classified and was
independently rediscovered in the mid-seventies by
American researchers. Formally, these padlocks are
mathematical expressions of so-called “one-way
functions”, because they are easy to compute but difficult
to reverse (see Box 2). As public key cryptography
algorithms require complex calculations, they are slow.
For this reason they are not used to encrypt large amount
of data but instead to exchange short session keys for
secret-key algorithms such as AES.
In spite of the fact that it is extremely practical, the
exchange of keys using public key cryptography suffers
from two major flaws. First, it is vulnerable to
technological progress. Reversing a one-way function can
be done, provided one has sufficient computing power or
time available. The resources necessary to crack an
algorithm depend on the length of the key, which must
therefore be carefully selected.
Box 2: One-way Functions
The most common example of a one-way function is
factorization. The RSA public key system is actually
based on this mathematical problem. It is relatively
easy to compute the product of two prime integers –
say for example 37 * 53 = 1961, because a practical
method exists. On the other hand, reversing this
calculation – finding the prime factors of 1961 – is
tedious and time-consuming, especially with key
lengths of 2048 or more bits. No efficient algorithm
for factorization has ever been disclosed. It is
important to stress however that there is no formal
proof that such an algorithm does not exist. It may
not have been discovered yet or… it may have been
kept secret.
In principle, an eavesdropper could indeed record
communications and wait until he can afford a computer
powerful enough to crack them. This assessment is
straightforward when the lifetime of the information is
one or two years, as in the case of credit card numbers,
but quite difficult when it spans a decade. In 1977, the
three inventors of RSA – the most common public key
cryptography algorithm – issued a challenge in an article
entitled “A new kind of cipher that would take million of
years to break”. The challenge was to crack a cipher
encrypted with a 428-bits key. They predicted at the time
that this would take 40 quadrillion years. However the
$100 prize was claimed in 1994 after 6 months of work by
a group of scientists using parallel computing over the
Internet, and the resulting solution “The magic words are
squeamish ossifrage” has gone down in the history of
cryptanalysis.
Other public-key cryptography schemes based on the
intractability of certain mathematical problems are now in
use, such as elliptic curve cryptography. For elliptic-curvebased protocols, it is assumed that finding the discrete
logarithm of a random elliptic curve element with respect
to a publicly-known base point is infeasible. The
minimum recommended length for asymmetric keys
continues to grow in response to threats from
Page 6
improvements in technology and increased computing
power.
In addition in 1994 there was an attack on another front Peter Shor, professor of Applied Mathematics at MIT,
proposed an algorithm for integer factorization which
would run on a quantum computer and allow to reverse
one-way functions - in other words to crack some versions
of public key cryptography. The development of the first
quantum computer will immediately make the exchange
of a key with current public key algorithms insecure.
The second major flaw with public key cryptography is
that it is vulnerable to progress in mathematics. In spite of
tremendous efforts, mathematicians have not yet been
able to prove that public key cryptography is secure. It has
not been possible to rule out the existence of algorithms
that allow the reversal of one-way functions. The
discovery of such an algorithm would make public key
cryptography insecure overnight. It is even more difficult
to assess the rate of theoretical progress than that of
technological advances. There are examples in the history
of mathematics where one person was able to solve a
problem, which kept other researchers busy for years or
decades. It is even possible that an algorithm for reversing
some one-way functions has already been discovered, but
kept secret. These threats simply mean that public key
cryptography cannot guarantee future-proof key
distribution.
4. Quantum Cryptography
4.1. Principle
Quantum cryptography solves the problem of key
distribution by allowing the exchange of a cryptographic
key between two remote parties with absolute security,
guaranteed by the fundamental laws of physics. This key
can then be used securely with conventional
cryptographic algorithms. The more correct name for
quantum cryptography is therefore Quantum key
Distribution.
The basic principle of quantum key distribution (QKD) is
quite straightforward. It exploits the fact that, according
to quantum physics, the mere fact of observing a
quantum object perturbs it in an irreparable way. For
example, when you read this white paper, the sheet of
paper must be illuminated. The impact of the light
particles will slightly heat it up and hence change it. This
effect is very small on a piece of paper, which is a
macroscopic object. However, the situation is radically
different with a microscopic object. If one encodes the
value of a digital bit on a single quantum object, its
interception will necessarily translate into a perturbation
because the eavesdropper is forced to observe it. This
perturbation causes errors in the sequence of bits
exchanged by the sender and recipient. By checking for
the presence of such errors, the two parties can verify
whether an eavesdropper was able to gain information
on their key. It is important to stress that since this
verification takes place after the exchange of bits, one
finds out a posteriori whether the communication was
intercepted or not. This is why the technology is used to
exchange a key and not valuable information. Once the
key exchange is validated, and the key is provably secure,
it can be used to encrypt data. Quantum physics allows
to formally prove that interception of the key without
perturbation is impossible.
4.2
Quantum Communications
What does it mean in practice to encode the value of a
digital bit on a quantum object? In telecommunication
networks, light is routinely used to exchange information.
For each bit of information, a pulse is emitted and sent
down an optical fiber – a thin fiber of glass used to carry
light signals – to the receiver, where it is registered and
transformed back into an electronic signal. These pulses
typically contain millions of particles of light, called
photons. In quantum key distribution the same approach
is followed with the difference that the pulses contain
only a single photon. A single photon represents a very
tiny amount of light (when reading this white paper your
eyes register billions of photons every second) and it
follows the laws of quantum physics. In particular, it
cannot be split into halves. This means that an
eavesdropper cannot take half of a photon to measure
the value of the bit it carries, while letting the other half
continue its course. If he wants to obtain the value of the
bit, he must observe the photon and will thus interrupt
the communication and reveal his presence. A better
Page 7
strategy is for the eavesdropper to detect the photon,
register the value of the bit and prepare a new photon
according to the obtained result to send it to the receiver.
In QKD the two legitimate parties cooperate to prevent
the eavesdropper from doing so, by forcing him to
introduce errors. Protocols have been devised to achieve
this goal.
4.3. Quantum Key Distribution
Protocols
Although several QKD protocols exist, only one
protocol will be discussed here to illustrate the
principle of quantum key distribution. The BB84
protocol was the first to be invented in 1984 by
Charles Bennett of IBM Research and Gilles Brassard
of the University of Montreal. It is still widely used and
has become a de facto standard.
An emitter and a receiver can implement it by
exchanging single-photons, whose polarization states
are used to encode bit values over an optical fiber
(refer to Box 3 for an explanation of polarization). This
fiber, and the transmission equipment, is called the
quantum channel. They use four different polarization
states and agree, for example, that a 0-bit value can
be encoded either as a horizontal state or a –45°
diagonal one (see Box 4). For a 1-bit value, they will
use either a vertical state or a +45° diagonal one.
Filters exist to distinguish horizontal states from
vertical ones. When passing through such a filter,
the course of a vertically polarized photon is
deflected to the right, while that of a horizontally
polarized photon is deflected to the left. In order
to distinguish between diagonally polarized
photons, one must rotate the filter by 45°.
If a photon is sent through a filter with the
incorrect orientation – diagonally polarized
photon through the non-rotated filter for
example – it will be randomly deflected in one of
the two directions. In this process, the photon
also undergoes a transformation of its
polarization state, so that it is impossible to know
its orientation before the filter.
Linear polarization states
Filters
Box 3: The Polarization of Photons
The polarization of light is the direction of oscillation
of the electromagnetic field associated with its
wave. It is perpendicular to the direction of its
propagation. Linear polarization states can be
defined by the direction of oscillation of the field.
Horizontal and vertical orientations are examples of
linear polarization states.
Diagonal states (+ and – 45°) are also linear
polarization states. Linear states can point in any
direction. The polarization of a photon can be
prepared in any of these states.
50%
50%
Page 8
Box 4: Quantum Key Distribution Protocol
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
Receiver bit value
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
Sifted key
-
1
-
0
1
-
0
-
Emitter bit value
Emitter photon source
Receiver filter orientation
Receiver photon detector
• For each bit, the emitter sends a photon whose
polarization is randomly selected among the four
states. He records the orientation in a list.
• The photon is sent along the quantum channel.
• For each incoming photon, the receiver randomly
chooses the orientation – horizontal or diagonal –
of a filter allowing to distinguish between two
polarization states. He records these orientations,
as well as the outcome of the detections – photon
deflected to the right or the left.
After the exchange of a large number of photons, the
receiver reveals the sequence of filter orientations he
has used, without disclosing the actual results of his
measurements. This information is exchanged over a
so-called classical channel, such as the internet or the
phone. The emitter uses this information to compare
the orientation of the photons he has sent with the
corresponding filter orientation. He announces to the
receiver in which cases the orientations where
compatible and in which they were not. The emitter
and the receiver now discard from their lists all the
bits corresponding to a photon for which the
orientations were not compatible. This phase is called
the sifting of the key. By doing so, they obtain a
sequence of bits which, in the absence of an
eavesdropper, is identical and is half the length of the
raw sequence. They can use it as a key.
It is thus sufficient for the emitter and the receiver to
check for the presence of errors in the sequence, by
comparing over the classical channel a sample of the
bits, to verify the integrity of the key. Note that the
bits revealed during this comparison are discarded as
they could have been intercepted by the
eavesdropper.
It is important to realize that the interception of the
communications over the classical channel by the
eavesdropper does not constitute a vulnerability, as
they take place after the transmission of the photons.
4.4. Key Distillation
The description of the BB84 QKD protocol assumed
that the only source of errors in the sequence
exchanged by the emitter and the receiver was the
action of the eavesdropper. All practical QKD will
Page 9
however feature an intrinsic error rate caused by
component
imperfections
or
environmental
perturbations of the quantum channel.
In order to avoid jeopardizing the security of the key,
these errors are all attributed to the eavesdropper. A
post processing phase, also known as key distillation,
is then performed. It takes place after the sifting of the
key and consists of two steps. The first step corrects all
the errors in the key, by using a classical error
correction protocol. This step also allows to precisely
estimate the actual error rate. With this error rate, it is
possible to accurately calculate the amount of
information the eavesdropper may have on the key.
The second step is called privacy amplification and
consists in compressing the key by an appropriate
factor to reduce the information of the eavesdropper.
A rudimentary privacy amplification protocol is
described in Box 5. The compression factor depends
on the error rate. The higher it is, the more
information an eavesdropper might have on the key
and the more it must be compressed to be secure. Fig.
2 schematically shows the impact of the sifting and
distillation steps on the key size. This procedure works
up to a maximum error rate. Above this threshold, the
eavesdropper can have too much information on the
sequence to allow the legitimate parties to produce a
key. Because of this, it is essential for a quantum
cryptography system to have an intrinsic error rate
that is well below this threshold – this can be achieved
through the system design and the choice of
components.
Figure 2: Impact of the sifting and distillation steps on the key size
Key distillation is then complemented by an
authentication step in order to prevent a “man in the
middle attack”. In this case the eavesdropper would
cut the communication channels and pretend to the
emitter that he is the receiver and vice versa.
Such an attack is prevented thanks to the use of a preestablished secret key in the emitter and the receiver,
which is used to authenticate the communications on
the classical channel. This initial secret key serves only
to authenticate the first quantum cryptography
session. After each session, part of the key produced is
used to replace the previous authentication key.
Box 5: Rudimentary Privacy
Amplification Protocol
Let us consider a two-bit key shared by the emitter
and the receiver and let us assume that it is 01. Let us
further assume that the eavesdropper knows the first
bit of the key but not the second one: 0?.
The simplest privacy amplification protocol consists in
calculating the sum, without carry, of the two bits and
to use the resulting bit as the final key. The legitimate
users obtain 0 + 1 = 1. The eavesdropper does not
know the second bit. For him, this operation could be
either 0 + 0 = 0 or 0 + 1 = 1. He has no way to decide
which one is the correct one. Consequently, he does
not have any knowledge on the final key. There is a
cost. This privacy amplification protocol shortens the
key by 50%. In practice, more efficient protocols have
obviously been developed.
Page 10
4.5. Real World Quantum Key
Distribution
The first experimental demonstration of quantum
cryptography took place in 1989 and was performed
by Bennett and Brassard. A key was exchanged over
30 cm of air. Although its practical interest was
certainly limited, this experiment proved that QKD was
possible and motivated other research groups to enter
the field. The first demonstration over optical fiber
took place in 1993 at the University of Geneva.
Figure 3: Key creation rate as a function of distance.
The performance of a QKD system is described by the
rate at which a key is exchanged over a certain
distance – or equivalently for a given loss budget.
When a photon propagates in an optical fiber, it has,
in spite of the high transparency of the glass used, a
certain probability of getting absorbed. If the distance
between the two QKD stations increases, the
probability that a given photon will reach the receiver
decreases. Imperfect single-photon source and
detectors further contribute to the reduction of the
number of photons detected by the receiver. The fact
that only a fraction of the photons reaches the
detectors does not however constitute a vulnerability,
as these do not contribute to the final key. It only
amounts to a reduction of the key exchange rate.
Typical key exchange rates for existing QKD systems
range from hundreds of kilobits per second for short
distances to hundreds of bits per second for greater
distances. Since the bits exchanged by the QKD
systems are used for the creation of relatively short
encryption keys (128 or 256-bits), the bit exchange
rate is sufficient to create a regular refresh rate of
provably secret and absolutely random keys. Data is
then encrypted with these keys at transmission rates
up to 10Gbps.
The span of current QKD systems is limited by the
transparency of optical fibers and typically reaches
100 kilometers (60 miles). In conventional
telecommunications, one deals with this problem by
using optical repeaters. They are located
approximately every 80 kilometers (50 miles) to
amplify and regenerate the optical signal. In QKD it is
not possible to do this as repeaters would have the
same effect as an eavesdropper and corrupt the key
by introducing perturbations.
When the distance between the two stations
increases, two effects reinforce each other to reduce
the effective key exchange rate. First, the probability
that a given photon reaches the receiver decreases.
This effect causes a reduction of the raw exchange
rate. Second, the signal-to-noise ratio decreases – the
signal decreases with the detection probability, while
the noise probability remains constant – which means
that the error rate increases. A higher error rate
implies a more costly key distillation, in terms of the
number of bits consumed, and in turn a lower
effective key creation rate. Fig. 3 summarizes this
phenomenon.
Note that if it were possible to use repeaters, an
eavesdropper could exploit them. The laws of
quantum physics forbid this. However it is possible to
set up a network of trusted QKD repeaters to increase
the distance3.
3
For reference to secure key agreements over trusted repeater QKD
networks see http://arxiv.org/pdf/0904.4072.pdf developed within
framework of SECOQC project www.secoqc.net/
Page 11
encryptors over standard optical fibers in an existing
network. Future-proof confidentiality of the data is
guaranteed by the use of QKD.
4.6. State-of-the-Art QKD
In 2002, IDQ launched the first industrialised QKD
system called Clavis, designed for research and
development applications, and in 2008 the next4
generation Clavis2 was launched. Clavis2 uses a
proprietary auto-compensating optical platform,
which features outstanding stability and interference
contrast, guaranteeing low quantum bit error rate.
Secure key exchange becomes possible up to 100 km.
This optical platform is well documented in scientific
publications and has been extensively tested and
characterized. The Clavis2 system is the most flexible
product of its kind on the market. It consists of two
stations controlled by one or two external computers.
A comprehensive software suite implements
automated hardware operation and complete key
distillation. Two quantum cryptography protocols
(BB84 and SARG) are implemented. The exchanged
keys can be used in an encrypted file transfer
application, which allows secure communications
between two stations.
Real-life implementations now reach up to distances
of 100 kilometers (60 miles) over a dedicated fiber.
QKD is primarily used to secure the critical backbone
8
or data recovery center links for financial institutions ,
large companies and defence & government
organizations. However it has also been deployed in
sporting events such as the 2010 South African World
9
Cup .
IDQ’s Cerberis QKD server is also compatible with
wavelength division multiplexing (WDM). Quantum
keys can be multiplexed with data over a single fiber
for distances up to 30 km in Metropolitan Area
Networks (MAN). In addition, in 2011 IDQ and Colt
10
launched the world’s first QKD-as-a-Service for
enterprises and financial institutions.
4.7. Perspectives for Future
Developments
5
In 2007, IDQ launched Cerberis , a QKD server
designed for commercial applications. This has been
deployed and extensively field tested since its
installation that same year for use in elections by the
6
government of Geneva, Switzerland . In addition, the
robustness and reliability of IDQ’s QKD technology in a
real-time
telecommunications
network
was
7
unequivocally proven in the Swissquantum project .
This documents the longest ever uninterrupted
deployment of a QKD network, running from end
March 2009 until the project was dismantled in
January 2011.
Future developments in QKD will certainly focus on
increasing the range of the systems. The first option is
to get rid of the optical fiber. It is possible to exchange
a key using quantum cryptography between a
terrestrial station and a low orbit satellite (absorption
in the atmosphere takes place mainly over the first
few kilometers. It can be low, if an adequate
wavelength is selected and…if the weather is clear.)
Such a satellite moves with respect to the earth’s
surface. When passing over a second station, located
thousands of kilometers away from the first one, it can
retransmit the key. The satellite is implicitly
considered as a secure intermediary station. This
technology is less mature than that based on optical
fibers. Research groups have already performed
The Cerberis QKD system provides fully automated,
provably secure key exchange for Layer 2 link
4
5
6
7
http://www.idquantique.com/scientific-instrumentation/clavis2-qkdplatform.html
http://www.idquantique.com/network-encryption/cerberis-layer2encryption-and-qkd.html
http://www.idquantique.com/images/stories/PDF/cerberisencryptor/user-case-gva-gov.pdf
www.swissquantum.ch
8
9
http://www.idquantique.com/images/stories/PDF/cerberisencryptor/user-case-drc.pdf
http://www.idquantique.com/news/press-release-worldcup.html
10
http://www.idquantique.com/images/stories/PDF/cerberisencryptor/user-case-colt-qaas.pdf
Page 12
preliminary tests of such a system, but an actual key
exchange with a satellite remains to be demonstrated.
There are also several theoretical proposals for
11
building quantum repeaters . They would relay
quantum bits without measuring and thus perturbing
them. They could, in principle, be used to extend the
key exchange range over arbitrarily long distances. In
practice, such quantum repeaters do not exist yet
although they are the subject of intensive research.
It is interesting to note that a quantum repeater is a
rudimentary quantum computer. At the same time as
making current public key cryptography obsolete, the
development of quantum computers will also allow
the implementation of quantum cryptography over
transcontinental distances.
5. Conclusion
For the first time in history, the security of
cryptography is dependent neither on the computing
resources of the adversary nor on mathematical
progress. Quantum cryptography, and specifically
QKD, allows the exchange of encryption keys whose
secrecy is future-proof and guaranteed by the laws of
quantum physics. Its combination with conventional
secret-key cryptographic algorithms raises the
confidentiality of data transmissions to an
unprecedented level. Despite being written in 2003,
the MIT Technology Review and Newsweek magazine
were prescient when they identified quantum
cryptography as one of the “ten technologies that will
change the world”.
11
For more information on quantum repeaters see
http://quantumrepeaters.eu/index.php/qcomm/quantum-repeaters
REDEFINING SECURITY
ARCIS
THE BEST OF MULTI-LAYER ENCRYPTION
LAYER 3 & 4 ADJUSTABLE-BANDWIDTH ENCRYPTION
ID Quantique's multi-layer Arcis encryptors are bandwidth adjustable encryption appliances which provide
tunnel-less data protection, including IP packet encryption for Layer 3 networks, and Layer 4 data payload
encryption for IP and MPLS networks and Voice- and Video-over-IP. Arcis encryptors offer full-duplex
encryption at rates ranging from 3Mbps to 10Gbps using the leading AES 256 algorithm. In addition, the
integrity of the data is guaranteed through use of leading authentication protocols.
The Arcis solution enables organisations to standardise on a single platform capable of encrypting at
different layers and at various throughputs. This allows companies to purchase software licenses for their
existing encryption hardware as their bandwidth needs increase, providing both flexibility and investment
protection. Arcis encryptors operate transparently to the network infrastructure, allowing easy integration
without the requirement to upgrade or change the network architecture. The solution is also compatible with
load balancing, highly available network designs, QoS and network monitoring tools.
IP PACKET ENCRYPTION
Using the IP Security (IPsec) protocol, Arcis encryptors provide full data encryption for Layer 3 IP networks.
The Arcis family uses an Encapsulating Security Payload protocol to encrypt the IP packet, while preserving
the original IP header. This unique functionality maintains network transparency, while providing maximum
data protection. By preserving the original header and encrypting only the payload, the encryptors can
protect data over any IP infrastructure including multi-carrier, load-balanced, and high availability networks.
PAYLOAD ONLY ENCRYPTION
In addition to standard IPsec encryption, (which encrypts the Layer 4 header), Arcis encryptors offer a Layer
4 compatible “payload only” encryption option. This unique capability allows network services, such as
Netflow/Jflow, and Class of Service (CoS) based traffic shaping, to be maintained through the service
provider network while the payload itself is encrypted.
ARCIS
ID Quantique SA
Chemin de la Marbrerie 3
FEATURES & BENEFITS
Multi-layer encryption: Layer 3 IP packet and
Layer 4 payload protection
Transparent to networks and applications
Seamless scalability
Easy installation and management
Centralised policy management and enforcement
Creation and management of secure network groups
through group encryption keys
Separation of roles for security control and
network management
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
T +41 22 301 83 71
F +41 22 301 83 79
info@idquantique.com
www.idquantique.com
REDEFINING SECURITY
ARCIS
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
Encrypted Throughput
?
ARC-10: 3, 6, 10, 25, or 50Mbps
?
ARC-100: 25, 50, 75, 100, 155, or 250Mbps
?
ARC-1000: 100, 155, 250, 500, 650Mbps and 1Gbps
?
ARC-10G: 500, 650Mbps and 1, 2.5, 5 and 10Gbps
Encryption Support
?
AES: (256 bit keys) CBC mode
?
3DES (TDEA)
Authentication and Integrity
HMAC-SHA-1-96
?
Network Support
Ethernet
?
VLAN tag preservation
?
MPLS tag preservation
?
IPv4
?
IPv6 (Layer 2 Ethernet encryption mode)
?
NTP
?
Policy Selector Options
Source or destination IP address
?
Source or destination port number
?
Protocol ID (L3 and L4 options)
?
VLAN ID (L2 option)
?
Multicast address
?
Transforms
ESP Tunnel Mode (header preservation option)
?
ESP Transport Mode (L4 option)
?
Ethernet ESP Mode
?
Device Management
TrustManager
?
Command Line Interface
?
Out-of-band management
?
Alarm condition detection and reporting
?
Syslog support
?
SNMPv2c and SNMPv3 managed object support
?
Audit Log
?
Management Communication Security Options
X.509 v3 digital certificates
?
TLS (full authentication)
?
SSH
?
IKE/IPsec
?
Environmental
Operating temperature: 0° to 40° C (32° to 104° F)
?
EU WEEE & EU RoHS-5
?
Regulatory
Safety: UL 60950-1
?
Emissions for ARC-10, ARC-1000, ARC-10G: FCC part
?
15 subpart B class A
Emissions for ARC-100: FCC part 15 subpart B class B
?
Indicators
Power
?
Alarm
?
LED Status
?
Link Status, Encrypting and 2x8 segment display (ARC10G)
?
Encrypting (ARC-10G)
?
Physical
ARC-10:
?
1U tamper evident chassis
?
Dimensions: 4.0 x 20.3 x 14.7cm (HxWxD)
?
Rack mountable in standard 19" rack or desktop option
?
External Power Adapter: 100-240V A/C @ 1.5A, 50/60Hz,
output 12V D/C, 5A max (60W max)
?
Thermal: In-rush 102 BTU/hr, Steady-state 102 BTU/hr
?
Nominal input current: 0.25A
?
Weight: 1.4 kg as rackmount; 0.8 kg as desktop
?
MTBF: 388,999 hours
?
Data Interface: 2x10/100/1000 RJ45 Ethernet ports
?
Management: 1x10/100 RJ45 Ethernet & 1x RS232 serial port
?
Aux1 RJ45 port for future use
ARC-100:
1U tamper evident chassis
?
Dimensions: 4.4 x 43.0 x 25.4cm (HxWxD)
?
Rack mountable in standard 19" rack or desktop option
?
Power: 100-240V A/C @ 4A, 50/60Hz, auto-sensing
?
Thermal: In-rush 380 BTU/hr, Steady-state 140 BTU/hr
?
Nominal input current: 1.0A
?
Weight: 2.7 kg
?
MTBF: 59,794 hours
?
Data Interface: 2x 10/100/1000 Mbps RJ45 Ethernet ports
?
?
Management: 1x 10/100 RJ45 Ethernet & 1xRS232 serial port
ARC-1000:
1U tamper evident chassis
?
Dimensions: 4.4 x 43.0 x 25.4cm (HxWxD)
?
Rack mountable in standard 19" rack
?
Power: Dual A/C hot swappable 100V@3.A - 240V@1.5A
?
47-63Hz, auto- sensing
Thermal: In-rush 380 BTU/hr, Steady-state 140 BTU/hr
?
Nominal input current: .65A@110V
?
Weight: 4 kg
?
MTBF: 158,520 hours
?
Data Interface: 2x full-duplex Gigabit Ethernet ports with SFP
?
interfaces (single mode, multimode or copper)
?
Management: 1x 10/100 RJ45 Ethernet & 1xRS232 serial port
?
Management SFP port and Aux1 SFP port for future use
ARC-10G:
2U tamper resistant chassis
?
Dimensions: 8.9 x 43.0 x 38.0cm (HxWxD)
?
Rack mountable in standard 19" rack
?
Power: 100-240V A/C @ 4A, 50/60Hz, auto-sensing
?
Dual hot-swappable internal power supplies- AC or DC (-48V)
?
Customer replaceable fan assemblies
?
Data Interface: 2x full-duplex 10 Gigabit Ethernet ports with
?
SFP+ interfaces (single mode, multimode or copper)
?
Management: 1x 10/100/1000 Ethernet RJ45, 1x Gigabit
Ethernet (SFP) & 1x RJ45 serial port
?
3x full-duplex Gigabit Ethernet ports with SFP interfaces (single
mode, multimode or copper) or 3x full-duplex 10/100/1000
Ethernet ports with RJ45 interfaces (for future use)
?
Two USB ports (reserved for future use)
Disclaimer
The information and specifications set forth in this document are subject to change at any time by ID Quantique without prior notice.
Copyright© 2007-2011 ID Quantique SA - All rights reserved - Arcis v1.4 - Specifications as of January 2012
ID Quantique SA
Chemin de la Marbrerie 3
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
T +41 22 301 83 71
F +41 22 301 83 79
info@idquantique.com
www.idquantique.com
REDEFINING SECURITY
CENTAURIS
THE BEST OF CONVENTIONAL ENCRYPTION
LAYER 2 LINK ENCRYPTION
The Centauris encryptors secure high-speed networks using the proven Advanced Encryption Standard
(AES). Point-to-point and multi-point, wire-speed encryption with low latency and no packet expansion is
made possible by operating at the Layer 2 of the OSI model. The word “layer” refers to the way in which
network communication systems are designed. For example Layer 1 is the physical layer (wire, cables,
connectors etc), Layer 2 is the data link layer (eg Ethernet frames) & Layer 3 is the network layer (eg IP
packets). The challenge lies in maintaining the performance and simplicity of high speed networks while
assuring the security and privacy of user data, whether it is a voice, data or video transmission. Layer 2
encryption is often referred to as a “bump in the wire” technology as it has nearly no overhead and allows the
use of the entire bandwidth. Latency is constant and below 15 microseconds per link. Furthermore, it
ensures protection of all traffic on the network.
Multiple protocols are supported: Ethernet (up to 10Gbps), Fibre Channel (up to 4Gbps) and SONET/SDH
(up to 10Gbps). The encryptors have received stringent international security accreditations - Common
Criteria EAL4+ and FIPS 140-2 Level 3.
The Centauris solution integrates seamlessly into existing network infrastructures. The simple installation
procedure and set-and-forget operation ensures rapid deployment and minimal maintenance
requirements. Advanced management tools and monitoring applications, such as CypherManager and
CypherMonitor, allow easy provisioning and control of security policies for audit and compliance. Group key
management and separation of duties underpin best security practices while advanced networking and
diagnostic features ensure uncompromising performance.
WHY LAYER 2 ENCRYPTION?
No packet expansion and full bandwidth availability
Negligible latency below 15 microseconds
Encryption of all network protocols
High speed full duplex encryption
Ethernet: 10/100, 1 Gbps, 10 Gbps
Fibre Channel: 1G, 2G, 4G
CENTAURIS
ID Quantique SA
Chemin de la Marbrerie 3
SONET/SDH: OC-3, OC-12, OC-48, OC-192
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
T +41 22 301 83 71
F +41 22 301 83 79
info@idquantique.com
www.idquantique.com
REDEFINING SECURITY
CENTAURIS
LAYER 2 PROTOCOLS
Protocols
Ethernet:
Models
Throughput
Crypotgraphy
Accreditations
Mechanical
CN-ETH-10M
10 Mbps
AES, 256-Bit Key, CFB & CTR mode CC EAL4+ and FIPS 140-2
19”rack; 1U
CN-ETH-100M
100Mbps
AES, 256-Bit Key, CFB & CTR mode CC EAL4+ and FIPS 140-2
19”rack; 1U
CN-ETH-1G
1Gbps
AES, 256-Bit Key, CFB & CTR mode CC EAL4+ and FIPS 140-2
19”rack; 1U
CN-ETH-10G
10Gbps
AES, 256-Bit Key, CTR mode
CC EAL4+ and FIPS 140-2
19”rack; 3U
The Ethernet Encryptors support Point-to-Point, Point-to-Multipoint and Multipoint-to-Multipoint Topologies.
The Ethernet Encryptors have speed interoperability from 10Mbps up to 10Gbps
Bandwidth upgrades by licence: CN-ETH-10M to 100Mbps and 1Gbps
CN-ETH-100M to 1Gbps
Fibre Channel: CN-FC-1G
1Gbps
AES, 256-Bit Key, CTR mode
CC EAL4+ and FIPS 140-2
CN-FC-2G
2Gbps
AES, 256-Bit Key, CTR mode
CC EAL4+ and FIPS 140-2
CN-FC-4G
4Gbps
AES, 256-Bit Key, CTR mode
CC EAL4 and FIPS 140-2
Bandwidth upgrades by licence: CN-FC-1G to 2Gbps and 4Gbps
CN-FC-1G to 4Gbps
19”rack; 1U
19”rack; 1U
19”rack; 1U
SONET/SDH:
19”rack; 1U
19”rack; 1U
19”rack; 1U
19”rack; 3U
OC-3
OC-12
OC-48
OC-192
156 Mbps
625 Mbps
2.5 Gbps
10Gbps
AES, 256-Bit Key, CTR mode
AES, 256-Bit Key, CTR mode
AES, 256-Bit Key, CTR mode
AES, 256-Bit Key, CTR mode
CC EAL4 and FIPS 140-2
CC EAL4 and FIPS 140-2
CC EAL4 and FIPS 140-2
CC EAL4 and FIPS 140-2
GENERAL TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION
Key Management
Seamless and automated key management, RSA-2048, group encryption key per VLAN & MAC address
Local and Network Interfaces
SFP transceivers (up to 4Gbps), XFP transceivers (10Gbps)
Access Control
Role-based identification for separation of duties
Audit Trail
Event log, audit log, date and time of secure connection, comprehensive audit reports & alerts via CypherMonitor
Secure Management
SNMPv1, v2 and v3, Ethernet 10/100 RJ45,in-band management on local and network interfaces
Indicators
Two line 20 characters LCD display, LED indicating status of local interface,
network interface, temperature, battery status, system operation and secure status, power
Physical Security
Tamper proof storage of encryption keys and user passwords
Tamper resistant metal case
Environmental
Operating temperature
5° to 40°C
Operating humidity
0 to 80% RH @ 40° C
Non-operating
Non-operating
-10° to 60° C
95% RH @ 40° C
MANAGEMENT & MONITORING
CypherManager provides easy configuration and scalable management via a simple-to-use
GUI. It manages the Centauris encryptors either locally or remotely, via a secure SNMPv3
connection (inband or out-of-band). In addition it acts as a the Certificate Authority for the
encryptor network by signing and distributing X.509 certificates. It is also compatible with
any SNMPv3 compliant network management tool (eg NetView, OpenView, or Tivoli).
CypherMonitor provides a transparent view on the entire encryptor fleet, offering the
capability for real-time security or network alerts or regular configurable reports for audit
and compliance.
CERBERIS QUANTUM KEY DISTRIBUTION
IDQ offers a radically new approach to network security, by combining the power of the Centauris high-speed encryptors
with the unconditional security of Cerberis quantum key distribution (QKD) technology to secure point-to-point backbone
and storage networks.
Disclaimer
The information and specification set forth in this document are subject to change at any time by ID Quantique without prior notice.
Copyright© 2007-2012 ID Quantique SA - All rights reserved - Centauris v3.0 - Specifications as of January 2012.
ID Quantique SA
Chemin de la Marbrerie 3
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
T +41 22 301 83 71
F +41 22 301 83 79
info@idquantique.com
www.idquantique.com
REDEFINING SECURITY
CERBERIS
THE BEST OF CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM WORLDS
LAYER 2 LINK ENCRYPTION
WITH QUANTUM KEY DISTRIBUTION
IDQ offers a radically new approach to network security, by combining the sheer power of
Centauris high-speed layer 2 encryption appliances with the unconditional security of Cerberis
quantum key distribution (QKD) technology to secure point-to-point backbone and storage
networks.
The exchange of secret encryption keys, upon which the encryption security is based, is performed
in a dedicated appliance - the Cerberis QKD server. A fundamental principle of quantum physics observation causes perturbation - is exploited to exchange secret keys between two remote
parties over an optical fiber with unprecedented security. The Cerberis QKD server autonomously
produces, manages and distributes secret keys to up to twelve encryption appliances.
The Cerberis QKD server works in conjunction with Centauris encryptors for high-speed
encryption based on the proven Advanced Encryption Standard (AES). Point-to-point wire-speed
encryption with minimum latency and no packet expansion is made possible by operating at the
layer 2 of the OSI model. Standard network protocols up to a bandwidth of 10Gbps are supported.
These encryptors have received stringent security accreditation (Common Criteria EAL4+ and
FIPS 140-2).
In order to guarantee the highest level of security, a dual key agreement process is used. Separate
encryption keys are exchanged using Quantum Key Distribution and conventional techniques
before being combined to produce a resulting key, as strong as the strongest of the two keys.
The Cerberis solution is highly secure, scalable, versatile and cost effective.
WHY QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY?
High secrecy of cryptographic keys
Intrinsically guaranteed by quantum physics
Dual key agreement
Reveals eavesdropper’s presence
Observation causes perturbation
Future-proof data confidentiality and integrity
High key-refresh rate
CERBERIS
ID Quantique SA
Chemin de la Marbrerie 3
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
T +41 22 301 83 71
F +41 22 301 83 79
info@idquantique.com
www.idquantique.com
REDEFINING SECURITY
CERBERIS
NETWORK DIAGRAM
Network Plane
Location A
Encryptor na
Layer 2 Link Encryption
Up to 12 encryptors
Encryptor nb
Encrypted Network
...
Encryptor 1a
Key Management
Plane
Location B
QKD Server
Dark fiber or
xWDM channel
Quantum Channel
Dark fiber or
DWDM channel
...
Encryptor 1b
Secure Key
Channel
QKD Server
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
Network Protocols
Ethernet:
Fibre Channel:
SONET/SDH:
ATM:
10 Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps and 10Gbps
FC-1G, FC-2G and FC-4G
OC-3, OC-12, OC-48 and OC-192
OC-3, OC-12
Network Performance
Throughput:
Latency:
100% bandwidth available
<15microseconds
Encryption Algorithm
AES 256-bit, CFB mode (up to 1Gbps), CTR mode (up to 10Gbps)
Security Accreditation
Common Criteria EAL4+ and FIPS 140-2
Key Management
Seamless and automated key management
Dual key agreement:
conventional and quantum cryptography
Key refresh rate:
1 key/minute up to 12 encryptors
Quantum Key Distribution:
BB84 and SARG, up to 50 km (100km upon request)
Conventional Key Agreement: RSA-2048, master key
Local and Network Interfaces
Cerberis QKD Server:
Centauris Encryptors:
SC optical connector, WDM compatible
SFP transceivers (up to 4Gbps), XFP transceivers (10Gbps)
Random Number Generator
Cerberis QKD Server:
Centauris Encryptors:
Quantis Quantum Random Number Generator
Hardware Random Number Generator
Access Control
Role-based identification for separation of duties
Audit Trail
Event log, audit log, date and time of secure connection
Configuration changes
Interface Status
Alarms
Secure Management
QKD Server:
Encryptors:
SNMPv3, Ethernet 10/100 Rj45, touch panel
SNMPv1, v2 and v3, Ethernet 10/100 Rj45, browser TLS or IPSec trusted path
In-band on local and network interfaces
Indicators
QKD Server:
Encryptors:
Touch panel, 240x180 pixels
Two line 20 characters LCD display, LED indicating status of local interface,
network interface, temperature, battery status, system operation and secure
status, power
Physical Security
Tamper proof storage of encryption keys and users passwords
Tamper resistant metal case
Environmental
Operating temperature
Non-operating temperature
Operating humidity
Non-operating humidity
5° to 40° C
-10° to 60° C
0 to 80% RH @ 40° C
95% RH @ 40° C
Disclaimer
The information and specification set forth in this document are subject to change at any time by ID Quantique without prior notice.
Copyright© 2007-2012 ID Quantique SA - All rights reserved - Cerberis v4.0 - Specifications as of January 2012
ID Quantique SA
Chemin de la Marbrerie 3
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
T +41 22 301 83 71
F +41 22 301 83 79
info@idquantique.com
www.idquantique.com
REDEFINING PRECISION
CLAVIS
2
THE MOST VERSATILE QUANTUM KEY DISTRIBUTION
RESEARCH PLATFORM
Quantum Key Distribution is a technology that exploits a fundamental principle of quantum
physics - observation causes perturbation - to exchange cryptographic keys over optical
fiber networks with absolute security. It is attracting a growing interest in the scientific
community. The id3100/id3110 Clavis2 Quantum Key Distribution System - clavis is the latin
word for key - was developed by id Quantique to serve as a versatile research tool.
The id3100/id3110 Clavis2 system uses a proprietary auto-compensating optical platform,
which features outstanding stability and interference contrast, guaranteeing a low quantum
bit error rate. Secure key exchange becomes possible over distances of tens of kilometers.
This optical platform is well documented in scientific publications and has been extensively
tested and characterized.
The id3100/id3110 Clavis2 system is the most flexible product of its kind on the market. It
consists of two stations controlled by one or two external computers.
A comprehensive software suite implements automated hardware operation and complete
key distillation. A powerful graphical log file analyzer is supplied to plot the evolution of key
parameters and variables, allowing intuitive performance analysis. The software suite also
includes a secure chat application using the keys generated by the id3100/id3110 Clavis2
system to encrypt communications.
KEY FEATURES
APPLICATIONS
Autocompensating interferometric set-up
Quantum Cryptography Research
Outstanding stability and contrast
Pilot Network Deployment
User-friendly
Novel Protocols Implementation
Automated operation
Education and Training
Comprehensive software suite
Demonstration and Technology Evaluation
Graphical log analysis tool, secure chat
Flexible and open research platform
Library for C/C++ programming
Sync Out signals
ID Quantique SA
Chemin de la Marbrerie 3
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
T +41 22 301 83 71
F +41 22 301 83 79
info@idquantique.com
om
www.idquantique.com
com
OPTICAL PLATFORM
The id3100/id3110 Clavis2 quantum key distribution
system is based on an autocompensating
interferometric set-up, which guarantees outstanding
contrast and stability. Trains of light pulses are emitted
by a laser and travel from QKDS-B to QKDS-A, where
a qubit value is encoded, before they are reflected
using a Faraday mirror back to QKDS-B. This two-way
approach allows passive compensation for all
fluctuations, both in the quantum channel and the
interferometer. This technology is patented. The
2
id3100/id3110 Clavis system also provides electronic
synchronization signals to connect and synchronize
external components and systems.
Before being reflected, the trains of pulses are stored
in a delay line in the QKDS-A station in order to
suppress Rayleigh backscattering induced noise. The
id3100 Clavis2 system and id3110 Clavis2 system are
equipped with a delay line of 12 kilometers and 24
kilometers, respectively.
The wavelength of the laser used in the id3100/id3110
Clavis2 system is stabilized to a value on the ITU grid.
This wavelength is optionally over a range of 2nm.
QKDS-B
β
C
L
BS
VOA
CD
VOA
α
QKDS-A
FM
BP
DL
PBS
D1
Clavis2
D2
Clavis2
L
C
Di
BS
PBS
β
BP
VOA
CD
DL
α
FM
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
laser
circulator
quantum detector
beamsplitter
polarizing beamsplitter
phase modulator
bandpass filter
optical attenuator
classical detector
delay line
phase modulator
Faraday mirror
CONFIGURATIONS
The id3100/id3110 Clavis2 stations consist of an optical
and electronic platform and must be controlled by an
external computer (important note: the computers
must be ordered separately from id Quantique or
another supplier). The computers must run under a
Linux Ubuntu distribution. The system can be operated
in a single- or a double-computer configuration.
In the double-computer configuration, a management
Single-Computer Configuration
Double-Computer Configuration
In the single-computer configuration, one computer is
used to control both the QKDS-A and QKDS-B stations.
Two programs running on the same computer are used
to simulate two different devices. Although it does not
allow key exchange to different locations, it is useful for
testing and calibration purposes.
USB 2.0 Connection
(classical) channel is required for system
synchronization and key distillation. This classical
channel is implemented over a TCP/IP connection
over a local area network, the Internet or a dedicated
optical fiber.
The computers can provide cryptographic key material
to external encryption devices or applications through
a dedicated interface.
In the double-computer configuration , a different
computer is used to control each of the id3100/id3110
Clavis2 stations. This configuration allows remote
operation of the system, and a management channel
(TCP/IP connection) is required.
Cryptographic key material interface
to external devices or applications (optional)
Management channel
USB 2.0 Connection
USB Connection
U
t
t
l
l
t
Dedicated
Optical Fiber
IID
D Quantique SA
Chemin
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in de la Marbrerie 3
t
l
Quantum
channel
Q
t
h
l
QKDS-A
USB Connection
l
Quantum channel
QKDS-B
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
QKDS-A
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Dedicated
Optical Fiber
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QKDS-B
KEY DISTILLATION
After the raw key material has been exchanged, it is
post-processed in order to reduce the information to
which an eavesdropper could have access to an
2
arbitrarily low level. In the id3100/id3110 Clavis
system, this post-processing is fully implemented and
automated in order to allow secure key exchange. It
consists of four main steps:
Sifting implemented both for BB84 and SARG04
Key distillation
=
Key reconciliation: Cascade algorithm
=
Privacy amplification: Wegman-Carter Strongly
Universal Hashing
Authentication - Universal-hashing with One-Time
Pad encryption
Key material storage and management
SOFTWARE SUITE
QKD Menu Application
The QKD Menu application can be used to control and
operate the id3100/id3110 Clavis2 system. It provides
access to all hardware parameters and allows the user
to perform tasks ranging from system calibration to
secure key exchange. The QKDMenu application is
used to control both the QKDS-A and QKDS-B stations.
QKD Sequence Application
The QKD Sequence application is a fully automated
quantum key distribution program. It controls the
id3100/id3110 Clavis2 system and sequentially performs
the tasks required for quantum key distribution
(hardware monitoring, system synchronization,
interferometric contrast measurement, raw key
production and key distillation). This application stores
the cryptographic key material produced in a key store,
which can be accessed by other applications and
external devices.
QKD Log Analyzer Tool
The QKD Log Analyzer Tool is a program allowing the
user to parse log files produced by the id3100/id3110
Clavis2 system and to graphically display key
parameters and variables in order to analyze their
temporal evolution. The tool runs on any operating
system (SUN Java Virtual Machine 1.6 or newer
required). It can be used on the computers controlling
the system or, alternatively, it can also be run on a third
computer where a log file has been imported for off-line
performance analysis.
IID
D Quantique SA
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Switzerland
QKD Device Access Library
The QKD Device Access Library is a library of functions
that can be used to program the id3100/id3110 Clavis2
system in C/C++. It allows users to write customized
programs accessing the system to perform the tasks
required by quantum key distribution. The library includes
functions ranging from low-level primitives allowing the
user to read or set a particular hardware parameter, to
high-level procedures for complete quantum key
distribution. The library includes more than 50 functions,
some of which are specific to one of the stations of the
id3100/id3110 Clavis2 system (QKDS-A or QKDS-B),
while others apply to both. A comprehensive and detailed
reference guide, as well as examples of source code, are
QKD Secure Chat Tool
The QKD Secure Chat Tool is a messaging application
allowing the exchange of encrypted messages between
computers connected to the stations of the id3100/id3110
Clavis2 system. Encryption can be performed using the
One-Time Pad and AES algorithms or can be disabled.
The latter option is useful for data interception
demonstrations. The encryption keys are exchanged
using QKD and are retrieved from the id3100/id3110
T +41 22 301 83 71
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TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
GENERAL INFORMATION
Parameter
Min
Typical Max Units
466 x 428 x 177
Dimensions (L x W x H)
Rack mountable, space required
4U
Weight (QKDS-A)
16
Weight (QKDS-B)
16
Operating temperature
Relative humidity
Relative humidity
operating @ 30°C
2
non-operating @ 40°C
kg
30
0
80
%
-10
60
°C
90
%
2
1
kg
10
1
Non-operating temperature
mm
°C
RECOMMENDED COMPUTER SPECIFICATIONS
CD-ROM drive
USB 2.0 ports (one and two for single- and doublecomputer configurations respectively)
RAM: 1GB
Hard Disk: a minimum of 100MB of free space for
software suite installation, additional space is
needed when running the applications
Hardware
Optical platform: autocompensating interferometric set-up
Proprietary digital signal generation and data acquisition electronics
Random number generation: Quantis quantum RNG
QKDS-A: 2 x Quantis OEM components
QKDS-B: 1 x Quantis OEM components
Power supply: redundant, auto-sensing, 100-240 VAC @ 50/60 Hz
External computers (sold separately)
Interfaces and Inputs/Outputs
Optical connector (front panel): quantum channel
Connector type:
F3000/APC (compatible LC/APC)
Optical fiber type: SMF-28
Computer interface (front panel): USB 2.0 port
Output Sync Signal Connectors (front panel)
Connector type: BNC
QKDS-A:
classical detector and phase modulator
QKDS-B:
laser trigger and phase modulator
Power supply (rear panel): redundant
Front Panel Indicators
Power LED indicator (red: on)
Quantum Link LED indicator (green: quantum channel active)
Data LED indicator (green: raw key exchange in progress)
Key Exchange
Maximum transmission range:
Secret key rate (id3100 Clavis2):
Secret key rate (id3110 Clavis2):
> 50 km
> 500 bps over 25 km
> 1000 bps over 25 km
Sifting and Key Distillation
Fully automated sifting and key distillation
Sifting for BB84 and SARG04 both supported
Linux Ubuntu distribution (supplied)
OTHER PRODUCTS
Optical Instrumentation
id100/id101/id150 – Single-photon detectors
(350-900nm)
id201
– Single-photon detector
(900-1700nm)
id300
– Short-pulse laser source
(1310 & 1550 nm)
id400
– Single-photon detector
(950-1100nm)
id3110 Clavis2
Network Encryption
Centauris – High-speed layer 2 encryptors
Cerberis
–
High-speed layer 2 encryptors with
quantum key distribution
OPTIONS
ORDERING INFORMATION
id3100 Clavis2
Random Number Generators
Quantis
– Quantum random number generators
quantum key distribution system,
with delay line of 12 kilometers
quantum key distribution system,
with delay line of 24 kilometers
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY NOTICE
This product is protected by US Patent No.
6,438,234. Other patents pending.
Warranty extension (after first year)
Services (installation, training, on-site and remote
support
Computers with Linux OS and Clavis2 software suite
installed
Optical fiber spools (various lenghts available)
Optical powermeter
High-speed encryptors (Centauris - more information
on www.idquantique.com)
Disclaimer
The information and specification set forth in this document are subject to change at any time by ID Quantique without prior notice.
Copyright© 2006-2010 ID Quantique SA - All rights reserved - Clavis2 v2.0 - Specifications as of January 2010
IID
D Quantique SA
Chemin
C
in de la Marbrerie 3
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
T +41 22 301 83 71
F +41 22 301 83 79
info@idquantique.com
www.idquantique.com
com
REDEFINING SECURITY
CYPHERMANAGER & CYPHERMONITOR
ENSURE NETWORK COMPLIANCE AND SECURITY
NETWORK ENCRYPTOR FLEET MANAGEMENT
AND MONITORING APPLICATIONS
ID Quantique's software platform, incorporating CypherManager and CypherMonitor applications,
provides a complete solution for the management and monitoring of a corporation's network encryptor fleet.
Best-practice policies for network encryption are defined by the security team in accordance with the
corporation's risk management framework. These policies are executed by the network team through
CypherManager, which facilitates easy configuration and management of local and remote encryptors. The
status of policies and encryption events can then be verified and controlled by the security team via
CypherMonitor for audit controls or to check the compliance gap.
CYPHERMANAGER
IDQ's CypherManager provides easy configuration and management via an intuitive and simple-to-use
GUI. It provides the granularity and flexibility required to manage the entire range of IDQ encryptors,
scaling from point-to-point data center to global WAN encryption. In addition it acts as the Certificate
Authority for the encryptor network by signing and distributing X.509 certificates.
CypherManager provides inband and out-of-band management secured by SNMPv3. It supports advanced
networking features, such as encryptor autodiscovery, port auto-negotiation, encryptor group management
and remote configuration & upgrade, as well as advanced diagnostic tools. It supports different encryption
policies (Encrypt, Discard, Bypass) which can be applied to different protocols (ethertypes) separately for
unicast, multicast & broadcast traffic. Encryptors can also be managed via a front panel interface. This is an
RS232 port that provides a Command Line Interface supporting a range of commands.
Security
CYPHERMONITOR
&
CYPHERMANAGER
Network
ID Quantique SA
Chemin de la Marbrerie 3
CYPHERMANAGER
Advanced management of local & remote encryptors
Efficient, flexible & intuitive GUI and real-time display
Advanced security features, including role-based
access control
Diagnostics & troubleshooting
Supports advanced networking features
CYPHERMONITOR
Ensures alignment of network with security processes
Real-time alerts on process and security breaches
Pro-active configurable reporting for audit and
compliance overview
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
T +41 22 301 83 71
F +41 22 301 83 79
info@idquantique.com
www.idquantique.com
REDEFINING SECURITY
CYPHERMANAGER & CYPHERMONITOR
Importantly the Cyphermanager tool also supports Role-Based Access Control to ensure best practice
separation of duties – for example the Network team would typically be assigned Supervisor role, with all the
rights to ensure network availability. However the Crypto officer from the security team would retain the
Administrator role with the sole right to manage the crypto keys or load new certificates to create a trusted
network. All actions, alarms and events are recorded, with only the Administrator role having sufficient
privilege level to delete the log files.
CYPHERMONITOR Powered by NetGuardians
CypherMonitor is designed for Security Managers who require transparency and control over the entire
encryptor fleet to ensure the ongoing implementation of security policies. CypherMonitor offers the
capability for real-time alerts via e-mail or mobile phone, and regular pro-active reporting. Alerts can be
configured based on violations of security policies or breaches, such as unsuccessful attempts to access
the encryptor via the Command Line Interface, or changes to the encryptor policy if the encryptors are set to
Bypass mode. In addition regular reporting based on configurable parameters provides security managers
a comprehensive and fully automated overview of the different encryptor events, alarms and operations in a
single clear document. This allows scheduled and timely interventions where necessary, such as the
renewal of certificates prior to expiry. In addition the reports provide regular and verifiable status updates
on key compliance parameters for audits or for forensic analysis.
CypherMonitor is powered by NetGuardians and can be upgraded to monitor the entire network link,
including
g switches, routers or multiplexers.
p
Disclaimer
The information and specification set forth in this document are subject to change at any time by ID Quantique without prior notice.
Copyright© 2007-2011 ID Quantique SA - All rights reserved - CypherManager & CypherMonitor v1 - Specifications as of July 2011
ID Quantique SA
Chemin de la Marbrerie 3
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
T +41 22 301 83 71
F +41 22 301 83 79
info@idquantique.com
www.idquantique.com
REDEFINING RANDOMNESS
QUANTIS
WHEN RANDOM NUMBERS CANNOT BE LEFT TO CHANCE
TRUE RANDOM NUMBER GENERATOR
BASED ON QUANTUM PHYSICS
Although random numbers are required in many applications, their generation is often overlooked.
Being deterministic, computers are not capable of producing random numbers. A physical source of
randomness is necessary.
Quantum physics being intrinsically random, it is natural to exploit a quantum process for such a
source. Quantum random number generators have the advantage over conventional randomness
sources of being invulnerable to environmental perturbations and of allowing live status verification.
Quantis is a physical random number generator exploiting an elementary quantum optics process.
Photons - light particles - are sent one by one onto a semi-transparent mirror and detected. The
exclusive events (reflection - transmission) are associated to "0" - "1" bit values. The operation of
Quantis is continuously monitored. If a failure is detected the random bit stream is immediately
disabled.
Quantis is available as a PCI and PCI Express card, as well as a USB device and integrates easily
in existing applications. It is compatible with the most commonly used operating systems. A library
which allows easy access and a demonstration application are provided.
METAS
Tested and certified by METAS
Swiss Federal Office of Metrology
USB
PCI Express (PCIe)
APPLICATIONS
PCI
MAIN FEATURES
Cryptography
True quantum randomness
Gambling, lotteries
Certified by Swiss National Laboratory
Secure printing
Passes NIST and Diehard randomness tests
PIN number generation
High bit rate up to 16 Mbits/s
Mobile prepaid system
Low cost
Statistical research
Compact and reliable
Numerical simulations
Continuous status check
Easy integration in applications
ID Quantique SA
Chemin de la Marbrerie 3
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
T +41 22 301 83 71
F +41 22 301 83 79
info@idquantique.com
www.idquantique.com
REDEFINING RANDOMNESS
QUANTIS PCI CARD
167.6mm
167.6mm
106.7mm
106.7mm
Quantis-PCI-1 (4Mbits/s)
Quantis-PCI-4 (16Mbits/s)
GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS
Random bit rate
Thermal noise contribution
Storage temperature
Dimensions
PCI local bus specification
Requirements
4 Mbit/s ± 10% (Quantis-PCI-1)
16 Mbit/s ± 10% (Quantis-PCI-4)
< 1% (Fraction of random bits arising from thermal noise)
-25 to +85°C
167.6 mm x 106.7 mm
2.2
IBM-compatible PC with available PCI slot
QUANTIS PCI EXPRESS (PCIe) CARD
120.0mm
64.4mm
Quantis-PCIe-4M (4Mbits/s)
Quantis-PCIe-4M (4Mbits/s)
GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS
Random bit rate
Thermal noise contribution
Storage temperature
Dimensions
PCI Express specification
Requirements
4 Mbit/s ± 10% (Quantis-PCIe-4M)
< 1% (Fraction of random bits arising from thermal noise)
-25 to +85°C
120 mm x 64.4 mm
(supplied with low profile and standard height brackets)
PCI Express Base 1.0a compliant
IBM-compatible PC with available PCI Express slot
ID Quantique SA
Chemin de la Marbrerie 3
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
T +41 22 301 83 71
F +41 22 301 83 79
info@idquantique.com
www.idquantique.com
REDEFINING RANDOMNESS
QUANTIS USB DEVICE
114.0mm
61.0mm
Quantis
TM
Quantum Random
Number Generator
61.0mm
31.0mm
Model n°:
Serial n°:
Quantis USB
090615A410
www.idquantique.com
Made in Switzerland
GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS
4 Mbit/s ± 10% (Quantis-USB-4M)
< 1% (Fraction of random bits arising from thermal noise)
-25 to +85°C
61mm x 31mm x 114mm
2.0
IBM-compatible PC with available USB connector
via USB port
Random bit rate
Thermal noise contribution
Storage temperature
Dimensions
USB specification
Requirements
Power
SUPPORTED OPERATING SYSTEMS
Quantis software (drivers, Quantis library and application)
available for the following operating systems:
PCI1 / PCIe2
Windows XP (32-bit)
Windows XP (64-bit)
Windows Server 2003 (32-bit)
Windows Vista (32-, 64-bit)
Windows Server 2008 (32-, 64-bit)
Windows 7 (32-, 64-bit)
Linux 2.6 (32-, 64-bit)
Solaris / OpenSolaris
FreeBSD
NetBSD
OpenBSD
Max OS X
ID Quantique SA
Chemin de la Marbrerie 3
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
USB3
RANDOMNESS CERTIFICATION
METAS
Tested and certified by METAS
Swiss Federal Office of Metrology
ü
ü
û
û
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
üNotes:
1 : Quantis-PCI-1, Quantis-PCI-4
ü
ü23 :: Quantis-PCIe-4M
Quantis-USB-4M
support for PCI/PCIe from FreeBSD 7.0
ü
ü45 :: FreeBSD
FreeBSD support for USB from FreeBSD 8.1
6 : Available subsequently. Contact IDQ for more
û
û information
ü
ü
û
û
û
û
û
ü
6
6
4
5
6
6
6
6
6
T +41 22 301 83 71
F +41 22 301 83 79
info@idquantique.com
www.idquantique.com
REDEFINING RANDOMNESS
SOFTWARE
EasyQuantis Application
Quantis comes with a truly invaluable cross
operating system application called EasyQuantis
allowing to read random numbers, which can be
stored in a file or displayed.
Random number can be generated in the
following formats:
Binary
Integers
Floating point
The application including a scaling functionality
and can be used to access multiple Quantis
generators.
Quantis Library
The Quantis library can be used to access the Quantis Quantum Random Number
Generator. The library API is identical for the PCI, PCIe and USB library and is
available on all supported operating systems.
The library offers the possiblity to produce random binary data, integers and floating point numbers. It
can be used to access multiple Quantis generators and includes advanced functionalities such as
random data scaling.
Library Wrappers
Wrappers, allowing to access the Quantis library, as well as sample
source code are provided for the following programming languages:
C++
C#
Java
VB.NET
ORDERING INFORMATION
Quantis-PCIe-4M
PCI Express card with 1 module generating a random bit stream of 4 Mbits/s
Quantis-USB-4M
USB device with 1 module generating a random bit stream of 4 Mbits/s
Quantis-PCI-1
PCI card with 1 module generating a random bit stream of 4 Mbits/s
Quantis-PCI-4
PCI card with 4 modules generating a random bit stream of 16 Mbits/s
RELATED PRODUCTS
Quantis-OEM-4M
OEM component generating a random stream of 4 Mbits/s
Disclaimer
The information and specification set forth in this document are subject to change at any time by ID Quantique without prior notice.
Copyright© 2006-2011 ID Quantique SA - All rights reserved - Quantis v4.1 - Specifications as of May 2011
ID Quantique SA
Chemin de la Marbrerie 3
1227 Carouge/Geneva
Switzerland
T +41 22 301 83 71
F +41 22 301 83 79
info@idquantique.com
www.idquantique.com