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A New Typology of Instructional Methods
Michael Molenda
Associate Professor
Indiana University
Gagne’s Original Construct
In the very last section of his book, Conditions of Learning, Gagne referred to the different types of instructional
environments as “modes” of instruction:
“Environments for learning consist of the various communication media arranged so as to perform their several
functions by interaction with the student. The particular arrangements these media may have in relation to the
student are usually called the modes of instruction.” (Gagne, 1965, p. 285)
He outlined six different modes of instruction being commonly used (Gagne, pp.285-294):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Tutoring: “interchange between a student and his tutor”
Lecture: “oral communication on the part of the teacher”
Recitation: “teacher ‘heard’ the students perform”
Discussion: “oral communication…between teacher and student…[and] interactions between students”
Laboratory: “a stimulus situation that brings the student into contact with actual objects and events”
Homework
self-instruction: “as [reading] a chapter in a textbook”
practice: “examples of previously learned principles”
projects: “organize a variety of activities for himself in such a way as to lead to the development of a product”
This construct of “modes” was repeated verbatim in the second edition of Conditions of Learning (Gagne, 1970), but it
disappeared from all subsequent editions.
Molenda’s Adaptation of Gagne
It seemed to me that Gagne was onto an important idea here—that you could classify the various instructional
arrangements according to the interaction pattern that characterized it. Gagne did not pursue this idea, but I took it one
step further, trying to be quite explicit about establishing categories and defining the communication patterns among
Teacher, Learner, and Resources (Molenda, 1972):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Tutorial: two-way interchange between tutor (Teacher) and tutee (Learner)
Lecture: one-way information flow from source (Teacher) to many receivers (Learners)
Discussion: two-way interchange among Learners
Laboratory: Learner acts on raw materials (Resources)
Independent study: Learner acts on encoded, instructional materials (Resources)
Practice: Learner uses new skill repeatedly (may be guided by Teacher)
This seemed to be a handy classification system—small and simple—that was fairly successful in providing “baskets”
into which you could place many of the instructional formats that one encounters in everyday teaching (See Table 1).
1
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Table 1. Modes and Formats
Modes
tutorial
lecture
discussion
laboratory
independent study
practice
Formats
apprenticeship
coaching: music lessons
mentoring
Socratic dialog
programmed tutoring
branching programmed instruction
adaptive computer-assisted instruction
oral presentation
overhead transparency presentation
PowerPoint presentation
film presentation
radio program
television program
telelecture
seminar
T-group
buzz group
debate
panel discussion
role-play
science experiment
social simulation
instructional game
field work: archeology, anthropology
case study
project
reading textbooks, modules, handouts
reading Web pages
reading Web “tutorials”
programmed instruction
linear computer-assisted instruction
watching video
memorization drill
language lab
athletic practice
drama rehearsal
end-of-chapter exercises
recitation
A theory that accompanies this typology is that what is important is the communication pattern; it provides certain
possibilities and imposes certain limits. Once you’ve chose the mode of instruction, the formats are pretty much
interchangeable. The particular manifestation of that communication pattern, the format, may bring logistical advantages
or disadvantages—textbooks might be more readily available than Web pages for some audiences—but it’s
communication pattern that carries the pedagogical power…and limitations. We had learned this with a vengeance in the
hundreds of media studies comparing film and video presentations to live lectures. A given message will have essentially
the same learning effect whether it is delivered live, over television, or over 3-D holographs. Choices made for logistical
considerations—time and money—can be crucial decisions, but they don’t directly affect the pedagogy.
Another theory associated with this typology is that certain modes lend themselves to different phases of the learning
Copyright
2005 The
Boardserve
of Regents
Universityinterest
of Wisconsin
process. For example, a laboratory
activity
might
well of
tothe
stimulate
and System.
provoke questions about a new
Duplication or redistribution prohibited without written permission of the author(s)
topic. A lecture would be an efficient
to present
new information
to an audience
whose curiosity is aroused. A
and way
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Conference
on Distance Teaching
and Learning
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discussion can help learners digest new principles and apply them to their daily lives. Practice activities are often
assigned as homework in order to develop confidence and speed in application.
A Transitional Typology
Over the years, as new technologies and new instructional theories entered the stage the typology grew. In 1995, my
colleague, Charles Reigeluth, asked permission to put it into print in his book on instructional design theory (Reigeluth,
1999, p. 23). See Table 2.
The New Typology
Then came Distance Education. When my students and I began to study the pedagogical strategies of Web-based distance
courses, we quickly found that the 1999 version of the typology did not provide very adequate “baskets” for holding the
various activities that were most common in Web-based courses. This opened our eyes to the realization that “virtual”
courses employ lots and lots of learning strategies, but very few teaching strategies. So, in order to capture the teaching
and learning methods being employed, the typology must be expanded to include both the methods that the Teacher
controls and those that the Learner controls. This leads to the “new typology.” (See Table 3)
This typology is intended to portray the somewhat disorderly, asymmetrical picture of reality. The categories are not
neatly mutually exclusive; there are overlaps. Some constructs could be portrayed as separate methods or as subsets of
other methods. So, this is today’s view. The next step is to test these categories by attempting to apply them to real-world
observation of face-to-face and distance education courses. Will these “baskets” prove to be comprehensive,
distinguishable from each other, and practical? That’s the test ahead.
References
Gagne, R.M. (1965) The conditions of learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Gagne, R.M. (1970) The conditions of learning, 2nd edition. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Molenda, M. (1972) Instructional design basics. Unpublished lecture notes. Bloomington, IN.
Reigeluth, C. R. (1999) Instructional-design theories and models (Vol. II). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
3
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Table 2. Typology of Instructional Methods (1999)
Method
Visualization
Strengths
Efficient
Standardized
Structured
L
Lecture/Presentation
L
T
L
L
(Realistic
Showing)
T
Demonstration/Modeling
Eases comprehension,
application
L
L
Tutorial
Customized
Learner Responsible
L
T
T
T
T
Automatized
Mastery
Drill & Practice
LA
LA
T
Independent/Learner
Control
LA
Flexible implementation
Ri
L
Meaningful, realism,
owned, customized to
learner
L
Discussion, Seminar
L
T
L
Cooperative Group
Learning
LA
T
LA
LA
Ownership
Team-building
P
LA
Artificial rules
Games
LA
LA
Realistic Structure
Simulations
LA
LA
Context
Discovery
• Individual
• Group
T
4
LA
LA LA
LA
T
Problem Solving/Lab
Rr
LA
T
LA
LA
LA
High Transfer
High Motivation
Rr
High Level Thinking in
ill-structured problems
P
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Table 3. Molenda’s Typology of Instructional Methods (2002)
Teaching Methods
(teacher-controlled)
Learning Methods
(learner-controlled)
Presentation
(viewing, listening)
Active Reading
Reflection
Demonstration
(modeling—teacher,
peer)
Discussion
Tutorial
Expression
(verbal, action)
Construction
(non-verbal product)
Drill-and-Practice
(mental drill, memorization)
Discovery/Inquiry
Laboratory
Simulation
Game
5
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Biographical Sketch
Michael Molenda is an associate professor, Instructional Systems Technology (IST), Indiana University since 1972.
Coauthor of Instructional Media and Technologies for Learning, 7th ed. (Prentice-Hall, 2002) and of the chapter on
ATrends and Issues in Instructional Technology@ for Educational Media and Technology Yearbook, 1998 through 2002
editions. He teaches in the areas of instructional design, instructional technology foundations, and distance education.
Received PhD in Instructional Technology from Syracuse University, 1971
Address:
E-mail:
URL:
Phone:
6
Education 2234, Indiana University, Bloomington IN 47405
molenda@indiana.edu
http://www.indiana.edu/~mmweb98/index.html
812.856.8461
Copyright 2005 The Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System.
Duplication or redistribution prohibited without written permission of the author(s)
and The Annual Conference on Distance Teaching and Learning
http://www.uwex.edu/disted/conference/