PLANNING GUIDANCE FOR
MICRO-WIND TURBINES
MEPA Approved
May 2010
MEPA Approved May 2010
MALTA ENVIRONMENT AND PLANNING AUTHORITY
P.O. Box 200
Marsa GPO 01
Malta
Tel: (356) 2290 0000
Fax: (356) 2290 2295
e-mail: microwind@mepa.org.mt
website: http://www.mepa.org.mt
ISBN 978-99957-26-01-0
Planning Guidance for Micro-Wind Turbines
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MEPA Approved May 2010
pg
CONTENTS
1. Introduction
1
2. Background
3
International Context
Local Context
3. Purpose
7
4. Legislative Framework
8
Directive 2009/28/EC on the promotion of the use of energy produced from
renewable energy sources and amending and subsequently repealing Directives
2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC
5. Policy Context
9
A Proposal for an Energy Policy, 2009(Draft)
A Draft Renewable Energy Policy for Malta, 2006
Environmental Technologies Action Plan (Draft)
Structure Plan for the Maltese Islands 1990
Local Plans
6. Policy Proposals for Micro-Wind Turbines
12
Planning Issues
Economics of Micro Wind Turbines
Policies
Appendix 1
Economics of Micro-wind Turbines
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1.0
Introduction
1.1
The recognition of the undesirable effects caused by global warming and climate
change, resulting mainly from the combustion of fossil fuels, has highlighted the need
to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. A reduction of these emissions can be
achieved through the combination of strategies including reducing the need to use
energy, using it more efficiently and increasing the proportion of energy produced
from renewable energy sources (RES).
1.2
Improved energy performance through reduction of energy losses, can have a
significant impact on the demand for energy. Energy efficiency in buildings refers to
those measures that are integrated in the design of a building that would mitigate
against potential energy losses and thus reducing the demand for energy. These
initiatives may include insulation, double glazing, or the use of natural ventilation
systems.
1.3
Simultaneously, there needs to be a diversion from traditional means of energy
production using fossil fuels to cleaner sources of energy. Renewables are one such
source of energy. The term renewable energy encompasses those sources of energy
that are derived from sources that are inexhaustible unlike fossil fuels, of which there is
a finite supply. Renewable sources of energy include sunlight, wind, tidal and wave
action and geothermal heat.
1.4
This policy document focuses on wind energy as a source of renewable energy. RE
from wind energy can be generated through the development of large or medium
scale wind farms either on land or offshore with the capacity of each turbine varying
between 2 and 5MW, medium scale stand alone turbines with a generating capacity
between 20kW and 500kW and the smallest range of turbines, referred to as microwind turbines with a generating capacity of less than 20kW. This policy document will
be discussing and providing policy guidance on micro-wind turbines.
1.5
The following sections first outline the international and local background on the issues
related to renewable energy policy guidance after which they set the purpose of this
document. The existing legislation and policy frameworks with regards to renewable
energy sources are then assessed in sections 4 and 5 respectively. These sections are
followed by the proposals for policy guidance on micro-wind turbines.
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Plate 1 – On land wind farm
1.6
Plate 2 – Off shore wind farm
On the 21st of June 2009, MEPA gave notice that it intends to prepare these Planning
Guidance. A period of two weeks, up
to 6th of July 2009 was allowed for
individuals and organisations to make
representations. This was followed by
the publication of the draft guidance
which was subject to a six week
public consultation between the 31st
of
July
2009
and
the
11th
of
September 2009.
Plate 3 – Stand alone medium scale turbines can
contribute to national targets
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2.0
Background
International Context
2.1
One of the greatest environmental, social and economic threats our planet is facing is
climate change. The observed increase in global average air and ocean
temperature, the widespread melting of snow and ice and rising sea levels are a clear
indication that the climate system is warming up. It is estimated that over the past 100
years the mean temperature has globally increased by 0.76°C and 0.98°C in Europe. If
no action is taken during this century to combat global warming, best estimates
suggest that the temperature may globally climb a further 1.8°C to 4°C and between
2°C to 6.3°C in Europe. As a result, the predicted global warming is likely to be the
cause of catastrophic consequences for humans and other life forms. Coastal areas
and small islands will be affected by the likely increase in sea levels of between 18
and 59 cm and a greater frequency and severity of extreme weather events.
2.2
The burning of fossil fuels, agricultural and land use changes like deforestation and
wetland
drainage
are
the
main
human
activities that contribute to climate change.
These activities cause the increase in emission of
carbon
dioxide
(CO2)
and
other
GHGs,
together with the reduction in availability of
carbon sinks. GHGs are the main cause of
climate change through their accumulation in
the atmosphere. Global GHG emissions must be
reduced significantly if climate change is to be
halted, or at least be maintained at a rate that
would allow society, the world’s economy and
natural ecosystems to adapt to the changes
Plate 4 - Burning of fossil fuel contributes
to climate change
that will take place.
2.3
Over the past decades discussions both at international and national levels have
been held to formulate common approaches to environmental and energy policies.
The European Union (EU) has been one of the main motivators of this dialogue and
has played a key role in the development of the United Nations Convention on
Climate Change and its Kyoto Protocol, agreed in 1997. Since the early 1990’s the EU
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has also been taking serious measures to control GHG emissions from its Member
States. Furthermore, recently, there has been a strong recognition of the synergies
between climate change policy and energy policy.
Energy policy is crucial to
address the climate change problem, while climate change policy will itself promote
sustainable energy generation and end-use.
2.4
The EU, as a party to the Kyoto Protocol, has a reduction target of 8% of 1990
emissions to be achieved by the period 2008-2012. To ensure fulfilment of this overall
target, the then EU 15, in 1998, agreed upon a ‘burden-sharing’ agreement that sets
out specific targets for the 15 Member States. Following the EU enlargement in May
2004, those new Member States that are also Annex 1 parties to the Kyoto Protocol
and hence bound by its targets continue to abide by their Kyoto Protocol targets. It is
the EU’s commitment that any global warming should be limited to a maximum of 2°C
above pre-industrial levels. Beyond this limit, it is probable that climate change would
not be reversible.
2.5
In response to the need for controlling climate change, the EU provides for legislative
commitments with respect to energy production and savings. It currently establishes
the following indicative targets:
•
To source 12% of gross energy consumption from renewable energy sources by
2010,
•
To generate 22.1% of electricity from renewable sources by 2010;
•
To achieve 5.75% of biofuels of all petrol and diesel for transport placed on the
market by 2010; and
•
2.6
Increase energy savings to 9% during 2008-2017.
During the 2007 Spring European Council, the Heads of Government of all the EU
Member States agreed on the following new targets:
•
A firm, independent commitment to achieve at least 20% reduction of GHG
emissions by 2020 compared to 1990;
•
An EU objective of a 30% reduction in GHG emissions by 2020 compared to
1990 as its contribution to a global and comprehensive agreement for the
period beyond 2012, provided that other developed countries commit
themselves to comparable emission reductions and that economically more
advanced developing countries contribute adequately according to their
responsibilities and respective capabilities;
•
A binding target of a 20% share of renewable energies in overall EU energy
consumption by 2020.
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Local Context
2.7
During the last 50 years, slight climate changes were observed in Malta, with the
overall climate slowly becoming warmer and dryer. There has been a slight upward
trend in temperature (0.5°C increase in the last 77 years) and a slight downward trend
in rainfall (17% decrease in the last 50 years). It is envisaged that the mean
temperature will increase by a further 3°C and possibly rainfall could decrease by 17%
by 2100.
2.8
Impacts of climate change on the Maltese Islands are expected to be moderate,
mainly related to deterioration of water quality and supply, and more frequent
extreme weather events including heavy rainfall, severe heat waves and long periods
of drought. Impacts on the natural environment are expected to be moderately high,
with significant negative effects on coastal wetland areas, watercourses, and their
associated flora and fauna. Due to the small island geography and the dependency
on tourism and coastal uses, the economic vulnerability to climate change are
predicted to be moderate to moderately high.
2.9
Malta’s electricity generation, transport and heating depends 100% on imported fossil
fuels. The main users of the primary energy are the two power generation plants in
Delimara and Marsa, which account for 63% and transport which has a share of 31%.
The remaining 6% is consumed by other users. Economic growth, together with
ensuing improved standards of living, and other factors have brought about an
increase in energy demand from 284GWh in 1970 to 2,263GWh in 2005.
2.10
Locally, overall GHG emissions have increased by 44% between 1990 and 2003. The
main contributors to GHG emissions are the energy generation sector (that is the two
existing power generation plants) and the transport sector having a share of 63% and
20% respectively. The remaining 17% are accounted for by waste, agriculture,
industrial processes and fossil fuel use in the industrial, commercial and residential
sectors. An increase in CO2 emissions from the two power plants until 2007 had been
anticipated in the National Allocation Plan for Malta (required by the Emissions
Trading Scheme Directive 2003/87/EC) but these are expected to decrease following
2008 after the introduction of energy efficiency measures and RES.
2.11
To date, Malta retains the position of having no quantified GHG emission targets
under the Kyoto Protocol or the EU ‘burden sharing’ agreement of 2002. This situation
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could change following 2012 due to ongoing discussions, under the United Nations
Framework Convention to combat Climate Change, to achieve global agreement on
a new emission reduction regime for post 2012 and, at a European level, with a new
‘burden sharing’ agreement which may incorporate all EU Member States. Malta has
still taken on board the climate change related instruments through the acquis,
meaning they still require to be implemented similarly to other Member States, with
Malta being expected to give its share to the overall targets with which it has also
agreed. The European Commission expects that Malta undertakes similar emission
control commitments and is also requesting the reduction of about 27% CO2 emissions
from the two power plants over that proposed in the National Allocation Plan for
Malta for the period 2008-2012. The European Commission expects other reductions
from the introduction of energy efficiency and RES.
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3.0
Purpose
3.1
The purpose of this document is to provide guidance, within the renewable energy
policy framework, to MEPA when determining development applications and to
prospective applicants on the location, siting and design of roof mounted and tower
mounted micro-wind turbines with criteria to mitigate potential impacts on ecology,
visual impact and other possible causes of nuisance to surrounding receptors.
3.2
There are a number of research initiatives that are currently investigating the
integration of micro-wind turbines with street lighting infrastructure and as part of
street furniture. It is beyond the scope of this document to provide planning guidance
for the development of these forms of infrastructures as the research is still at its early
stages. Development applications for this infrastructure should be determined on a
case by case basis.
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4.0 Legislative Framework
Directive 2009/28/EC on the promotion of the use of energy produced from renewable
energy sources and amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and
2003/30/EC
4.1
This Directive has been published on the official journal of the European Commission
on the 5th June 2009. It has integrated Directive 2001/77/EC on the promotion of
electricity produced from renewable sources in the internal electricity market and
Directive 2003/30/EC on the promotion of the use of biofuels or other renewable fuels
for transport. This Directive establishes a common framework for the promotion of
energy from renewable sources. It sets mandatory national targets for the overall
share of energy from renewable sources in gross final consumption of energy and for
the share of energy from renewable sources in transport. Member states had until the
5th December 2009 to transpose the Directive.
4.2
The Directive sets an overall EU target of 20% share of energy from renewable sources
in final consumption of energy. Further, it requires member states to ensure that the
share of energy from renewables sources in all forms of transport to be at least 10% of
the final consumption of energy in transport. Both targets are to be achieved by the
year 2020. Malta’s mandatory national overall target was set at 10%.
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5.0
Policy Context
A Proposal for an Energy Policy 2009 (Draft)
5.1
The second policy area of the draft document is the reduction of reliance on
imported fuels and supports the development of renewable sources. It identifies wind,
solar photovoltaic (PV), solar thermal, biomass waste, landfill gas and sewage
treatment as the sources that have potential for further exploration. The policy makes
an emphasis on Government’s commitment to continue the development of a
strategy that will seek the promotion of RES to meet the established targets.
Plates 5 – Solar and wind renewable energy sources infrastructure
Plate 6 – Energy from waste treatment
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5.2
The policy document while acknowledging the potential constraints to onshore wind
farms identifies them as the most cost-effective feasible technology. It identifies
offshore wind farms as the second best technology option in terms of cost.
5.3
The policy document also indicates that micro-wind turbines offer potential for wind
exploitation on land. It acknowledges that there are barriers for the uptake of smallscale wind farms in urban areas because of planning constraints that are likely to
originate due to visual impacts on the Maltese townscapes as well as noise issues. The
document adds that a disadvantage of small turbines is that they have to be installed
in larger numbers to contribute a significant share of clean energy and thus the
cumulative impact could be high.
A Draft Renewable Energy Policy for Malta, 2006
5.4
As a response to the Directive 2001/77/EC and Legal Notice 186/04, Government
published A Draft Renewable Energy Policy for Malta in August 2006. The policy
document identifies wind, solar and biomass as sources of renewable energy that
have potential for further exploitation. Other sources including hydropower, biomass
(energy crops), and wave, tidal and geothermal were not deemed feasible for further
investigation for the time being. The policy document identifies micro-wind turbines
with a generation power capacity of up to 20 kW as a possible source that may
contribute in electricity generated from RES.
Environmental Technologies Action Plan (Draft)
5.5
Following the EU Commission communication to the Council and European
Parliament entitled “Stimulating Technologies for Sustainable Development: An
Environmental Technologies Action Plan for Europe (ETAP)”, each Member State was
required to prepare their National ETAP. The aim of the action plan is to harness the full
potential of environmental technologies and reduce pressure on the natural
resources, improve the quality of life of European citizens and stimulate economic
growth. The action plan sets out a series of measures to realize the potential of
untapped technologies for improving the environment while contributing to
competitiveness and growth.
5.6
A local draft was prepared by the Malta Council for Science and Technology and
amongst its proposals it recommends pilot projects on wind power generation to
better understand the benefits and possible impacts of the technology. The pilot
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projects suggested are for medium-scale and micro-scale wind energy technologies.
It also encourages the development of an offshore wind facility.
Structure Plan for the Maltese Islands 1990
5.7
The current Structure Plan has no policy directly related to renewable energy.
Local Plans
5.8
Two out of the seven approved local plans have specific policies related to RES. The
North West Local Plan (NWLP) promotes the production of energy from renewable
sources provided that they are of a scale sympathetic to the character and landform
of the North West area, are not located within a scheduled, designated or protected
area and any effect from noise, electromagnetic, or similar interference generated
by such developments is kept to a minimum.
5.9
The GCLP recognises that there is no scope for large-scale renewable energy
generation in Gozo or Comino and has a presumption against large-scale wind
generating facilities. The Plan suggests the favorable consideration of offshore wind
energy power production provided regard is given to marine safety and traffic and
that they are located at least 100m away from the shoreline. The Local Plan also
proposes the use of large surfaces on permitted buildings in areas earmarked for
industry for the generation of power from solar energy.
5.10
The GCLP notes that there is scope for small-scale wind powered energy for intensive
agriculture, animal husbandry and other intensive farming related uses subject to the
following provisions:
•
Restrict the likely visual impact arising from such interventions;
•
The mast upon which the rotor is mounted should not be higher than 6m
above the highest accessible surface of the farm building;
•
The rotor diameter should not exceed 4 m; and
•
Allows for only one wind generator per farm.
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6.0
Policy Proposals for Micro-Wind Turbines
6.1
The benefits derived from micro renewable wind energy sources are:
•
Environmental benefits; through the reduction of fossil fuel derived energy and
associated reductions in carbon emissions and the eventual improved air
quality, and
•
Economic benefits; their development will create jobs related to their
installation and maintenance, and financial income due to supplying energy
to the grid as well as reduce the national bill for supply of fossil fuels.
6.2
However, if they are not properly located, professionally installed and maintained
they can be a cause of visual impact and nuisance to surrounding receptors, as well
as a significant negative impact on populations of species such as birds and bats.
Currently, the installation of micro-wind turbines is still expensive and thus
consideration to the better siting of the turbine is essential to ensure that the maximum
benefits are derived.
6.3
The objectives of the policy direction for micro-wind turbines are:
•
To guide the siting of the turbines towards locations where possible amenity
impacts can be mitigated;
•
To guide the siting of the turbines towards locations where the benefits from
the technology can be maximized; and
•
To restrict their development in sensitive locations including habitats of
sensitive species, visually sensitive landscapes, townscapes and buildings of
architectural/historical importance and noise sensitive receptors.
Planning Issues
Siting
6.4
Sensitive siting may play an effective role in reducing visual impacts and improve the
general perception related to the technology and thus making it more acceptable to
the public. Ideally turbines are located high up to take advantage of the prevailing
winds. Consideration needs to be given so that a roof mounted turbine does not
detract from the architectural integrity of the building, especially if the building has
conservation value. Preferably such turbines should be located at the rear of a
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property. Tower mounted turbines can be located in the curtilage of existing buildings
so that the building itself and the on site landscaping can mitigate against potential
visual impacts. The grounds of historic buildings are, in most cases, as valuable as the
built structure itself and contribute towards their conservation value. Tower mounted
turbines would not integrate easily in these contexts.
Plate 7- Roof mounted micro-wind turbines
Plate 8 – Tower mounted micro-wind turbines
Ecology
6.5
Areas such as Special Protection Areas (SPA), Bird Sanctuaries, migratory flyways and
roost sites important for birds, particularly migratory birds of prey and seabirds, should
be avoided as much as possible. Collisions between birds and micro-wind turbines are
possible and may have a significant negative effect on populations in combination
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with other disturbances. If the site selected is within or close to an SPA, Bird Sanctuary
migratory flyway and roost site, the potential impact on birds will be a determining
factor on the installation of a wind-turbine.
6.6
Sites close to known important bat sites, including agricultural land (which is often
used by foraging bats) should also be avoided. Impacts on bats result from direct
collisions of migrating individuals, as well as a loss of habitat and foraging grounds due
to the bats avoiding areas with wind turbines.
6.7
Any wind-turbine in areas Outside the Development Zone (ODZ) requires the
identification of potential impacts on birds and bats. Prospective applicants are
encouraged to consult the Ecosystems Management Unit of the Environment
Protection Directorate (EPD) of MEPA prior to the submission of an application. The
EPD will still need to be consulted during the processing of the application to obtain
guidance on any potential impacts of the wind turbines on birds and bats and any
studies and mitigation measures if necessary.
Visual Impact
6.8
The visual impact of micro-wind turbines depends on the height and siting of the
turbine. The height of the mast is dependant on the blade size and the wind regime.
The colour and finish of the wind turbine needs also to be taken in consideration and
should be appropriate to the surroundings to minimise visual impact and reflection of
light.
6.9
A roof mounted turbine is generally located on the highest roof levels. In order to
reduce visual impact, the micro-wind turbine is not to exceed an overall height of 5m
above the roof level at the point of installation. This height could easily accommodate
a typical rotor diameter of 2.5 m with a peak generating capacity of around 1.5kW. In
an urban setting, siting should preferably be at the back elevation of a building to
minimise visual impacts from street level but care needs to be taken when back
elevations are also visible from frequently accessed public recreational spaces.
6.10
Tower mounted turbines should be sited within the grounds of existing buildings and
their height should relate to the existing building/s on site and the surrounding
landscape. Possibly the height of the turbine should relate to the height of existing
vertical elements such as trees and buildings, etc. Different locations may require
different turbine heights but in any case the overall height should never exceed 20 m
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(maximum rotor diameter 9m). These dimensions would accommodate a micro-wind
turbine with a generating capacity of 15 kW.
6.11
The adoption of different colour schemes for micro wind turbines as a mitigation
measure against visual impact depends on the vantage point from which such a
machine is seen. Within most environments, pastel colours particularly light nonreflective gray (e.g. Natural Colour System reference S 3502-Y) is a relatively safe
neutral colour which is highly adaptable to most lighting and weather conditions.
Bright or dark colours as well as black or white should be avoided as these tend to
stand out more.
Noise
6.12
The latest designs of micro-wind turbines have greatly reduced noise levels by
improvements in blade design and reduction in mechanical noise. However, this is
highly dependant on proper installation and maintenance of the turbine. These
modern turbines are easier to control and can also be shut down in high wind speeds.
Electromagnetic Interference
6.13
A micro–wind turbine is an electrical device, which may produce electromagnetic
interference. It is unlikely that this would be a significant issue. The small diameter of
the rotor will greatly reduce the potential effects on television, radio and mobile
reception as well as fixed radio/microwave communication links. They are also unlikely
to have any impacts on aviation and associated radar navigation systems. It is
important that the Malta Communications Authority is consulted to ascertain that no
electromagnetic interference will result from a turbine on a specific site.
Shadow Flicker
6.14
The small diameter and the appropriate siting of micro-wind turbines greatly reduce
potential of shadow flicker from occurring. In the majority of cases shadow flicker is
not expected to be a concern.
Vibration
6.15
All roof-mounted systems will transmit some form of energy i.e. vibration, to their
support system. Good design will seek to minimise the intensity of the vibration source
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and limit the transmission of the vibration of the structure. Anti-vibration mounts are
usually used to mount turbines to the structure.
Cumulative Effect
6.16
The potential visual and amenity impacts are likely to be greater when micro-wind
turbines are located in the vicinity of each other. This issue is significant for roof
mounted micro-wind turbines when located in densely developed urban areas. The
issue is also of concern for tower mounted turbines. The location of more than one
turbine on any particular site needs to be assessed more rigorously.
Visual Distraction
6.17
Visual distraction to road users particularly vehicle drivers needs to be taken into
consideration. However, it is unlikely that micro-wind turbines will cause visual
distraction to road users particularly due to their siting.
Location
6.18
The issues discussed above suggest that the social impacts related to micro-wind
turbines may not be significant. However they can be potentially high on populations
of species such as birds and bats. It should be noted that these conclusions are based
on foreign literature and no studies that assess any of these issues have been carried
out locally. Thus it is not known if any of these potential impacts will be of a concern,
although a number of installed turbines did generate neighbour concerns on visual
and noise impacts.
6.19
A precautionary approach towards locating micro-wind turbines both roof mounted
and tower mounted in the urban environment needs to be adopted. MEPA will
encourage the carrying out of studies, through pilot projects that assess the potential
impacts, particularly visual impact, noise, and vibration of this infrastructure on
residential buildings and townscapes.
6.20
In the interim period to the carrying out of the required studies, the development of
micro-wind turbines should be directed towards industrial areas and suitable locations
outside the development zone as a primary mitigation against noise disturbance and
in such locations, their overall height should be limited to 5m (roof-mounted) and 20m
(tower mounted) as a primary mitigation against visual intrusion.
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Micro Wind Turbines in Industrial Areas
6.21
Industrial areas can be found within the main urban areas such as Marsa and Mriehel
industrial estates, but a number are located at a considerable distance from urban
areas such as Hal-Far and Naxxar T’ Alla w Ommu. There is scope for the development
of micro-wind turbines both roof mounted and tower mounted within industrial zones.
These areas do not include a residential component and are not sensitive to noise
generation. Visual impact is not expected to be a significant issue as they normally
include bulky buildings in terms of height and volume, with a regular design and laid
out on larger sites.
6.22
However when wind turbines are located in those parts of industrial areas which are
also in close proximity to residential areas, due regard needs to be given to potential
amenity impacts. Mitigation measures may be adequate to safeguard residential
amenity but there may be instances where specific sites within the industrial zones are
not suitable.
6.23
Industrial zones include MIP and Non MIP managed industrial areas, SMEs Micro
Enterprise Sites, Areas of Containment and other industrial designations as identified in
the approved Local Plans.
Micro Wind Turbines in ODZ Locations
6.24
Noise disturbance and visual impacts are not expected to be significant when this
infrastructure is in ODZ locations and away from residential areas as buildings in these
locations are more dispersed and sensitive receptors will be far less than in urban
areas. The noise impact on neighbouring residents from micro wind turbines in the
curtilages or on the roof of a cluster of detached dwellings or on the roof of terraced
dwellings, in rural settlements are still considered as an adverse impact and should not
be permitted. As a mitigation measure against visual intrusion, not all buildings that
are located ODZ can be considered suitable for the development of micro-wind
turbines. Roof mounted micro-wind turbines will be considered on individual large
buildings and on a terrace of buildings or a cluster of detached buildings which
together form a large built mass. Tower mounted micro-wind turbines will be
considered in the curtilage of large buildings that are surrounded by large grounds.
6.25
For the purpose of this document, a “large building” or a “large built mass” is
characterised either by its height in relation to the height of the turbine or by its large
roof area that would mitigate against visual impacts from a roof mounted micro-wind
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turbine, from street levels, as the turbine can be setback considerably from the visible
edges of the building/s.
6.26
“Large grounds” refers to areas immediately adjoining the existing building, directly
related to the activity occurring in the main building and are an integral part of the
overall character of the property. The large grounds surrounding a large building,
particularly if they are landscaped, together with the building itself can screen the
mast of a tower mounted micro-wind turbine, thus minimising visual impacts.
6.27
Examples of large buildings/ large buildings surrounded by large grounds ODZ are
hospitals (Mater Dei, St. Vincent de Paul, and Mount Carmel), schools (San Anton, St.
Michael’s, St. Dorothy’s), hotels, infrastructure facilities (power station, waste treatment
sites, RO plants), animal husbandry farms, industrial buildings, etc.
Economics of Micro-wind Turbines
6.28
The wind regime is the main factor that determines the economic viability of a microwind turbine. Areas on high grounds which are exposed to the prevailing winds are
usually characterised by a better wind resource. Turbines also need to have a clear
exposure, free from turbulence from buildings and large trees.
6.29
Other factors that determine the output of a turbine are the rotor swept area (the
area of the circle delineated by the wind generator’s rotating blades), turbine
reliability and the efficiency to convert wind energy to electricity. The feed-in tariff
and availability of financial incentives combined with the output determine the
economic feasibility of the turbine.
6.30
It is advisable that applicants take into consideration the above mentioned factors
before making the decision to install a micro-wind turbine. Prospective applicants are
urged to refer to Appendix 1 of this document for further details on the economics of
micro-wind turbines and examples of how the annual energy yield and the cost of
generating electricity from micro-wind turbines, can be calculated.
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Policies
Roof Mounted Micro-wind Turbines
MEPA will favourably consider proposals for the provision of roof mounted micro-wind
turbines in industrial areas (MIP and Non MIP managed industrial areas, SMEs Micro
Enterprise sites, Areas of Containment and other industrial designations as identified in
the approved Local Plans) and outside development zone locations only, provided
that:
(a) When located in industrial areas the overall height of the wind turbine does not
exceed 20 m when measured from the ground and when located ODZ the overall
height of the wind turbine does not exceed 5 m when measured from roof level at the
point of installation;
(b) They are not located on roofs of scheduled/listed buildings and on any property
within a buffer of 30m of such buildings, or on military buildings of historic or
architectural merit;
(c) When proposed ODZ, are located over roofs of legally permitted large buildings
whereby any potential visual impacts can be minimised by the massing, height and
composition of the buildings and the extent of the large roof area;
(d) They are not expected to have a significant negative impact on bird populations
(migratory or resident) or bat populations;
(e) The rotor and support mast should be finished in a colour that would render them
less conspicuous in the surrounding environment;
(f) They include adequate measures to minimise any amenity impacts including noise,
electromagnetic interference, shadow flicker and vibrations;
(g) Comply with any Malta Resource Authority requirements and regulations.
For proposals which include more than one roof mounted wind turbine or proposals on
sites where a roof turbine already exists, MEPA will adopt a stricter approach to the
application of criteria (c) to (f) above to ensure that cumulative impacts from multiple
roof turbines are minimised.
Furthermore, MEPA may favorably consider roof mounted micro-wind turbines in
urban areas (within the development zone) for research purposes by a reputable
organisation provided that they are not located on roofs of scheduled/listed buildings
and on any property within a buffer of 30m of such buildings, or on military buildings of
historic or architectural merit. As part of the processing of the development
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applications, MEPA will require the submission of an acceptable research programme
with clear objectives, phasing and funding.
Tower Mounted Micro-wind Turbines
MEPA will favourably consider proposals for the provision of tower mounted microwind turbines which do not exceed an overall height of 20 m, in industrial areas (MIP
and Non MIP managed industrial areas, SMEs Micro Enterprise sites, Areas of
Containment and other industrial designations as identified in the approved Local
Plans) and outside development zone locations only, provided that they:
(a) Are not in the curtilage of scheduled/listed buildings and of any property within a
buffer of 30m of such buildings, or of military buildings of historic or architectural merit;
(b) Are in the curtilage of legally permitted large buildings surrounded by large
grounds whereby any potential visual and noise impacts can be minimised by:
(i) the composition of the buildings;
(ii) the extent of the large grounds and landscaping surrounding the building; and
(iii) the separation distance from any potential receptor.
(c) They are not expected to have a significant negative impact on bird populations
(migratory or resident) or bat populations;
(d) The rotor and support mast should be finished in a colour that would render them
less conspicuous in the surrounding environment;
(e)
Include
measures
to
minimise
any
amenity
impacts
including
noise,
electromagnetic interference, shadow flicker and vibrations;
(f) Comply with any Malta Resource Authority requirements and regulations.
MEPA will not favorably consider proposals which include more than one tower
mounted wind turbine or proposals on sites where a tower mounted turbine already
exists unless the applicant demonstrates, through appropriate studies, that cumulative
visual and amenity impacts from multiple tower mounted turbines are minimised.
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Appendix 1
Economics of Micro-wind Turbines
The cost of electricity from micro-wind turbines – defined as wind turbines rated at up to 20
kilowatt (kW) - depends mainly on the following parameters:
• initial capital cost, which includes also the cost of installation and
decommissioning;
• energy yield;
• maintenance costs;
• lifetime of the system.
The output of any wind turbine depends, to a large extent, on four main factors: wind
resource, rotor swept area, overall system reliability and total power conversion efficiency
from wind energy to electricity.
A better wind resource will enable the wind machine to generate more electricity and this
results in a larger return on investment. Micro-wind turbines are normally installed at low
heights above the ground. Also, they are installed in diverse locations including built-up
environments. Wind conditions for such installations are not necessarily favourable for
efficient electricity production and are generally inferior to those experienced by large-scale
wind turbines installed on high towers in exposed and unobstructed environments.
The wind resource is generally better in areas which are at a higher elevation above sea level
and exposed to the prevailing winds. The wind resource at a particular site is normally
characterised by the annual mean wind speed at the rotor average height, or hub height.
Annual mean wind speeds in open rural and industrial sites, in the Maltese Islands, are
typically in the range of 3 to 6.5 metres per second (m/s). In the built-up environment, the
annual mean wind speeds will be less. In some built-up areas, the mean wind speeds may be
even lower than 3 m/s as the presence of buildings and other obstacles affects the wind flow.
Wind turbulence in such areas is expected to be high.
Figures 1, 2 and 3 show indicative values for the expected annual energy output (AEO) - or
annual energy yield in kilowatt hours (kWh), for horizontal and vertical-axis micro-wind
turbines operating in unobstructed environments over a range of wind speeds. The values
shown in the figures have been computed based upon manufacturer’s power curves and
adjusted for representative wind climates. It should be noted that there exists a wide variety
of micro-wind turbine designs on the market and their performance characteristics vary
considerably from turbine to turbine.
It is highly recommended that, prior to the installation of a wind turbine system, a proper
assessment of the wind conditions at the site of interest be undertaken, together with an
evaluation of the specific turbine operating characteristics.
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Figure 1 – Indicative estimates for the Annual Energy Yield (AEO) for horizontal-axis
micro-wind turbines in the 1 to 2.5 kilowatt (kW) range
Figure 2 – Indicative estimates for the Annual Energy Yield (AEO) for horizontal-axis
micro-wind turbines in the 5 to 20 kilowatt (kW) range
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Figure 3 – Indicative estimates for the Annual Energy Yield (AEO) for vertical-axis
micro-wind turbines
The levelised cost of electricity is one parameter used to assess the economics of systems
generating electrical power. It takes into consideration all costs incurred over the entire
lifetime of the system, including the capital expenditure, cost of capital and operating and
maintenance (O&M) costs.
Table 1 below shows the indicative levelised cost of electricity generated from micro-wind
turbines. The costs were computed with the following assumptions:
• a wind turbine lifetime of 20 years
• an annual discount rate of 3%
• operating and maintenance costs are ignored
The costs in Table 1 are expressed for different capital expenditure (CAPEX) and annual
energy yields per kilowatt of wind turbine installed capacity. Tables 2 and 3 are similar, but
account for maintenance costs that are assumed to be 5 €cents and 10 €cents per kilowatt
hour generated respectively.
The following is an example explaining the use of Tables 1, 2 and 3 to derive the levelised
costs of electricity for a particular wind turbine system:
Example
Consider a 2.5 kilowatt (kW) wind turbine which has a capital cost of € 10,000. Now, suppose
the system will be installed at a site where it will generate 5000 kilowatt hours per annum. To
be able to establish the levelised costs of electricity with the assumptions listed above, the
following steps should be followed:
Step 1:
Divide the capital cost by the wind turbine capacity (or rating):
Thus:
Capital cost per kilowatt
Step 2:
= 10,000/2.5
= 4000 €/kilowatt
Divide the annual energy yield (AEO) by the wind turbine capacity:
So that:
Annual energy yield per kilowatt
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= 2000 kWh/kilowatt
Step 3:
Now, from Table 1:
For a capital cost of 4000 €/kilowatt and an annual energy yield of 2000
kWh/kilowatt, the levelised cost of electricity is 13.4 €cents/kilowatt hour.
For the same situation but using Tables 2 and 3 (which account for
maintenance costs), this would result in 18.4 €cents/kilowatt hour and 23.4
€cents/kilowatt hour respectively.
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