Advanced Fire Fighting at Sea
ADVANCED FIRE FIGHTING AT SEA
Contents
Rules of behaviour
Preface
Extinguishing agents
Fire spread
Breathing apparatus
Preventie
Functional leadership
Tactics
Dangerous goods
Liason with shore services
Fire investigation
Offshore supplement
Bibliography
First edition © 2002 Maritime Trainingcentre B.V.
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student accepts full responsibility for any actions brought into practise.
ISBN 90-804788-2-2
Geproduceerd door / produced by: Computer Aided Presentations, Heenvliet, The Netherlands.
Extinguishing agents
FIRE FIGHTING AGENTS
The fire fighting principle is based on disturbing
the fire process.
This is possible by breaking down one of the
elements of the fire triangle:
z By stopping the flow of air (oxygen) to the
fire. The fire will suffocate.
z Without fuel supply the fire process cannot be
sustained.
z When the fire cools down the fire process
will eventually stop.
Due to the lack of energy there will be no
combustible gasses escaping to burn.
Instead of physically separating fuel and oxygen,
the fire process can also be stopped by disturbing
the chemical reaction between these
components.
Certain chemical products have the ability to mix
with the fire reaction in such a way that flames are
broken down.
This reaction is called a catalytic process
During fire fighting there is often a combination of
several extinguishing principles working.
Due to these principles, the mixture of the fire
process is disturbed in several ways thus
extinguishing the fire.
The following fire fighting agents are common:
z Water
z High pressure water system (i.e. Hi-fog)
z Foam
z Powder
z Carbon dioxide (CO2)
z Halon
z FM200
Use of water
Water is usually present in large quantities.
Water is relatively easy to use.
Due to its high capacity as a thermal conductor,
water has a high cooling effect.
Another positive side effect is the formation of
steam during extinguishing that has a suffocating
effect on the fire.
Water is a very good extinguishing agent on so
called solid fires. (Class A)
The cooling down limits or stops the discharge of
gasses from the fuel so the fire process will
eventually stop all together.
Extinguishing agents
The amount of water necessary to put out a fire is
approx. 4 l/min/m2.
To extinguish a Class A fire usually a spray type
nozzle will have a large enough effect to get the
highest cooling effect.
On liquids with a flashpoint > 29° C. water can be
used as extinguishing agent because the cooling
effect stops the discharge of gasses from the
product.
On liquids with a flashpoint < 23° C. water cannot
put out the fire.
The radiation of the flames can be limited however
by using a spray nozzle.
When extinguishing a fire one has take into account
the difference between soluble and non-soluble
liquids. With soluble liquids the water will mix with
the liquid and therefore cooling down is possible.
In the case of non-soluble liquids the product will
float on the water possibly creating a larger fire with
an unwanted spread of the liquid and as a result an
uncontrolled spreading of the fire.
In case of products with a storage temperature of
> 100° C. we should be careful with the use of
water because it will directly turn into steam.
Cooling
When fighting fires in process installations the
main priority will be cooling the adjacent
structures around the fire.
By cooling down the adjacent structures we can
prevent that heat radiation will not weaken the
integrity of the installation. It also prevents other
objects from catching fire and/or exploding.
High pressure water system
The high pressure water system is used as a
fixed fire fighting system or portable fire fighting
system on board ships. This fixed system is
recommended for HSC (high speed craft).
The system can be seen as a replacement for
other fixed systems, such as CO2 and Halon.
The system works with pressures of 40 - 200 bars.
Advantages of the high pressure water system are:
Large cooling effect
Limited amount of water needed (stability)
Lesser water damage
No harm to electrical equipment
(non conductible)
z Not a health hazard
z
z
z
z
Extinguishing agents
Disadvantages of the system are:
z Limited reach
z Relatively expensive
z Nozzle of portable system is extremely
dangerous
Foam
Foam consists of three elements:
z Water
z Foam producing agent (fpa)
z Air
The fpa percentage of foam indicates the amount
of foam producing agent needs to be added to
water to get a foam solution.
The percentage varies from 1% to 6%.
Another word for fpa percentage is mixture.
With specially designed nozzles air is blown into
the foam solution to create foam.
The foam producing # is a measure for the
amount of air added to one litre of foam solution.
There are 3 different classes:
Type of foam Foam producing #
Distance
Light foam
> 200
1,5 mtr.
Medium foam
20 – 200
7,5 - 15 mtr.
Heavy foam
< 20
15 – 60 mtr.
Light foam is usually used in confined areas.
Medium and heavy foam is used in case of pool or
liquid fires.
The biggest difference between the various types
of foam is the distance it can be administered
from to the fire. (see table)
In case of pool or liquid fires the best extinguishing
agent is foam.
There are several characteristics why foam has
extinguishing abilities:
z Foam prevents radiation because the flames
are separated from the fuel.
z Foam suppresses the formation of vapour
because of the weight of the foam.
The viscosity of the foam mass on the liquid
prevents the formation of vapours right
above the liquid.
z Foam has a cooling effect.
Extinguishing agents
Foam consists of 94 to 99% water.
This cools the upper layer of the liquid.
When foam is applied properly the chance of reignition is very small.
There are different types of foam available.
A high quality foam has the following
characteristics:
z
z
z
z
z
z
Attaches easily to get a firm blanket
Flame suppressing
Stability
Heat resistant
Good flow (maximum of 30 metres)
Fuel intolerance
Protein foam (e.g. oxblood) is produced due to
hydrolysis of proteins.
This was the original type of foam which is cheap
and has a good foam quality.
It is also stable and heat resistant, but the biggest
disadvantage is it works slowly.
Fluor protein foam (FFFP, Film Forming Foam
Protein) contains a fluor chemical substance
which makes the foam flow more easily and
therefore creates a faster extinguishing reaction.
Synthetic foam is primarily used on small fires.
This type of foam has low fire resistance and fuel
intolerance characteristics. This type of foam is
often used in fixed installations to fill up confined
spaces.
AFFF (Aqueous Film Forming Foam) is a
specially produced synthetic foam, it reduces the
surface tension. Adding air is not necessary with
this type of foam forming agent.
AFFF can be used in existing sprinkler systems .
The addition of AFFF forms a tight film type layer
on the liquid.
AFFF can be administered easily thus creating a
fast response to fighting a fire. The foam can be
used in combination with powder. The foam itself
is not very heat resistant.
ARC/ATC (Alcohol Resistant Concentrate, Alcohol
Type Concentrate) is alcohol resistant foam
developed for water soluble products.
Extinguishing agents
Water soluble products will break down other
types of foam because the water from the foam is
absorbed by the product.
Alcohol resistant foam has a number of chemical
stabilizers which create, when the foam is
applied, a thick layer of polymers between the
product and the foam.
This foam is easy to recognise because the
viscosity is higher than with other types of foam.
In order to use foam, specially designed nozzles
are necessary.
A mixer is used to add the proper amount of foam
forming product to the water.
The mixer can be adjusted to give different fpa
percentages.
Specially developed nozzles for medium and
heavy foam are available.
Light foam is created by using a foam generator.
After use the nozzles should be cleaned and
flushed with water because foam products can
corrode the nozzles.
Extinguishing agents
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide extinguishes fire mainly by
smothering.
It dilutes the air surrounding the fire until the
oxygen content is too low to support combustion.
Carbon dioxide has a very limited cooling effect.
Carbon dioxide does not conduct electricity.
Carbon dioxide does not support combustion in
ordinary material, however, carbon dioxide reacts
with magnesium and other metals.
Dry Chemical Powders
At present several types of dry chemical
extinguishing agents are in use.
Dry chemical may be used in fixed systems or in
portable extinguishers.
Dry chemicals extinguish fire by shielding of
radiant heat and to a great extent by breaking the
combustion chain.
Class D dry powder is the only extinguishing
media which will successfully extinguish metal
type fires.
Extinguishing agents
Halon
Halon is made up of carbon and one or more of
the halogen elements:
z Fluorine.
z Chlorine.
z Bromine.
z Iodine.
Two halons are used in fire fighting:
z BTM (Bromo Trifluoro Methane) known as
HALON 1301.
z BCF (Bromo Chlorodifluormethane) known
as HALON 1211.
Halon 1301 is stored as a liquid under pressure.
When released in the protected area it vaporises
to an odourless, colourless gas and is propelled
to the fire by the storage pressure.
Halon 1301 does not conduct electricity.
Halon 1211 is also colourless but has a faint
sweet smell.
Halon 1211 is stored as a liquid and pressurised
by a nitrogen gas. Pressurisation is necessary
since the vapour pressure of Halon 1211 is too
low to convey it properly to the fire area.
Halon 1211 does not conduct electricity.
FM200
FM200 is a gaseous type of extinguishing agent
which is stored in low pressure cylinders.
FM200 can be the replacement for Halon (banned
in 2004).
Working principle:
z Negative catalyst
z Concentration used is 7 – 9 %
z Storage capacity is low
Advantages of FM200:
z Low concentration needed to extinguish
z Not harmful to humans (as gas)
z Can be used on Class A, B and electrical
equipment
Disadvantages of FM200:
z Not environmentally friendly
z Gasses are harmful after contact with high
temperatures
There are more extinguishing agents available.
The most common and widely used are
mentioned.
Extinguishing agents
Fire spread
FIRE SPREAD
Fire spread is possible when there is sufficient
fuel and oxygen available.
Outdoors a fire mainly moves with the wind.
With flames and smoke heat and flammable
gasses will also be transported.
A fire can spread when nearby flammable substances in the direct vicinity are being heated up.
Heat transport
Heat transport takes place by:
l Radiation
l Conduction
l Convection
Radiation is heat transport by energy waves.
The radiation heat of a fire can be felt from a
distance. 80% of the heat transport is by radiation.
Conduction is heat transport via the material. In
conducting materials like metals, heat is transported relatively quickly.
Convection is heat transport due to the movement
of air or fluid. The central heating in a house is
based on this principle.
Combustible products
During a fire heat and smoke are produced.
Smoke is one of the most important characteristics of a fire.
Smoke mainly consists of small un-burnt carbon
particles. Because of the heat these particles will
rise upwards.
The production of smoke depends on the combustible reaction.
The better this combustible process, the lesser
the amount of smoke.
Hardly any fires are smokeless.
When extinguishing a fire with water, the fire
process is not complete, creating more smoke
because the temperature drops.
Fire spread
Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide
(CO and CO2)
During a fire CO en CO2 are released.
Carbon dioxide is not flammable and in small
concentrations not harmful. CO is very flammable
and very harmful to humans (and mammals).
CO is produced when a fire process is incomplete. Breathing in CO prevents the intake of
oxygen because the blood takes in CO 300x
faster than oxygen.
So even in small concentrations CO has damaging effects to humans.
The intake of oxygen is rapidly disturbed,
first causing nausea rapidly followed by fatigue
and eventually unconsciousness.
Hazardous gasses
Depending on the type of fuel and extinguishing
method several combustible products can be
produced.
By using synthetic products the chance of having
toxic gasses may increase.
Gasses such as hydrochloric acid and ammonia,
which cause irritation of the airway or even lung
oedema, are extremely dangerous.
Poisoning gasses like phosgene and chloride can
also be produced.
They can penetrate the skin and permanently
damage nerve tissue.
Flashover
A flashover is the ignition of flammable gasses in
an optical closed space.
Flammable gas means ‘gas produced by a fire.’
Flammable gasses consist of:
z Combustible products
z Dissection products
Ook LEL en UEL
During a fire not only combustible products are
released, also other gasses and particles are
released because of the breakdown of material.
The smoke in an area where there is a fire is a
mixture of air and combustible gasses.
The non-combustible gasses and particles in the
smoke can, under certain circumstances, ignite
and create a flashover.
The character of a flashover depends on several
factors:
z The concentration of combustible gas in the air
z The mixture amount of energy of the combus-
tible gas
z The air supply into the area
Fire spread
Ignition of gas is only possible when the concentration of this gas, in air, is within certain levels and
thus has a certain mixture.
A flashover can only occur, within the limitations
of the explosive level.
The amount of combustible gas depends on the
intensity and type of fire process of the fire. The
amount of air depends on the ‘ventilation’ in an
area.
The explosive levels can vary, depending on the
temperature.
With high temperatures, the explosive level is
much higher; the lower explosion level (LEL)
drops and the upper explosion level (UEL) rises.
On the edges of the explosive level the flashover
will develop gradually.
The better the mixture, the more explosive the
flashover.
The composition and energy value of the combustible gas depends on the type of materials available in the area. A high energy value increases
the intensity of the flashover, especially with an
ideal mixture.
If the combustible gas contains a lot of high
energy particles e.g. carbon particles, the intensity
of the flashover can be equal to a very powerful
so called ‘dust explosion.’
The air supply to the area determines:
z The duration of the flashover
z The moment the flashover starts
z The number of times the flashover occurs
Without oxygen supply the duration of the flashover will be short (or does not occur at all).
The concentration of combustible gas will rapidly
exceed the UEL, preventing the gasses to ignite.
When air is supplied, a combustible mixture is
being formed, so the flashover can occur again
and again.
This will create a pulsating fire.
With large amounts of air supply, the flashover
can be unremitting (only if sufficient combustible
gasses are present) thus creating a completely
developed area fire.
Typical circumstances for such a fire is the
continuous supply of air on the bottom of windows
and doors, while gasses produced during the
flashover are escaping from the top.
Fire spread
Flashover indicators
z A rapid increase in compartment temperature
and in heat from hot gasses at ceiling level
z Tongues of flame visible in the smoke layer
z Other surfaces giving off fumes
Safety
z Make sure you are properly protected
z Ensure the entrance is covered by a charged
fire hose
Check escape routes are protected
Check the outside of the door for signs of heat
Stay low
Use short spray pulses on hot gasses at ceiling
level.
z Ventilate only when safe to do so
z Be aware of the potential for flashover and
backdraft
z
z
z
z
Reducing the Oxygen Supply to a Fire
In general, hot gasses generated in the plume will
rise extremely rapidly and will draw air in towards
the fire.
If there is an adequate air supply, the fire will
continue to burn and grow as long as there is fuel
available.
If the air supply to the compartment is restricted,
the oxygen in the air inside may be used up more
quickly than it can be replaced.
The net effect will be a progressive lowering of the
concentration of oxygen in the gasses in the
compartment possibly combined with an increase
in the temperature in the compartment.
As the oxygen concentration in the compartment
reduces, the flames will start to die down, but this
will not immediately result in a reduction in the
production of flammable gasses.
Although the radiated heat from the plume reduces, the compartment is still very hot, and
nothing has happened to cool the fuel.
There may still be flames present, or they may die
out alltogether. Depending on the relative sizes of
the fire and the compartment at this stage, sufficient flammable gasses may be generated to
spread throughout the compartment.
This requires only a new supply of oxygen caused
for example by opening a door, for it to form an
explosive mixture with potentially lethal consequences – a backdraft.
Fire spread
Backdraft
Limited ventilation can lead to a fire in a compartment producing fire gasses containing significant
proportions of partial combustion products and
un-burnt pyrolysis products. If these accumulate
then the admission of air when an opening is
made to the compartment can lead to a sudden
ignition.
This ignition moving through the compartment and
out of the opening is a backdraft.
Possible Backdraft Scenarios
There are different backdraft scenarios, any one
of which could be awaiting the fire fighter.
z If the fire is still burning in the compartment
when the fire fighter opens the door, and
especially if the combustion gasses are not
escaping, the air, which enters through the
door, may mix with the flammable gasses,
forming an explosive mixture.
z If the gasses in the compartment are hot
enough, they will then ignite on their own (autoignite) at the doorway, and the flame will
spread back into the compartment along with
the fresh air supply. This would result in rapid
fire growth, but not necessarily in a backdraft.
z If the compartment gasses are not that hot,
they will be ignited when sufficient oxygen has
reached the gasses surrounding the fire.
Flames will then travel across the compartment
towards the door, resulting in flame shooting
out of the door driven by the expanding gasses
behind it. It is not easy to predict whether this
will actually happen, or how long it will take,
once the door has been opened. This will
depend on where the fire is in the compart
ment, the rate at which air flows in through the
door, and whether the hot gasses can escape
without mixing with the incoming air.
A more dangerous situation can occur when the
fire in the compartment has almost died out.
When the door is opened, the air flows in and an
explosive mixture may be generated, but nothing
happens because there is no immediate source of
ignition.
If the fire-fighters now enter the compartment,
their activities may a source of ignition, initiating a
delayed backdraft but now with them inside and
surrounded flame.
Fire spread
This can still occur even when the fire is apparently out and the compartment has cooled down.
Foam rubber, in particular, can smoulder for a long
time, producing flammable gasses. Whenever
flammable gasses remain in the compartment,
they can be ignited. Cold smoke explosions occur
in this way.
The situation can be further complicated if significant amounts of the flammable gasses in the
compartment have managed to escape into
surrounding areas.
Areas other than the closed compartment could
then contain explosive atmospheres, waiting for a
source of ignition.
The highest risk area is the area directly outside
the compartment, exactly where the fire fighters
are waiting when they open the door.
When the door is opened, flammable gasses
outside the compartment may be ignited by a
backdraft within the compartment.
Signs and Symptoms of a Backdraft
The first clue to the possibility of a backdraft is the
history of the fire: if the fire has been burning for
some time, has generated lots of smoke which is
now leaking out from the building, and has apparently died down without major areas of flame
being visible from outside, the possibility is that it
has died down from oxygen starvation.
When the building is viewed from outside, it is
likely that the windows of the compartment concerned will be blackened with no obvious flames
within. If part of a window is broken, it is possible
that this will not provide sufficient oxygen to feed
the fire. In this case it is likely that smoke will be
pulsing out of the hole.
This cycle repeats itself at a frequency, which
depends on the size of the hole and the location
of the fire relative to it. If there is a gap under the
compartment door, there may be smoke pulsing
there due to the mini-backdraft effect already
described. There may be a whistling noise. If air is
being drawn into the compartment through very
small gaps around the door, but this could be
difficult to hear. The door may be hot on the
outside. In particular, the door handle may be hot
if there is a metal rod linking it to the door handle
on the other side.
If the compartment has been left long enough for
it to cool down, air will no longer be drawn in, and
the smoke pulsing effect will not be evident.
However, if the compartment has not been ventilated and there are still flammable gasses
present, a backdraft is still possible.
Fire spread
Actions by Fire fighters
Once the door has been opened on to a compartment with an oxygen starved fire and fresh air has
been allowed in, there is little which can be done
to prevent a backdraft happening.
It is far better to make appropriate decisions
before the door is ever opened.
If fire fighters believe that opening a compartment
door may lead to a backdraft, opening that door
must be as a result of a deliberate decision. As
long as the compartment door is closed, fire
fighters have time to think about their actions.
Once the door is open, they will only have time to
react to events as they occur.
Whilst the decision about the timing of opening
the door can only rest with the fire fighters who
form the fire fighting crew at the scene, the consequences of that decision ultimately lie with the
Officer in charge of the incident.
However, the compartment will still have to be
inspected at some stage. The priority is then to
make it safe for the fire fighters to enter. As
already described, a backdraft can only occur
when fresh air is permitted to enter the compartment. It is possible for fire fighters to operate in a
flammable atmosphere provided there is no
opportunity for things to change and for fresh air
to enter whilst the fire fighters are inside.
The far safer solution is to remove the flammable
gasses from the compartment with ventilation.
It is important to recognise that ventilation requires that fresh air should be let into the compartment. Thus, there is the possibility that a
backdraft may occur during ventilation, so appropriate precautions should be taken.
If it is decided that a compartment needs to be
ventilated and once the method of ventilation has
been selected by the Officer in charge of the
incident:
z Fire hoses must be charged and in position
prior to any ventilation being carried out.
z Fire fighters must get down low, and stay well
clear of the likely flame path back through the
vent opening, should a backdraft occur; and It
must be remembered that a backdraft could be
delayed several minutes and that it might have
sufficient energy to break other windows in the
compartment.
No compartment can be considered safe from a
backdraft until it has been opened to fresh air for
some time. However, once the compartment has
been properly ventilated, fire fighters can tackle
the fire knowing that there is no longer any possibility of backdraft.
Fire spread
BLEVE
Fires in which tanks or vessels are involved can
when pressure valves are damaged be exremely
dangerous.
Pipelines which are sealed also belong to this
category.
In case of fire the pressure in a tank can rise so
high that the tank ruptures.
This is called a physical explosion and called
BLEVE.
BLEVE means:
Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion.
It means that the wall of the tank will collapse
under the increasing pressure because of the
heating of the gas inside the tank.
In the list of works consulted BLEVE is only
mentioned with refference to flammable liquids
and gas but all closed tanks can explode due to
the buildup of the pressure inside.
It is difficult to predict when a BLEVE will occur.
If the tank wall is heated up above the level of the
liquid weakening can be expected rapidly.
Cooling is essential in order to prevent a possible
BLEVE.
In case a safety valve is installed on the tank
pressure can be released but this does not mean
that a BLEVE cannot occur.
A safety valve releasing product can be an
indication.
The higher the whistling sound of the safety valve,
the higher the pressure inside the tank.
When the escaping product is on fire the saying
goes:
The higher the flames, the higher the pressure.
The rising of the pressure can also be heard, a
closed tank will turn rounded when the pressure
rises, the sound of the metal can be easily
identified.
It is difficult to predict how and where a tank will
rupture.
It will probably be on the weakest spot of the
metal (bulging of the metal, blisters on the metal).
Fire spread
The escape of product from a cylinder filled with a
compressed gas can be of great risk during a fire.
The escaping gas can, when it is not yet burning,
be mixed with waterspray.
The product can be mixed in such a way that it is
likely that the product will not ignite (1 litre of
water brings in 3000 litres of air).
With this method we try to keep the product under
the LEL.
Acetylene is a diffirent story for several reasons.
When heated up and therefore increasing the
pressure, a hit or other physical impact on the
cylinder (falling over) can anatomize the product
in the cylinder creating energy (exothermic process).
Under this influence a BLEVE can occur.
cooling of the cylinder for 1 hour
stop cooling
cool for half an hour
yes
is steam coming from the cylinder?
Lengthy cooling of cylinders is essential (2 x 24
hours). Placing the cylinders under water is not
good enough. The cylinders will just heat up the
water.
Transporting the cylinders is extremely dangerous.
Only after the cylinder is cooled down and is cold
enough, physical handling becomes safe.
no
cool for half an hour
no
does the surface stay wet?
yes
cool for half an hour
no
does the cylinder stay wet for ½ hour?
yes
wait for ½ hour
no
is the cylinder cold?
gently transport the cylinder (overboard)
Fire spread
Breathing apparatus & working in
a hot and humid environment
SAFETY WHEN USING BREATHING
APPARATUS
A breathing apparatus wearer brings him or
herself in potentially dangerous situations.
Smoke and heat can make tasks difficult and
they may also have to deal with stressful
situations such as searching for casualties, which
increase the problems.
A BA-wearer must act decisivily but be able to
recognise dangerous situations and act
accordingly.
Your own safety and the safety of your buddy is of
the utmost importance.
In order to increase the safety it is important,
when working with BA, to act and work according
to predefined and well trained procedures.
Procedure are developed for:
z Donning of the face mask
z The use and control of the face mask
z Replacing the cylinder
We assume that these procedures are known.
In this chapter one can find the most important
guidelines to increase the safety of persons
wearing breathing apparatus.
Preparing BA-sets for storage
By preparing the BA-sets in the fire station the
first step for a swift intervention is made.
By preparing in advance we can prevent loss of
time for a BA-team to be ready.
The BA-team can assume that all the equipment
is prepared and checked the cylinders are full.
When preparing the BA-sets it is important that a
number of actions are made.
First the cylinder, backpack and mask must be
checked for visual flaws.
After this visual inspection the cylinder is mounted
on the backpack.
By opening the valve on the cylinder the pressure
in the cylinder can be checked (pressure gauge)
and the system can be checked for leakages.
When there are no problems the valve can be
closed.
The system is still under pressure and the next
test that can be executed is the testing of the
alarm signal (whistle). To do this the air in the
system should be released very slowly.
Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment
As soon as the pressure in the system is lower
than 55 bars the alarm signal will be activated.
The next procedure is adjusting the carrying
straps on the backpack to the maximum.
The facemask must be packed in a plastic bag
and when dealing with a strap mask the straps
must be loosened to the maximum.
The BA-sets are now ready to use and can be
stored in the fire station.
Preparing BA-sets for use
In case of an incident the fire team must wear BA
as soon as possible in order to be ready for duty.
Preparing always takes place in a safe
environment.
Before and after the use of BA the wearer should
always perform the following number of actions.
When the BA-set is taken from the fire station,
firstly the red button on the regulator must be
activated (pressed) to prevent air escaping
unnecessarily.
After this the valve on the cylinder is opened and
the pressure in the cylinder is checked by reading
the pressure gauge.
The cylinder is also checked for leakage.
When there are no problems the valve can be
closed.
The system is still under pressure and the next
test is the testing of the alarm signal.
To do this the air in the system should be released
very slowly.
After this final test the red button on the regulator
must be pressed.
After these checks the valve on the cylinder is
opened fully and than closed one quarter turn to
prevent the cylinder opening from freezing.
The BA-set is ready to wear.
Upon donning the BA-set it is possible that the
fireman’s outfit becomes dissaranged.
The collar on the helmet may cause problems so
in order to protect the fire team members it is
important that clothing is checked and where
necessary adjusted.
Now the plastic protection bag can be removed
from the mask and the straps of the mask should
be adjusted to the maximum.
The mask is hanging around the neck with the
carrying strap until the wearer goes into action.
Previous to an action the mask is placed on the
face and the regulator is clicked onto the mask.
Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment
The connection of the regulator onto the mask
needs to be checked. Finally the helmet is placed
on the head, the collar is closed and the gloves
are put on. When necessary supplementary
clothing can be donned.
Due to the fact that it is essential that the fire team
is fast but properly dressed operationally, it is wise
to use a so-called dress man (with enough
personnel available).
A dress man is a person who can help members
of a fire team when dressing up and preparing for
an action.
Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment
Control of the fire team by the On Scene
Commander (OSC)
After the OSC has briefed the fire team and given
them their task the OSC finally checks the team
members.
The OSC checks the fire team to ascert their
outfit is ok and if mask and regulator are properly
in place.
The OSC also checks the availability and working
of the flashlight, radio and fire hose.
The OSC finally checks and writes down the
pressure in the cylinder of each team member
before they go into action.
Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment
Safety rules for thr fire team during an action
The following safety rules apply for members of a
fire team:
z When working indoors a team always consists
of at least 2 members and they always stay
together.
z With the use of the pressure gauge the
pressure in the cylinder is regularly checked, in
principal the BA-wearer must be in a safe area
before the alarm whistle is activated.
z If leakage is discovered the team members
must immediately return.
z If one of the fire team members must return,
the other team member always accompanies
him.
Calculation on use of air
Strain
The use of air from the BA-set depends on a
number of factors: the intensity of the work, the
level of training, the level of fitness of the person
and the amount of stress that is apparent.
In order to calculate the amount of air that is
being used we use an average air consumption of
40 litres per minute. As a safety precaution 55 bar
of air is considered spare and is not being used.
The remaining amount is considered ‘work
pressure’. The amount for usage is calculated
with the following formula:
Start pressure cylinder – spare pressure = work
pressure
Start pressure 300 bar – spare pressure 55 bar =
work pressure 245 bar
Pressure on return
During the way in the amount of air that is being
used is about the same as on the way back. The
reason is that the BA wearer needs more time on
the way in during searching and checking of the
surrounding. The way back might seem faster
because he has familiarized himself with the
environment and because the fire hose acts as a
guide but, because of the possible tiredness, the
intensity of the action and the possible contact
with high temperatures has made him tired and
will slow him down. From experience we know
that the consumption of air during the way in is
almost equal to the consumption on the way out.
In order to calculate how much air one needs for
the way back the following formula can be used:
Work pressure : 2 + spare pressure = retreat
pressure
Example.
245 bar : 2 = 122,5 bar + 55 bar = 178 bar
Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment
EQUIPMENT
Torch
The torch must be of the explosion proof type and
easy to handle. It is favourable if the torch can be
connected to either the jacket or to the BA-set.
Hose
It is recommended that the fire team is equipped
with a fire hose.
This has two advantages with respect to the
safety of the fire team.
z The hose can be used as a guideline when
visibility is poor and
z when the fire team comes into contact with
possible fires the team can protect itself and/or
start extinguishing immediately.
Safety line
The safety line is a good tool when fire team members
must stay in contact with each other when, for
example, they are searching in a large area.
One of the team members can stay in contact with
one of the walls while the other team member sweeps
the area.
Radio
The radio is carried in such a way that the team
can hear all the messages that are broadcasted.
Axe/master key
In order to gain access to closed compartments
axes were being used. Nowadays the materials
used and/or the construction of doors is in such a
way that an axe is off little help. On top of that
there can be a lot of collateral damage.
Most of the times a master key is present avoiding
unnecessary work and damage.
COMMUNICATION
Between team members
Because of the face mask, the helmet and
surrounding sounds team members might not be
able to receive radio messages.
The person transmitting the messages must
therefore speak slowly and with a clear voice.
The message should be brief and to the point.
The receiving party can hold his breath to avoid
disturbing noises from his BA-set.
Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment
Radio contact between the fire team and the
OSC or bridge
Because of the above mentioned factors and the
stress during the action messages from the OSC
or bridge must be short, to the point and
sometimes in sections.
If possible the message should be repeated by
the fire team to make sure that the team
understands the message.
CASUALTIES
Alerting a casualty
From previous situations we have learned that
calling the missing persons name gives the best
response during a search.
Transporting a casualty who is still mobile
If a casualty can still walk he can be accompanied
in between the team members to a safe area.
This is to avoid losing the casualty.
The casualty should stay as low as possible in
order to avoid breathing in hot and/or toxic
vapours.
The fire team members must be aware that the
casualty can panic.
These reactions can be dangerous to the fire
team members
Transporting a casualty who’s not mobile
If the casualty must be carried it is recommended
that one team member carries the legs and the
other team member carries the upper body.
Due to the fact that the team is performing a
difficult job (heat, carrying a person, the use of a
BA-set and the possible use of staircases) it is
recommended to ask for assistance or see to it
that assistance is organised.
Triage
When multiple casualties are detected a selection
must be made of who must be helped first.
This can be a very difficult situation. It is
emphasized that persons with the best chances
of recovery must be rescued first to limit the
amount of casualties.
Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment
WORKING IN HOT AND HUMID
ATMOSPHERES
In general, fire fighters often fail to consider the
physiological effects of heat when it is associated
with humidity.
Nevertheless, these effects can have serious
consequences, such as mental confusion, leading
to incorrect decisions, performance levels
deteriorate, manipulative skills, visual skills and
inspection tasks become increasingly more
difficult beyond the effective temperature of 29°C.
Mental skills are found to be less efficiently
performed beyond an effective temperature of
39°C.
This does not however, necessarily indicate that
any given degree of heat will produce all these
symptoms.
There are many qualifying factors to consider. In
order to understand the combined effects of heat
and humidity, it is necessary to have some basic
knowledge of how the human body maintains its
temperature within about half a degree of 37°C.
The main thermo-regulatory system is complex,
serving the need to maintain normal body
temperature to thermal equilibrium of the deeplaying tissues of the body within a narrow range
of temperature.
There are some temperature differences in the
limbs and outer body tissues; however the deep
body temperature must be maintained to avoid
heat stress.
If the normal body temperature is to be
maintained in equilibrium, then the amount of
heat gained by the body must be equalled by the
amount lost from it.
Ultimately, the amount of heat exchanged
between the body and the environment depends
on the differences of temperature and of vapour
pressure that exists between the skin and it’s
surrounding.
There are five ways in which the body looses
heat:
z Convection (passage of air)
z Radiation (surface temperature)
z Vaporisation (breathing)
z Evaporation (sweating)
z Conduction
Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment
Convection
Convection currents around the body accounts
for about 25% of the heat loss. It is well known
that hot air is lighter than cold, therefore hot air
rises as it expands.
This means that the air around the body becomes
warm, it then rises and is replaced by cool air.
Tight restricted clothing and certainly clothing
worn by fire fighters can reduce the amount of
heat that would be dissipated by this process.
Radiation
Radiation from the body can account for up to
50% of heat loss from a person at rest. Loss of
heat by radiation is dependant upon the
surrounding temperature being lower than that of
the body.
If the surrounding temperature is higher than that
of the body, then the body will absorb heat.
Working in hot atmospheres requires the body to
be protected against radiated heat from the fire,
but at the same time, the fire kit worn by fire
fighters prevents body heat being lost by
radiation.
Vaporisation
Working hard in a hot and humid atmosphere,
cause the body temperature to rise; therefore the
temperature of the blood rises. The blood is
cooled in the lungs by inhalation of cool air, and
the body gives off heat through exhaled breath.
The use of compressed air in breathing apparatus
assists in this vaporisation process.
Evaporation
The rise in temperature of the deep tissues of the
body, or of the skin, must provide some indication
of how heat stress is causing strain on the
thermal-regulatory system.
Heart rate increases are followed by the
production of sweat.
Since the evaporation of sweat constitutes the
body’s main defence against over-heating, the
presence of a humid atmosphere can slow down
and even stop the evaporation process.
Working in very hot and humid environments
causes heat production in the body to increase.
Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment
Only 25% of the energy liberated by the chemical
changes involved in muscular activity is converted
into work energy, the remaining is converted into
heat energy.
When the human body is subjected to heat, there
is a general reddening of the skin due to an
increased blood flow in the vessels of the skin.
By bringing more heat to the surface, the body
increases heat loss due to radiation, but if the
temperature of the environment is higher than
that of the body then the body may absorb heat
from outside through the increased blood flow.
Another effect of heat is the increase of thermal
sweating, so that the whole trunk, forehead,
backs of hands and legs become moist.
Pulse rate increases to approximately 20 beats
per minute for each one-degree rise in body
temperature, accompanied by an increased
breathing rate.
These effects increase the oxygen consumed by
the body. If the body temperature is allowed to
rise unchecked, a breakdown occurs in the body’s
thermo-regulatory system, symptoms of distress
and illness appear.
These symptoms may be classed under three
separate headings:
z Heat exhaustion.
z Heat syncope (low blood pressure)
z Heat stroke
Heat exhaustion
Heat exhaustion is the most common reaction
amongst fire fighters. In hot moist environments,
heat exhaustion develops even more quickly than
in dry conditions.
Induced by excessive sweating, the body
temperature remains more or less normal,
because the excess heat is given off in
evaporation of sweat from the body. Sweat
consists of salt and water, and the body can
loose an appreciable amount of both. Salt
deficiency can cause muscle cramps, headaches,
weakness, fainting and collapse.
Treatment is to administer water containing a
small amount of salt. The symptoms will be
aggravated if pure water is taken after sweating,
since the remaining salts in the body will be
diluted.
Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment
Heat syncope
The body’s thermal regulatory system pushes
more blood to the surface in an attempt to cool it.
If this condition becomes extreme, the blood
pressure will drop due to the amount of blood
being pushed to the dilated surface vessels. With
now a drop in pressure, insufficient blood reaches
the brain. Less blood means less oxygen thus
fainting occurs. Treatment is to remove from the
heat and attempt to get the blood back to the
brain.
Heat stroke
Heat stroke is the term for the most serious
disorder. The fundamental feature of heat stroke
is an extreme and uncontrolled elevation of body
temperature.
High temperatures (41°C. or even higher) exert
its harmful effect chiefly on the central nervous
system.
The changes that occur include a drop, or near
cessation of sweating, collapse, coma and even
death if prompt treatment by cooling is not
started.
Treatment is to remove clothing and cool by
covering with wet towels or spraying with cold
water.
Precautions
Do not allow fire teams in hot and humid
atmospheres any longer than absolutely
necessary.
If the situation permits change the wearer to limit
exposure and allow recovery.
The teams can also minimize stresses on their
bodies by adopting good working procedures and
good teamwork i.e. staying low out of the heat
and sharing the work load by working together.
Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment
Prevention, organization and drills
PREVENTION, ORGANIZATION AND
DRILLS
Accident prevention, particularly fire is especially
important than on a ship, as the consequences
could be disastrous. Prevention measures are
required for certification, by insurance companies
and in certain countries the port will conduct
inspections concerning the preventative
measures on that ship.
Prevention is not just detection systems and fire
fighting systems, but more importantly the means
to prevent a fire from starting in the first place.
Good prevention begins with ship design,
secondly at the top of the organization with a
carefully formulated policy, which can be carried
out effectively by the ship’s crew. The main areas
of concern are education of the crew, risk
assessment and inspection of systems.
Construction
To prevent fire spread ships are designed in such
a way that fires can be contained as far as
possible.
According to SOLAS regulations ships have to
comply with the following:
z Division of the ship into main vertical zones
by thermal and structural boundaries
z Separation of accommodation from the rest
of the ship by thermal and structural
boundaries
z Restricted use of combustible materials
z Detection of the fire in the zone if origin
z Containment and extinguishing of any fire in the
space of origin
z Protection of means of escape or access for
fire fighting
z Ready availability of fire extinguishing
appliances
z Minimise the possible ignition of flammable
cargo
A-class division
z Constructed of steel or other equivalent
material and suitably stiffened
z Capable of preventing the passage of smoke
and flames for one hour
z Be insulated such that the unexposed side
will not rise in temperature more than 139°
Celsius nor at any one point more than 180°
Celsius above original temperature within the
time (see following page)
Prevention, organization and drills
Class A-60
60 minutes
Class A-30
60 minutes (after 30 minutes T > 139° C.)
Class A-15 60 minutes (after 15 minutes T > 139° C.)
Class A-0
60 minutes (after 0 minutes T > 139° C.)
B-class division
Division formed by bulkheads, decks, ceilings or
linings.
z Capable of preventing the passage of smoke
and flames for the first half hour
z Be insulated such that the unexposed side
will not rise in temperature more than 139°
Celsius nor at any one point more than 225°
Celsius above original temperature within the
time listed
Class B-30 30 minutes (after 30 minutes T > 139° C.)
Class B-15 30 minutes (after 15 minutes T > 139° C.)
Class B-0
30 minutes (after 0 minutes T > 139° C.)
C-class division
Constructed of approved non combustible
materials preventing the passage of smoke, flames
or rise in temperature on exposed surfaces.
F-class division
Class F is equivalent to Class B.
The human element
The human element is very often the cause of
accidents; therefore a great deal of attention must
be placed on the crew. Educating the crew in the
causes of fires and working procedures will help
reduce the risk and frequency of fires. Built in
features such as fire resisting construction;
ventilation, fuel and electrical controls; and fire
fighting systems are key areas of knowledge
required by the crew to control an out break of fire.
Inspection and maintenance is another key area to
target in the fire safety policy. Inspecting
equipment and appropriate service scheduling will
reduce the chance of failure and subsequent fire.
Risk assessment should also be regularly carried
out, to identify possible combustible materials and
potential ignition sources and then setting up a
control measure to prevent the two combining to
start a fire.
Prevention, organization and drills
Inspection of fire detection and fire fighting equipment is the third area of concern of the safety
policy. Regular tests of detection equipment as
recommended by the manufacture or other advisory bodies will maintain the systems in the most
reliable and effective state.
Fire fighting equipment can be tested during fire
drills to maintain their effectiveness. Fixed fire
fighting systems are maintained again by following
the recommended inspection schedules. In the
event of a fire then all the crew must work as a
cohesive unit, following a prepared plan. The
Station Bill forms the basis of this emergency
organisation.
The emergency organisation
The basis of this organisation is set out in the
Station Bill, which identifies the key roles within an
emergency team, giving duties which speed up the
response and forms the command structure for
effective decision making i.e. closing team, attack
team, team leader etc.
Organisations are designed around the ship design and manning levels, where automatic systems
will be used to cover manned functions on ships
with small crews.
The command structure in fire situations will also
vary according to the ships size and complexity.
The organisation will help control the incident,
particularly in the early staging where chaos and
panic will increase the demands on the crew and
officers; however the organisation must be flexible
enough to cope with sudden changes i.e. a missing person who holds a key function in the team.
Preparation
Preparation prior to a fire or incident is vital. The
officer and crew must learn the basic procedures
indicated on the Station Bill and any special procedures to cover special loads or hazards. Intimate
knowledge of the ships facilities shown on the
ship’s fire safety plan is essential to control the fire
in the early stages.
The crew must be fully aware of their tasks and
use of their equipment and it must be tested
during a fire drill.
All the equipment used in controlling a fire must be
in a perpetual state of readiness, from the
ventilation controls through to the batteries fully
charged in the lamps, everything is important.
Prevention, organization and drills
The fire attack teams are required to have basic
skills and competence as laid down in
the STCW95 training standards.
These requirements are as follows:
z Use of various portable fire extinguishers
z Use of BA (breathing apparatus)
z Extinguishing smaller fires, electrical, oil etc
z Extinguishing fires using jet and spray nozzles
with water
z Extinguish fires using foam, powder and
chemical agents
z Entering and passing through a compartment
with high expansion foam using no BA
z Fighting fires in enclosed spaces using BA
z Use fog or steam for fire suppression
The above standards can be tested during the
compulsory fire drill.
Fire drill
The purpose of the fire drill is to test the efficiency
of the organization. The crew must be challenged
in order to make it interesting and more
importantly to learn from mistakes.
The danger is to make the drill a routine that does
not test the organization.
One focused drill is more beneficial than repeating
a routine drill many times.
Change the drill each time to stimulate and
challenge thought.
The drill can also be used to check and test
equipment in the drill environment, required under
SOLAS i.e. fire pumps, breathing apparatus, fire
suits and communications.
A successful meaningful drill requires thought
before the drill begins, firstly defining the learning
objectives, setting the timing and allocating time to
debrief afterwards.
The objectives must reflex key tasks to be
performed and must be measurable against a
standard i.e. one objective could be to dress
effectively in fire outfits and breathing apparatus
within a fixed time frame, effectively means skin is
fully protected and the start up tests are
performed on the breathing apparatus.
Once the objectives are set, a scenario can be
written, which incorporates specific events and
consequences of certain actions, the script
should test all of thecrew.
Prevention, organization and drills
The drill begins with a report of fire and subsequent sounding of the alarm, indicating that it is a
drill, but trying to bring an element of surprise and
realism. Occasionally begin the drill by a report of
fire from sources other than the bridge. The speed
of reaction, mustering, and specific duties performed, setting up of the command and communications should be analysed.
The attack on the fire will depend upon the scenario, however the leadership, assessment of the
situation and subsequent decisions should be
evaluated. Create chaos to see if the team can
control and react to the ever changing situations a
fire can create.
Evaluate the drill; by assessing if the objectives
were reached, being critical about actions so that
the lessons learned can be incorporated in the
procedures. The crew should be encouraged to
participate uninhibited, without fear of making
mistakes. The drill will go wrong, but then lessons
are learned. A drill that is perfectly conducted is
not challenging the crew.
The standards of competence can be improved
through drilling. Specific skills can be identified,
taught, demonstrated and practised. Slow down
the task and repeat until the person or team demonstrates a set level of competence. Endeavour to
share information and experience gained by all
members of the crew.
Document the fire drill for future reference, to
assess improvements in the organisation.
Prevention, organization and drills
Functional leadership
LEADERSHIP
This section deals with leadership, how to
manage an incident effectively involving fire or
spillage of a dangerous product.
The approach to leadership in emergency
situations is based on a system used by fire and
emergency services; it is called functional
leadership which analyses the functions involved
in dealing with an emergency.
Previous approaches made assumptions that
leaders were born with the qualities to lead.
Certain qualities, courage, integrity, common
sense etc, may help to lead but a good leader
may not have to display these characteristics.
Another approach suggests that the leader having
skill or knowledge to deal with a situation makes
the best leader. There is a little truth in this
approach; however this is not the whole picture in
dealing with an emergency.
A better approach is to analyse the functions
involved.
Leadership can only be applied to groups who are
confronted with a need to take action or make
decisions
Within a group 3 areas of need exist:
z task needs
z team maintenance needs
z individual needs
Task needs
Groups formed to undertake a task too complex
or too impractical for one person to accomplish.
Team maintenance needs
The group to achieve the task must be held
together as a cohesive team.
Individual needs
The group has individuals, who have their own
demands, which contribute to the functioning of
the group.
The functions of a good leader are to recognise
the 3 areas of need, thus be aware of the needs
of the group and perform the thought processes,
communications and actions to satisfy the needs
of the group.
Functional leadership
Task functions
z
z
z
z
z
z
Defining the task.
Making a plan.
Allocating work ind resources.
Con|rolling quality and resources.
Checking performance against plan.
Aljusting plan.
Team maintenance functions
Setting standards.
Maintaining discipline.
Building team spirit.
Praising, motivating and giving a sense of
purpose.
z Ensuring communications within the group.
z Training the group.
z
z
z
z
Individual functions
z
z
z
z
z
Attending to personal problems.
Praising individuals.
Giving status.
Recognising and using individual abilities.
Training the individual.
In an emergency the task needs are going to take
priority and less attention is given to the other two,
unless the team or an individual is not performing,
in which case attention must be given to these in
order to control the situation. In the training
periods the team and individual needs can be built
up in preparation for the high task priorities.
To simplify the thought processes the following 6
functions must be addressed by the leader to
meet the needs of the group.
z Planning
z Briefing
z Control
z Support
z Informing
z Evaluating
Failure to perform anyone of these functions will
result in partial or total failure of the group to
achieve its aim.
Functional leadership
Planning
This process concerns obtaining all available
information, determining the extent of the task,
deciding on a plan of action and an order of
priorities. The initial alarm will initiate the fire
organisation which has already allocated key roles
and duties to help contain the fire, however follow
up works on fire location, size and possibilities of
escalation and will dictate further actions.
The control of compartments, fuel cut and
ventilation are important initials actions, which
should be performed as early as possible.
Limitations on manpower and equipment can give
serious restrictions, thus a quick response to
control the incident is essential or to prevent
escalation then use of passive protection (fire
resisting bulkheads) and active measures (fixed
fire fighting systems, fire teams) must be placed
effectively.
The main priority in formulating an attack plan
comes with safety of the crew. Assessment of the
risk involved must be performed before
committing teams, particularly in the engine room
where temperatures can increase rapidly in a
short time.
Next priority considered is rescue, if a missing
person has a chance of survival then a quick
response has to be made, but again assess the
risk to the rescuers.
The incident may be dealt with in one of two ways,
direct attack on the fire or indirect attack, meaning
controlling the growth of(the incident i.e. surround
the fire with boundary cooling until the fire
suffocates itself. The choice depends on the
extent of the fire, the time required to begin the
attack and possible casualties.
Before an attack first consider dangers such as
BLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour
Explosion) if closed containers are involved.
The following list will help establish the priorities:
z Safety of the crew and fire teams.
z Rescue of endangered personnel.
z Exposure of containers to fire, which could
result in additional fires, the worst case is a
BLEVE.
z Confinement of the fire, preventing fire
spread to surrounding area i.e. fire can
spread in 6 directions, thus the fire needs to
be blocked and confined.
z Extinguish the fire when it is safe to do so and
when the correct means are available.
z Over haul, returning the scene back to safe
condition.
Functional leadership
When controling an operation special attention
must be given to the toxic atmosphere generated
as a result of the incident as this is a risk to
unprotected personnel.
The restarting of systems such as ventilation may
cause further problems i.e. re-ignition therefore
precautions must be taken.
Following the fire plans checks need to be made
for regularly checking the scene for re-ignition.
Briefing
The purpose of the briefing is to allocate tasks,
explain the aim, if necessary the reasons why and
to set standards i.e. team to extinguish a liquid fire
with foam, build up the foam system in a safe
area and when foam is being produced, apply to
liquid without disturbing liquid surface.
There are many considerations to the briefing;
however it can be simplified providing the
standards are set prior to the emergency in the
training sessions, team maintenance and
individual needs.
The briefing should be clear, accurate and concise.
Control
Once the team is set to work, the role of the
leader or a delegated officer is to control the
effectiveness of the crew and the working
environment continuously.
Ensure that all actions are contributing to the aim,
maintain crew standards and if necessary
influence the tempo of the actions which will affect
the outcome.
The working environment will need to be
monitored, particularly the stability of the vessel
and growth of the fire which effect the safety of
the working teams. (see Evaluating)
Supporting
In order to maintain the team and individual needs,
it will be necessary to help the group emotionally
with encouragement or physically with backup
and support.
Less time can be spent on this function, if it is
addressed in the training sessions with team
building. However long protracted incidents may
still require emotional supporting actions to be
taken.
Functional leadership
Informing
The communications links should be set up to
assist in the flow of information two ways.
The command must inform crews of all matters
affecting their activities, particularly matters
concerning their own safety and the command
must have reports back from the crews, in order
to carry out evaluation of the progress.
Evaluating
The achievements need to be compared with the
original plan.
The performance needs to be checked with the
plan.
In each situation the plan needs to be modified or
remedial action taken.
The situation on the ship may change rapidly;
therefore the command must monitor conditions
regularly.
Debriefing after an incident can also be very
effective at highlighting good work, problems and
weaknesses in the performance.
Decision making
The style of leadership in an emergency will be
autocratic, due to the urgency of the situation.
However leaders will vary their style to be
democratic if the situation and time pressures
allow.
Decision sharing will produce sounder decisions
when skills and knowledge is coming from within
the group.
The styles of leadership varies from autocratic to
democratic as follows:
A leader makes a decision and announces it.
TELLS
A leader makes a decision and sells it.
SELLS
A leader presents a plan and invites questions
before deciding.
CONSULTS
A leader presents a problem and invites
suggestions before deciding.
CONSULTS
A leader defines limitations and asks group to
make decision.
JOINS
Functional leadership
Delegate
To delegate is the practice of granting authority or
the right of decision taking in certain defined
areas, and charging the subordinate with the
responsibylity for carrying out an assigned task.
The delegating officer should retain accountability.
It is an efficient use of time, skills, abilities and
resources.
Much can be gained from delegating including:
z Speeds up action by people making
decis ions closest to the action.
z Reduction in workload and concentration on
other more important issues.
z Development of personnel and full use of
their skills Improves mutual trust, morale and
confidence.
Only delegate if the individual understands and
can do the task.
Set limits within which that individual may operate
and give full support and control without
undermining.
Never delegate matters essential to your overall
control and matters concerning discipline.
Summary
The functional leadership approach can provide
the inexperienced with a quick understanding to
lead effectively in an emergency and the more
experienced to evaluate for further development.
Functional leadership
Tactics
COMMON TYPES OF FIRES AND
ASSOCIATED TACTICS
Small fires discovered in the early stages are
relatively easy to deal with by a member of the
crew using a small extinguisher. Speed, calm
approach and skill are all required by that person
to prevent the situation from deteriorating.
The crewmember must in any event raise the
alarm to begin the mustering of the fire parties and
to start essential procedures to prevent fire
spreading further. The crewmember must be
mindful of his /her own safety, whilst making an
attempt to extinguish the fire.
With larger fires, the fire parties must gather
together all the necessary information, equipment
and support to bring the fire under control.
It may not be so easy to extinguish the fire directly,
thus an order of priorities as discussed in the
leadership chapter need to be adopted such as
rescue, preventing fire spread and extinguishing.
Rescue
Rescue is a very important priority in the overall
tactic. If a person trapped in a smoky environment
has any chance of survival, particularly with the
formation of highly toxic gases from modern
materials, then rescue is number one priority.
Emotions can run very high in the case of a
missing colleague, therefore care must be taken
that further problems do not arise from a vain
rescue attempt.
Life is more important than the ship, however
there are situations where the controlling of the
fire is demanded i.e. to safely reach the missing
person or the safety of the entire crew is at risk
from the spreading fire.
Speedy extrication of the victim from the
intolerable atmosphere to a place of safety is
essential, however great difficulties can be faced
in carrying an unconscious victim, particularly
vertically. Initial actions may be to move the victim
horizontally to a place of relative safety i.e. a
staircase enclosure until more assistance can be
attained.
Tactics
Fire fighting inside the ship
Smoke detection is an important factor in dealing
with accommodation fires. Early detection means
small fires and early warning for evacuation of
(eg. sleeping crew members).
A small fire can be extinguished by an unprotected
person using portable water or light water foam
extinguishers providing the smoke is not
untenable.
Always raise the alarm first so the fire teams can
prepare.
The suspected room should be first investigated
by carefully opening the door (see door
procedures).
Make the extinguisher ready and use if possible a
hose reel for backup, before opening the door. Stay
low and do not enter if smoke is present.
Remember the smoke is highly toxic. If the situation
is escalating, shut the door immediately and give
follow up information to the preparing fire team.
Larger fires confined in smaller areas, combined
with heat and formation of smoke make a very
hostile environment for fire fighting. The alarm
must be preceded by limiting the spread of the
fire, stopping the mechanical ventilation and/or
activating the fire dampers to confine the fire to a
compartment (cubic theory).
Attention must also be given to stopping of fuel
supplies (engine, pump rooms) and isolating the
electrics in the affected area.
Teams must be constantly looking out for fire
spread and other dangers (see flashover and
back draft).
Knowledge of the construction of the ship
surrounding the fire is essential to guard again
possible hidden fire spread.
Teams entering for fire fighting must check the
entry route for other outbreaks of fire; signs such
as smoke, blistering of paintwork and hot
surfaces.
This is particularly important in accommodation
where “C” class construction is used, which
offers no defence against the passage of hot
gases.
Tactics
Attack is best made from the same level or from
below the fire, otherwise if forced to enter above
the fire, then the team will have to move through
the hot gases being produced.
In such a case the team needs to move quickly to
break through the heat barrier, and take care that
their escape route is not going to be cut off, if the
fire continues to grow.
An assessment should be made before
attempting to enter in such a fashion and first
begin with cooling the fire gases.
Remember that steam and hot gases may be
driven out onto the fire team; therefore the team
must stay low and to the side of the passage of
hot products until a difference in temperature is
noticed.
A back up hose line must be in place at the entry
point to safeguard the escape route of the team
working below.
A hose set on spray can be very effective in
driving the smoke and heat away from the team,
but a means to exhaust the smoke must be
provided, otherwise the whole area becomes
pressurised with steam and hot gas, humidity
increases (see heat stress chapter) and visibility
is hampered.
Using water continuously can give stability
problems, particularly if water is allowed to
accumulate high up in the ship. One normal hose
can add around 15 ton of water in one hour.
Ventilation can be used tactically to improve the
conditions for fire fighting, but must be carefully
thought through before attempting. The ventilation
tactic can be divided into two basic approaches,
namely vertical and horizontal means, using
natural means and if available portable
mechanical fans.
No attempt should be made of ventilating using
the ships ventilation system, as the fire can
spread unpredictably.
In each case plan a route for the hot gases to flow
and protect against further out breaks of fire using
water spray.
Vertical ventilation is the easiest and safest
solution, although not always available to achieve
due to the layout, but the hottest and most
dangerous gases are best removed from the
highest point, whilst the team enters to attack the
fire at the lower level. Not only is the compartment
cooler, but the visibility is also improved
dramatically.
Tactics
Horizontal ventilation is the means using natural
flow of the air across the ship. It can be more
difficult to control, however the basic procedure is
to provide an exhaust outlet for the hot gases on
the leeward side, a fraction in time before the
upwind inlet vent is opened.
Portable mechanical fans can be used to create a
flow of air through the area to assist in heat and
smoke removal, or water sprays directed
outwards from the affected area could provide a
negative pressure, thus drawing out the heat and
smoke.
If enough teams are available, a combination of
vertical and horizontal, natural and mechanical
can be employed to tackle a more severe fire.
Accommodation fires
The attacking of a cabin fire must be done with
care, especially when the room shows signs of
high temperatures.
Do not underestimate the risk of flashover and
back draft. Always check the door before deciding
to open to attack the fire.
The water spray will give the team some
protection in the event of an explosion (see
flashover and back draft), however due to the
heavy inflexible hose line it is very important that it
is in position covering the door before opening,
there is little time to react!
The water spray must first be directed to the
ceiling to cool the fire gases, shutting the door
after each application, the forming of steam in a
closed space will help to inert the atmosphere.
Once the temperature has decreased then a
more direct attack is possible. A beam of water
will provide a great striking force, but can also
cause more water damage and destroy evidence
required for establishing the cause.
Water spray will minimize water damage and
keep the fire scene intact.
Class A type fires are notorious for re-igniting,
unless the seat of fire is carefully turned over to
uncover smouldering hot spots. (bulls eyes)
Tactics
Engine room fires
There are a number of scenarios involving the
engine room, namely small fuel spill fires,
pressure spray fires, overheating of bearings,
large spill and pressurized liquid fires and fires
involving switch gear. Engine room incidents are
normally attributed to carelessness, whether bad
working procedures or bad maintenance.
Small oil spill fires can normally be extinguished
with a portable powder or CO² extinguisher, if a
person is present at the time of ignition. Quick
reaction in isolating the source of the leak together
with stopping the ventilation, closing doors etc. are
essential tasks for effective control.
The longer the fire is left unattended the bigger the
problem can be and because powder and CO²
have very little cooling capabilities, the fire could
re-ignite due to the presence of hot metal.
In this event no hesitation must be made in using
water sprays, for a combined powder and water
spray attack and after cooling of the affected area.
Water spray, particularly in a fog pattern is very
good at cooling equipment, even high temperature
equipment, without causing thermal stress.
Portable foam equipment may also be a good
alternative, providing the foam blanket can
effectively cover the spill.
Bilge design may make a direct foam attack
difficult and time consuming.
Small oil spray fires ignited on hot surfaces can
easily be extinguished; firstly by closing the fuel
valves and then using a combination of water and
powder to give good results. Powder on its own
may not be sufficient as the fire may flash back on
the hot metal.
Safe approach by the fire team due to the quickly
rising temperatures must be considered i.e. entry
via the propeller shaft tunnel door or if a similarly
protected low-level approach is available.
Consider options of vertical ventilation as
previously described.
A fire team cannot safely extinguish larger fires in
the engine room. The use of the fixed installation
is essential to control the fire. A rapid assessment
needs to be carried out as a delay in the use could
seriously affect the outcome. Remember there is
normally only enough gas to make one attempt;
hence the use must be strictly controlled to
prevent a wasted effort.
Tactics
For CO2 total flooding systems the main
considerations are as follows:
z Stop ventilation.
z Close all doors, shutters and dampers.
The system is designed to flood 85% of the gas
within 2 minutes.
Leave the area closed for at least two hours to
allow it to cool naturally. Use the emergency fire
pump to set up cooling around the engine casing
to assist in cooling and prevent the fire spreading
by conduction into the superstructure. Monitor the
temperatures around the engine casing.
Re-entry should be cautiously done preferably at
the highest level so as not to disturb the CO2
concentration. The team must wear breathing
apparatus, as the atmosphere will contain toxic by
products and inadequate oxygen for human life for
any substantial time.
The concentration may be suitable to extinguish
flaming materials however the oxygen levels are
still high enough to support smouldering of class A
materials, especially high in the engine casing,
where the oxygen the levels will be higher.
Therefore keep water ready to tackle small
pockets of smouldering materials and be prepared
for a sudden outbreak of fire.
Halon total flooding systems are very different to a
CO2 system. Halon is a very powerful inhibitor,
which stops the chain reaction of combustion
without dramatically changing the oxygen levels.
The discharge is approximately 10 seconds,
which will extinguish the fire with minimum
decomposition of the Halon gas, which becomes
acidic.
Early decision to activate the system minimizes
failure of the system to extinguish the fire and
reduce the decomposition of the gas making the
engine room safer to enter later. The system is
designed to close the ventilation to the affected
area automatically. The rules of re-entry are the
same as CO2, to allow the area to cool without
disturbing the Halon concentrations.
A Hi fog fixed installation is another alternative for
the engine room.
The system is more flexible, allowing more than
one attempt and also continuously cooling after
the fire.
The water fog is not directly hazardous to life;
therefore it is not essential to evacuate the area
before activation.
Tactics
Boiler uptake fires
The burning through of boiler water pipes or the
overheating of the boiler steel caused by a burning
build up of soot deposits in the boiler uptake
system will cause the leaking water to separate to
form free hydrogen and oxygen.
This hot oxygen rich atmosphere will start the
boiler steel burning.
The application of water will intensify the reaction.
The boiler water pipe fire can be controlled by
stopping the water flow through the pipe, and let
the fire burn out.
Fires in the boiler uptake can be extinguished by
sailing at full power, thus generating large
quantities of exhaust gases, which cool the
burning steel.
Whilst the fire burns itself out, there is a necessity
to cool all adjacent areas to the uptake.
Crank case explosions
This explosion is caused when air builds up and
mixes with oil vapour in the sump of a diesel
engine, resulting in an explosion, possibly with or
without fire.
Good maintenance, together with oil mist
detectors and explosion limiters with reduce the
risk of a serious explosion.
Any fire resulting from the explosion can be dealt
with as described previously.
Cargo fires
If a fire starts during a voyage, the possibilities for
attack are severely limited. Safe access to fight a
fire is the main problem.
However the effects of the fire can be mitigated by
closing all ventilation and injecting the fixed gas
fire fighting system. (CO2)
The entire rack of gas must not be used, only
enough to fill one hold to the recommended
concentration, the remaining cylinders are held in
reserve for topping up the concentration.
The concentration of oxygen will be reduced
enough to slow down combustion and even
completely extinguish in certain situations.
Closely packed goods will prevent the CO2 from
reaching the seat of the fire; therefore the fire is
likely to continue to smoulder.
Close monitoring of the hold and carefully
maintaining a constant layer of CO2 by
discharging more cylinders will control the fire
until port is reached.
Tactics
The other holds should also be monitored for
possible spreading through conduction. If safe
entry is possible to adjacent holds, removal of
goods away from the connecting bulkhead, or if
this is not possible cooling water should be
considered to prevent heat transfer.
Once in port decisions will be made together with
the port authority and the fire service as to the
best method of attack. Maybe bringing in extra
supplies of CO² and continue to smother the fire,
however that process could take days and
depending on the damage to the hold, and hence
excessive leakage many tanker loads of CO²
maybe required. After monitoring for heat the
decision may be taken to unload the hold carefully
in order to reach the deep-seated fires, first
starting with the tween deck and then the main
hold. Always have charged hose lines on hand
whilst opening the hold.
A last resort could be to flood the hold; however
before that decision is made the implications on
the stability and stresses on the hull have to be
examined.
An alternative to flooding with water is to apply
high expansion foam, but the effectiveness
depends on the load and the ability to seal off the
fire.
Refrigerated spaces give special problems as the
insulation may once on fire produce large
amounts of toxic smoke reducing visibility and
difficulties in locating the seat of the fire.
Container fires
The problem with this type of fire is again access.
Below deck the same procedure as with a cargo
hold can be used. If access can be gained safely
attempt to isolate the affected container by
applying cooling water on all sides. Attention must
be given to the bottoms of the container because
they are made from wood. The contents of the
container must be checked on the cargo manifest
before attempting to extinguish the container itself.
Access permitting the suitable extinguishing agent
can be injected by boring a hole in the high side of
the container.
An alternative is to discharge the container
overboard, again depending on accessibility and
ship facilities.
Refrigerated units, which require power, either
diesel generators or electrical compressors, may
result in small fires outside the unit. Early
detection and rapid response is essential to
prevent the load from becoming involved.
Tactics
Oil tankers and gas carrier fires
The regulations governing this type of vessel are
very strict, because fire can be devastating. The
most likely scenario is a leakage during transfer at
port or at anchor. Major fires at sea are usually a
result of grounding or a collision incident.
Each port will have set procedures for fire whilst
in the port area which clearly state the action to
take with the help of a civil fire service who will be
in command.
The notification and follow up procedures must be
strictly followed. For serious fires the port
authority may tow the ship away from berth to a
safer location using the pre-laid fire wires
(emergency towing off wires).
The procedures will involve activating the fixed fire
fighting installations covering the high-risk areas
such as pump rooms for discharging or bunkering
the cargo.
These systems range from CO², foam and inert
gas to water spray and high-pressure water
sprinklers.
The transfer of product must be immediately
stopped and the main engine and steering put on
standby.
Oil fires on deck can be extinguished with the
fixed foam monitors whilst the surroundings are
protected with water spray. The superstructure
often has water curtains to protect against radiant
heat; if not manual cooling must be set up.
Serious fires at sea following collision, all attempts
to control the fire must be made, however
preparations to abandon ship should begin
immediately, so the crew can leave the ship if the
situation deteriorates.
The turning of the ship can reduce the heat to
other tanks and the superstructure, reducing the
chance of escalation and improving the approach
condition to the fixed foam monitors.
Turning the ship is also necessary to secure the
escape routes to the lifeboat stations.
On a gas carrier small simple fires may be
extinguished with powder. Larger fires as a result
of a major leak such as a flange seal failure
should not be extinguished, without stopping the
source of the leak.
The resulting gas cloud formed will, if ignited,
cause far more damage.
Tactics
Isolation of the gas line is the only sensible
solution. The use of fixed water spray systems
will cool the area surrounding the fire preventing a
possible BLEVE.
Check if the cooling system is effective and
supplement with extra cooling as necessary,
special attention must be given to flames
impinging on other vessels and surfaces.
The first reaction is to stop the leak manually.
If the valve is located near the fire, then the teams
equipped with hose lines using the water to form a
protective screen to shield from the radiating heat
can move in to close the valve.
An un-ignited leakage of gas can cause serious
damage if it finds an ignition source. Quick
reactions in discovering the source of the leak and
the means to stop the discharge could avert
disaster.
However attempts to disperse the gas cloud using
water spray, together with turning the ship to more
favourable wind conditions will minimize the
explosion risk.
About 1 litre of water in a spray pattern can inject
as much as 3000 litres of air, thus lowering the
concentration of gas to below its lower explosion
limit.
The spray should be directed in the gas cloud as
close to the leak as possible in such a way to
direct the gas up and away from the ship.
Fire on RoRo Ferries
A fire on the vehicle deck can spread very quickly
because of the closely packed vehicles.
The enclosed vehicle decks are equipped with
sprinkler/drencher systems to control the spread
of the fire from vehicle to vehicle.
Particular problems are associated with highsided vehicles, which may hinder the drencher
effect.
The system is not designed to extinguish the fire
only to contain the spread. Attention must be
given to exposure of fuel tanks and any running of
burning liquids over the deck.
RoRo ships may carry dangerous goods,
information of such must first be gained before
extinguishing begins (see dangerous goods at
sea chapter).
Cars can present special risks such as LPG
tanks or suspension units that could explode
when involved in fire. After the fire has been
extinguished check for any fuel leaks and
disconnect the battery to eliminate further ignition.
Tactics
Dangerous goods at sea
DANGEROUS GOODS AT SEA
This chapter deals with the safe handling of
incidents involving hazardous materials, whether
as part of goods in transit, or hazardous materials
used in the normal operation of the ship.
Goods for transport
The International Maritime Organization has
published a guide to be used for the safe transport
of dangerous goods. The present guide, the IMDG
(International maritime Dangerous Goods Guide)
is in the form of 3 books, Volume 1, Volume 2 and
the Supplement.
Volume 1 forms the basis of how the consignment
is put together, which includes design criteria for
packages and containers, consignment
procedures, restrictions and segregation rules for
safe transport.
Volume 2 gives specific details about the
materials in an easy to read table, the important
information in the event of a spillage or fire is
given in the column named ‘Ems’. (Emergency
schedule)
The supplement defines all the various
Emergency Schedules and a section detailing
Medical First Aid Guide (MFAG).
In order to fully understand the hazards
associated with these materials the materials
have been classified into 9 classes.
The IMDG defines in volume 1 the hazards in
each of the classes. The classification of
dangerous goods together with the appropriate
hazard warning diamond is as follows:
Class 1 Explosives
Sub divisions:
1.1 Has a mass explosion hazard.
1.2 Has a projection hazard but not mass
explosion hazard
1.3 Has a fire hazard and either a minor blast or
minor projection hazard but not a mass
explosion hazard
1.4 Has no significant hazard
1.5 Very insensitive substances with a mass
explosion hazard
1.6 Extremely insensitive substances not having
a mass explosion hazard
Dangerous goods at sea
Compatibility classes A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, K, L,
N, S enable sub divisions to be transported with
other sub divisions with the same compatibility
letter i.e.:
Class 1.3A with Class 1.6A.
Class 2
Gasses (general)
Class 2.1
Flammable gases
Class 2.2
Non-flammable, non-toxic gases
Class 2.3
Toxic gases
Class 3
Liquids (flammable liquids having a flash point of
ess than 61°C)
Class 4
Solids
Class 4.
Flammable solids
(self-reacting substances and desensitized
explosives)
Class 4.2
Substances liable to spontaneous combustion in
contact with air
Class 4.3
Substances, which, in contact with water, emit
flammable gases
Class 5
Oxidizing substances and organic peroxides
Class 5.1
Oxidizing substances
(oxidizing substances not necessarily
combustible but cause or contribute to
combustion of other material by giving oxygen)
Class 5.2
Organic peroxides
Organic peroxides are liable to exothermic
decomposition initiated by heat, contact with
impurities, friction or impact may have one or
more of the following characteristics:
z Explosive decomposition
z Burn rapidly
z React dangerously with other substances
z Sensitive to impact
z Cause damage to eyes
Dangerous goods at sea
Class 6
Toxic and infectious substances
Class 6.1
Toxic substances
LD50 (oral, dermal) mg/kg
LC50 (inhalation) mg/l
Packing group I (high toxic)
Packing group II (medium toxic)
Packing group III (low toxic)
group
toxicity
oral toxicity dermal toxicity inhalation
I
II
mg/kg
<5
> 5- 50
mg/kg
< 40
> 40 – 200
mg/l
< 0.5
> 0.5 - 2
III
Solids
> 50 - 200
> 200 - 1000 > 2 - 10
Liquids > 50 - 500
> 200 - 1000 > 2 - 10
Class 6.2
Infectious substances
Class 7
Radioactive material
Class 8
Corrosive substances
By chemical action these substances will cause
severe damage to living tissue, damage or
destroy other goods or the means of transport.
Packing groups:
I Very dangerous.
(full thickness tissue damage with less than 3
min. exposure)
II Present medium danger.
(Full thickness tissue damage with more than 3
min. exposure but less than 60 min.)
III Present low danger.
(full thickness tissue damage with more than 60
min. but less than 4 hours exposure OR do not
cause full thickness tissue damage)
Class 9
Miscellaneous
In order to deal with an incident involving a
hazardous material, first the product has to be
classified, the appropriate product information
retrieved and the correct emergency schedule
from the IMDG identified.
Dangerous goods at sea
Identification of the affected load may be done in a
variety of ways, cargo manifests, and container
bay plans will be the first means in establishing
the correct information.
Hazard warning placards, UN numbers and
material safety data sheets used on regular
transported loads are useful points of reference.
UN (United Nation number) is a 4-digit number
unique to that product.
To use the IMDG a reference point is required,
either the UN number or product name.
In volume 2, the main index is in UN number order,
considered the most reliable and easiest method
of identifying the product.
If the UN number is not available, then an
alphabetical index can be used to cross reference
the data.
The table will give information regarding packaging
and transport limitations used by the shipper,
however in column 15 the Ems is given and in
column 17a description and physical properties
are given.
The Ems listed in the supplement gives the
required actions to deal with a spillage or fire, and
the necessary precautions i.e. personal protective
equipment.
The Ems is based on grouping products which
have similar characteristics together to form a
standard method of action e.g. 3-06 indicates the
6th schedule in the class 3 dangerous goods
(flammable liquids).
N.B. Any product that has special arrangements,
which deviate from the schedule, will be listed at
the bottom of the schedule together with the
appropriate action.
The medical first aid guide provides a reference
point for key medical treatment.
The primary source of information is in the form of
a flow chart, which if followed covers in order of
priorities the key points when examining the
victim’s condition, in relation to contact with a
dangerous product e.g. is there skin contact, if
yes the chart refers to table 8 to give the correct
treatment.
However there are products, which have special
arrangements for treatment. Those products are
listed at the end of the MFAG chapter.
Dangerous goods at sea
Hazardous materials used in normal
operational use
Products that are used for operational use e.g.
cleaning chemicals, water treatments; pose a
hazard to health if there is a threat of spillage of
fire.
Law requires that all products that possess a risk
to health must have a material safety data sheet
available for easy reference in safe handling in
normal use and or fire/spillage situations.
Identification of these products may involve other
means, such as supply labels.
Key actions to control a spillage or fire
The fact that incidents are successfully controlled
may be a question of safe and easy access.
Container and closely packed goods may not be
easy to deal with whilst underway at sea.
However steps can be taken to mitigate the
effects, until port is reached where the load can
be discharged safely or if the risk to the port is
considered too great, then help will be needed by
specialist salvage operators.
If access is easier than a disciplined and
controlled response is required. The implications
of accidental contact with a hazardous material
can be grave and very costly, therefore a tight
control over the affected risk area is necessary.
Only personnel who have the appropriate level of
personal protection are allowed in the “dirty” area.
Strict segregation, clear demarcation of the dirty
area, with a physical barrier if necessary to
enforce the controls, to prevent cross
contamination of unaffected personnel.
Setting up of the control zone should be the first
action, obviously in a suitable upwind location.
Without a monitoring device then try attaining
20m. Incidentally the IMDG does NOT provide
data on MAC (Maximum Allowable Concentration)
or PEL (Permissible Exposure Limit) requiring the
use of monitors.
Once the safe area is indicated, then selection of
the correct personal protection is required,
remembering that most chemical suits are not fire
resistant. The correct selection can be made
using advise from the EMS in the IMDG or a
MSDS. Before any action is taken, it is important
that several items are addressed.
Dangerous goods at sea
Ensure that all precautionary measures are taken
i.e. control of ignition sources, use of water,
correct fire extinguishing media if risk of fire etc..
Briefing of the crew of the nature of the hazard, in
order the team has a good awareness of the
dangers.
Chemical suits only offer limited protection;
therefore teams should strive to limit their
exposure. Decontamination of teams must be set
up prior to entry, in case the team must exit the
area quickly.
The response team must move with caution,
limiting their exposure, and protecting their suits
from accidental damage. In a confined situation a
good means of escape must be maintained at all
times.
Confirm the situation with an initial report to the
command, before any work is started, in order to
verify the products involved. The initial report may
have been made from a distance, whereas on
closer inspection the leaking product maybe from
a different source than previously thought.
The containing of the incident depends on the
findings of the team and the information given in
the Ems. All actions should not cause the product
from contaminating a larger area i.e. sensible use
of water if called for by the Ems. Methods of
dealing with leakagemay involve water to wash
overboard or the use of a dry absorbent.
The Ems may give conflicting information. The
description of the product may indicate a reaction
with water, however to deal with the product it may
require copious (large volume) quantities of water
applied to dilute and wash overboard from as far
away as possible. Read all the information before
deciding on an action plan.
Once the incident is under control, the
decontamination of the response team is the next
consideration for the command. The team’s suits
must be cleaned sufficiently to enable safe
undressing, avoiding further exposure from
residue still remaining on the suit.
Careful control and strict discipline by all involved
is required to clean the affected area, the team’s
suits, and any equipment used in the operation.
Injured persons may also have to undergo a
decontamination process before an unprotected
medical team gives treatment.
Dangerous goods at sea
Liaison with shore based services
LIAISON WITH SHORE BASED
SERVICES
In the event of a fire, it may be possible to
summon the help from shore based fire fighting
teams, which in well developed parts of the world
could involve vast resources and manpower.
However, dealing with other agencies will give the
ships crew additional communication challenges.
Fire at Sea
Some countries have the funding and resources
to assist a ship in trouble.
A professional response demands a great deal of
preplanning by the Fire Department, thus poorer
countries may not have the funding to set up a
Emergency response team for offshore work.
It is not straight forward to set up a team for ship
firefighting, the selection of suitable personnel,
training of those personnel not just for ship fire
fighting, but also helicopter operations and sea
survival will need to be funded, in most cases
separately to local funding arrangements.
The funding is very often a grey area and the
retrieval of costs involved in fighting fires can be
difficult due to the complexities of salvage claims.
Shore based fire fighters offer some obvious
advantages over a ship’s crew, namely a greater
understanding and experience in fire and dealing
with hazardous materials.
A professional fire team trains very regularly, in
some cases every day and regularly performs
excercises, which demand the mobilization of a
large amount of resources.
Early notification is essential in order that the
shore-based service can assess the situation and
plan a safe approach.
The reluctance to call earlyfor help whatever the
reason, be it company policy, salvage claims or
just lack of understanding of what is available,
may incur serious delays which will affect the
success of the operation.
Before boarding, the senior fire officer will carry
out a dynamic risk assessment, to ensure the
safety of the team.
Safe access and escape routes, together with the
risks on board are their main concerns.
Liaison with shore based services
Once on board the officer will need to be given a
full briefing by the ship’s command, using the
ship’s fire safety plan.
A situation report will be sent to the fire
departments control centre giving the land-based
command indications to the size of the task and
the resources that need to be organized.
Although the shore-based team has a greater
knowledge about fire fighting, the sea conditions,
knowledge of stability, layout of the ship, and the
equipment on board will disadvantage them.
Liaison between both parties will help to
overcome the difficulties.
A ship fire to a land based fire fighter is a hostile
environment, not just the because of the
difficulties in attacking, but also the team’s
involvement at sea means a fire in the advanced
stages.
Fire in port
Reporting of fires on board whilst in port is
compulsory; the arrangements will depend on the
port authority.
Equally the attendance of the shore based fire
service or port fire department will also be
obligatory, because the functioning of the port,
shipping lanes and the surrounding community
are threatened by the incident.
Depending on the scale of the incident, the ships
command may face dealing with many more
interested agencies, port authorities, coast guard,
police, ambulance, environmental agencies,
insurers to name but a few.
Each port will have its own guidelines regarding
the procedures during a fire situation, especially
for high-risk cargo, such as chemical or crude oil
tankers, where protection off the terminal has a
high priority.
In such a case alternative arrangements such as
a fire-fighting berth may be available.
In a fire situation the senior fire officer will take
command of fire fighting operations; however the
decisions regarding fire fighting may be changed
as a result of consultation with the ship’s
command and any other interested agencies.
In order to speed up the response, it is advisable
to greet and guide a fire officer to the bridge, to be
briefed by the master. The fire safety plan should
be taken along and used as the basis of the
briefing.
Liaison with shore based services
The senior fire officer is usually identifiable by a
high visibility coat with the appropriate markings
“incident commander” on the back. In the event
that the incident increases in scale the ship’s
command will probably have to deal with more
than one officer.
The fire officer may set up the command post on
the quayside, in close proximity to other agencies
control points.
Ensure there is a clear and effective
communications link with the shore side
command post. Most fire departments will operate
within a pre-planned incident command system,
designed to break the responsibilities in to key
functions.
The fire departments overall command will be
sub-divided in logistical support, operational
duties, liaison, financial etc.
In order to monitor the condition of the ship, a
water officer and a stability officer may be
appointed. They may require information on loads,
weight distribution and effects of firewater
introduced into ship.
Remember that if a fire monitor is used, as much
as 3.5 ton of water can be taken on board every
minute, a tug boat monitor around 40 ton per
minute and even a hand held hose line could add
0.5 ton per minute. The implications are further
discussed in another chapter about stability.
The success of fire fighting rests with the shore
based team; however a good communication
liaison between the ship’s crew and the shorebased team could make all the difference.
Ships, which have regular port of call, are
encouraged to seek contact with the port’s fire
department. Subject to work commitments on
both sides, a combined exercise on board would
give invaluable insight in how each party works.
Liaison with shore based services
Fire investigation
FIRE INVESTIGATION
Accident investigation is a necessity, in order to
prevent a repeat of the incident. It can also be
required to settle an insurance claim, part of legal
proceedings, improve operational procedures and
improve fire-fighting techniques. Examples of this
process are well documented.
The maritime disasters of the past i.e. ‘Titanic’
and ‘Scandinavian Star’ where large losses of life
provoked changes to SOLAS, and the cruise ship
‘Ecstasy’ where huge damage was sustained
caused a change in the operating procedures.
Investigation of even small incidents can be of
benefit.
The true recording of all accidents and accurate
assessments of the causes of fires/incidents will
contribute to greater safety in the shipping
industry. The Shipping Inspectorate demands that
all incidents that cause damage or severe injury
are reported. Certain accident investigation
agencies also encourage the reporting of near
misses.
This information should be circulated to all,
without it the level of safety within the industry will
not improve. Investigating agencies are now using
modern technology by publishing their findings on
the Internet. The information first needs to be
reported.
The ships command should be able to investigate
minor fire incidents, with a basic understanding of
combustion. The process of finding the seat of
fire, i.e. the initial fuel, the ignition source, should
be reasonably easy to detect providing there is not
too much damage. The more damage the more
difficult it is to establish a cause, especially in a
ship compartment because of the oven effect.
(uniform heat damage)
Serious damage or major injury will initialise a
formal investigation, perhaps from more than one
agency (police, Shipping Inspectorate, insurers
etc.) In this case the preservation of the evidence,
the scene and any relevant records should be
given priority. Nothing should be removed from the
scene unless it interferes with the safe operating
of the ship or because the evidence may be lost,
in which case photography or video should be
used to record the scene.
Fire Investigation
The investigation begins at the initial reports of a
fire. The incident log details chronologically the
events and the actions, which will assist in the
compiling of the report or assist an investigator
from an external agency to build up a picture of
the course of events.
Every effort should be made to interview
witnesses as soon as possible after the incident;
this together with comparing different versions of
events will give the most accurate account.
Endeavour to attain information regarding,
possible seats of fire, fire development, time
scales, fire fighting actions and unusual activity,
reactions, smells or colours given off in the fire.
The fire fighting actions can also play an important
role in establishing a cause.
The scene can give clear indicators to the cause,
providing the use of water is controlled during
damping down operations.
The use of lower pressure spray water at closer
range rather than a beam of water can preserve
more of the scene.
The fire scene
Shortly after the fire has been extinguished comes
the task of examining the scene for the original
seat of fire, a source of ignition, and the cause
which brought the two together i.e. fuel oil under
pressure contacts unprotected hot exhaust
manifold, because the bolts holding the pipe
connection are excessively worn and sheared
when under load.
The area should be well ventilated and a risk
assessment be carried out before entry, so the
investigation can be conducted in a safe way.
An extensive fire will probably begin with one
source of fuel and then spread to involve a
material that causes the most damage, thus an
accurate assessment needs to be conducted to
establish the true facts. If in doubt secure the
scene and wait for the expert!
Fire Investigation
The expert investigator
In the event of a serious fire or injury where an
investigator is expected, securing the scene is
vital to preserve the evidence.
A trained investigator can from heat and smoke
patterns determine the seat of fire and from the
layers of debris he can determine the development
of the fire through the various stages.
The following are examples of the indicators from
an undisturbed scene that can help the
investigator.
The effects of heat on objects.
Knowledge of materials and, particular melting
points can again give the investigator clues to the
way the fire developed. Solid materials are not
completely destroyed in fire but very often fall to
the floor.
The layers are examined to establish those which
burned and fell to the floor first.
The main causes of fire are well known, not just in
the shipping industry. Common examples are
welding, smoking in cabins, static electricity, faulty
electrical equipment, overheating of bearings,
spontaneous combustion of organic materials,
etc..
False assumptions are often made concerning
electrical causes of fire, just because there is an
electrical appliance in the area, so with careful
analysis in most cases the indicators can be
found.
For electricity to be the cause two conditions
must apply:
z The electrical wiring and equipment must be
energized, thus check on circuit protection
devices.
z Sufficient heat and temperature must be
generated to ignite the combustible material.
Short circuit, over current and a poor seated
connection are probably the causes.
Success in fire investigation comes with a
thorough examination of only the facts.
Assumptions can be dangerous.
Fire Investigation
The report
The report needs to contain particular information,
set usually be the ship operators.
The following criteria is desirable:
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
Occurrence and time scale
Actions taken and time noted
Facts concerning fire scene materials etc.
Fire fighting equipment used
Numbers involved in fighting the fire
Damage caused by fire and fire fighting
media
Extent to which ship was immobilized
Analyses of the facts and points discussed
Conclusions reached
Recommendations to avoid repeat of fire
Recommendations to improve fire prevention
and fire fighting procedures
Fire Investigation
Offshore supplement
INTRODUCTION
The production platform has many similarities to
an oil refinery, but the potential dangers are compounded due to the limited space and the hostile
environment the sea presents.
The risk of fire, explosion and leakages are high,
therefore the design of the platform, detection
equipment, efficient fire fighting facilities, together
with a well-trained organisation are an absolute
necessity to prevent a disaster.
The threat of fire must be detected as early as
possible, from which well rehearsed actions are
implemented, including shut down of production,
initiating manually or automatically fixed fire
protection and intervention by fire team to prevent
the situation from worsening.
DETECTION SYSTEMS
Gas detection equipment
Gas alarms detect gas concentrations set to a
percentage of the LEL (Lower Explosive Limit).
There are normally two stages to gas alarms, a
low level and high level alarm condition.
The low level will initiate a alarm condition
normally set at 20% of the lower explosion limit
(LEL) and the high level alarm (60% of the LEL).
The general alarm
Two high level alarms will result in automatic shut
down of production.
Living quarters are also protected by gas
detection set to lower levels (10% lower 40% high
level alarm conditions).
Flame detectors
For detection of fires in the open the flame
detector gives the fastest response.
The detectors are sensitive to ultra violet
emissions from the flame and to prevent false
alarms they are programmed to detect specific
frequencies of light or a fixed time period.
Detection normally initiates the general platform
alarm and activates fixed fire fighting systems
after a predetermined delay (approx 15 secs.)
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Smoke detection
Used in enclosed areas for the fastest response.
Ionisation type detectors usually initiate general
alarm, more than one head activating in the same
zone will initiate a platform shut down and the
automatic fixed fire systems will also be activated.
Heat detectors
These detectors are used in areas where more
sensitive detectors would give too many false
alarms.
There are a number of designs, fuse links, quartz
bulb, bimetal strips, pneumatic loops and
thermistors, all of which are normally set at a
predetermined temperature or a specific increase
of temperature, will activate both the general
alarm and automatic fixed fire systems.
Offshore supplement
FIXED FIRE PROTECTION
SYSTEMS
Water protection systems
Fixed water spray deluge and sprinklers systems
will deliver the appropriate amount of water in a
pre-designed spray pattern to prevent escalation
of the incident.
Water can be used for fire prevention, exposure
protection, fire control and fire extinguishments.
Prevention can be achieved by cooling,
dissolving, diluting or dispersing the flammable
product leak, which presents a fire hazard.
Exposures from radiant heat are cooled by
providing water spray against sensitive equipment,
structures etc.
The uniform wetting of surfaces prevents localised
thermal shock and subsequently fail of the
equipment.
Cooling will reduce the amount of vapour released
through radiant heat, although low flash point
materials can never be extinguished by cooling
alone, fire control can be achieved.
Fire extinguishing can be achieved by cooling
high flash point materials to below the ‘fire point’.
Additionally the smothering action of steam can
also contribute in extinguishments.
High-pressure projectors are used to extinguish
fires by mixing with water vapour.
Sprinklers are provided in accommodation areas
activating when the quartz bulb reaches a specific
temperature (red bulb is 68 ºC).
The system will also give an alarm locally and in
the control room.
Offshore supplement
Foam Systems
Where there is a risk of a liquid spill, a foam hose
box may be provided to cover the spill quickly to
prevent ignition or to extinguish the fire.
Foam stocks may be provided at each foam box
or alternatively injected into the main fire system at
a central location.
Foam concentrates in commonly in use are
fluorprotein, AFFF and for special circumstances
alcohol resistant foams.
The concentrates are introduced into the water at
a percentage ranging from 3% to 6% depending
on the manufacturers instructions.
The system is generating low expansion foam
having an expansion rate of around 12:1.
Dry chemical systems
Fire involving liquid releases on a three
dimensional scale are best extinguished with
powder.
Large powder containers are sometimes provided
with the appropriate hose and applicators giving a
high discharge of powder in to the fire by an
operator. (2 kg per sec)
Halon systems
When avoidance of static electricity is required,
fixed fire fighting systems with Halon can be
installed (CO2 can generate high voltage static
electricity on discharge).
These systems are often found in turbine rooms,
generator rooms and electrical switch rooms.
Offshore supplement
STRUCTURAL FIRE PROTECTION
Firewalls and load bearing members are passive
fire protection and give protection for a defined
time.
They protect against heat, smoke and flame for
the defined time indicated in the construction
design practices and SOLAS.
The firewall enables the safe escape for
personnel, a safe haven for personnel, protect
equipment vital for emergency operations and can
contain the fire within the compartment.
Blast walls are used to protect against a possible
explosion.
The wall can withstand overpressure from the
force of the explosion.
The pressure is then released safely into the open
air.
TACTICAL APPROACH IN
OFFSHORE FIRE FIGHTING.
Emphasis must be placed on the pre-determined
Contingency plan designed for the installation.
These plans are designed to quickly and safely
detect, control and extinguish the fire without
undue risk to the personnel.
Contingency plan
The fire teams must quickly assess the
effectiveness of the Contingency plan and make
necessary adjustments.
This will include establishing the effectiveness of
automatic fixed fire protection systems and to
supplement additional supplies as necessary.
For example, flame impingement on a tank can
penetrate through a water protection screen,
causing failure and/or increase in temperature
resulting in a BLEVE.
The Fire team may have to deflect the flames
away using monitors or hand lines. (Flame
bending)
Any fire team involvement close to the fire is a
risk; therefore great care must be taken to control
their movements, ensuring that they afford
themselves the maximum protection.
Full protective clothing must be worn, whilst taking
advantage of blast and firewalls.
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Fire fighting operations are coordinated with the
control room, which are systematically controlling
fuel flow to the fire or release using remote
operated shut down valves and/or emergency depressurisation systems.
The control room may warn of impending
escalation due to subsequent alarms. The line of
communications is a very important element of
the fire emergency plan.
Gas releases
An un-ignited gas release must be isolated
immediately. Any build up of gas and subsequent
ignition could be disastrous.
Personnel must never knowingly walk into the gas
cloud and personnel working in the vicinity must
wear full protective clothing including breathing
apparatus.
Water spray can be employed to reduce the lower
explosion limit of the gas, or to disperse the gas
cloud to a safer location.
Every 1 litre of water delivered in a spray pattern
can displace 2000 – 3000 litres of air effectively
diluting the concentration of gas.
Effective use of water
Water can be used by the fire team to supplement
the fixed systems water coverage.
The fire team can also use screens of water to
protect against radiant heat, for example when
closing down a small leak in close proximity to the
fire.
This is a hazardous method of attack and every
precaution must be taken including extra teams
standing by to provide a safe route back to safety.
Flame bending is a used practise in the open
where the volume and velocity of water and air
from a branch pipe can turn the flames away from
exposed surfaces..
Offshore supplement