Science, Research, and
Animal Models
William L. Palya, PhD
Jacksonville State University
What is Science?
Science
All human endeavors
Science
All human endeavors
Why?
Science
All human endeavors
Why?
understood, useful, truth
Science
Truth
empirical
Science
Truth
empirical
reliable
Science
Truth
empirical
reliable
multiple converging evidence
Science
Truth
empirical
reliable
multiple converging evidence
consensual validation
Science
Truth
empirical
reliable
multiple converging evidence
consensual validation
operationally / functionally defined
Science: Truth
operational / functional definitions
Science
Understood
describe
Science
Understood
describe
predict
Science
Understood
describe
predict
control
Science
Understood
describe
predict
control
synthesize
Science
Understood
describe
predict
control
synthesize
explain
Science: Understood
Explanation
• The cause(s) / effect(s) relationship(s)
• Factors altering functional relationships
• Systematic context for that information
Science
Science Versus Belief
Science
empirical
reliable
multiple converging evidence
consensual validation
operationally / functionally defined
describe
predict
control
synthesize
explain
X
True? But
not Science
Science
Misconceptions
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Empirical not exact
Science and poetry are one at a time
Unifying principle not accumulate facts
Discover commonalities not inexplicable
Driven by understanding not solving needs
Unnecessary to disprove every assertion
Theories are not wild guesses
“Work in theory not real world” is ignorant
A Conceptual Structure for
the Scientific Study
of Nature
Structure for Study of Nature
The Scientific Study of Nature
Goals
Structure for Study of Nature
The Scientific Study of Nature
Goals
Practitioning
Structure for Study of Nature
The Scientific Study of Nature
Goals
Practitioning
Applied research
Structure for Study of Nature
The Scientific Study of Nature
Goals
Practitioning
Applied research
Basic (pure) research
Structure for Study of Nature
The Scientific Study of Nature
Goals
Level of Molarity
Structure for Study of Nature: Level of Molarity
cell
cellular adaptation
DV
Structure for Study of Nature: Level of Molarity
organism
organismic adaptation
DV
Structure for Study of Nature: Level of Molarity
atom
atomic adaptation
DV
Structure for Study of Nature: Level of Molarity
group
group adaptation
DV
Structure for Study of Nature: Level of Molarity
existence
existential adaptation
DV
Structure for Study of Nature: Level of Molarity
system
group
group
systematic adaptation
group
DV
Structure for Study of Nature: Level of Molarity
Level of Molarity Summary
Structure for Study of Nature
Level of Molarity by Goals Summary
Paradigm
Term
Existential
Adaptation
Atomic
Adaptation
Cellular
Adaptation
Organismic
Adaptation
Group
Adaptation
Common te rm
Physics
Chemistry
Biology
Psychology
Sociology
Systematics
why
existential
adaptation
why existence
string theory
why
atomic
adaptation
why substances
why
cellular
adaptation
why life
why
organismic
adaptation
why behavior
why
group
adaptation
why participation
why
systematic
adaptation
atomic weapons
research
polymer
research
agricultural
research
clinical
research
organizational
research
ecological
research
medical
research
educational
research
cultural
research
exterminator
county
agricultural
agent,
physician
farmer
clinical
psychologist
teacher
salesperson
politician
law maker
advertiser
ecologist
reinforcement
culturation
balance
To Understand:
Basic
Research
To S olve:
Applied
Research
To Dispense
Solutions:
Practitioning
fusion
research
architect
engineer
bomber pilot
chemical
salesman,
gas station
attendant
Systematic
Adaptation
Variation
Process
“Provenance"
Selection Process
conservation
“Consequence”
stability
life/
reproduction
Structure for Study of Nature
The Scientific Study of Nature
Goals
Level of Molarity
Time Scale
Structure for Study of Nature: Time Scale
Independent variable
Dependent variable
DV
axis
IV
axis
Time
Structure for Study of Nature: Time Scale
Structure for Study of Nature: Time Scale
• Levels may vary across molarity
number
size
• For psychology
immediate
short
medium
long
Structure for Study of Nature: Time Scale
Immediate
Event
Result
Light onset
Reaction
millisec to sec
Structure for Study of Nature: Time Scale
Short
Event
Result
Contingency
Learning
If peck, then food
sec to days
Structure for Study of Nature: Time Scale
Medium
Event
Overlapping
contingencies
Result
Days to years
Disposition
Structure for Study of Nature: Time Scale
Long
Event
Reproductive
contingency
Result
Years to millenia
Instinct
Structure for Study of Nature: Time Scale
Time Scale Metaphor
the behavior stream
can be seen as having contributions
from various component scales
Structure for Study of Nature: Time Scale
Time Scales in Psychology
instantaneous
milli - sec
Premise
an external event can
change behavior
short
sec - days
medi um
days - years
long
years - eo ns
the behavioral repertoire
can be changed by
environmental
contingencies
enduring characteristic ways of
responding can be
established by exposure
to commonalities in correlations
genetic selection can
establish a characteristic
behavior to an
environmental event
"rules" mem ory organi
equivaza tion of
llences
behavior
Descriptive Un it of
Analysis
RECEPTION
a change in behavior
associated with changes
in the environment
must be input
output relationship
LEARNING
a change in behavior
repertoire associated
with exposure to some
nonrandom relationship
in the
environment
DISPOSITION
a change in the
characteristic way of
responding attribu- table
to commonalities in
correlations
predisposition
INSTINCT
a change in behavior
attributable to genetic
selection
enduring
contingencies
(reverses with stimulus)
(reverses with some
contrary contingen- cy)
Explanatory
Perspective
Of What is "Why"
Asked
(breeds in and breeds
out)
why did organism
respond?
why did organism
respond?
why did organism
respond?
why did organism
respond?
because the stimulus
changed
because of its reinforcement history
because it was exposed to commonalities in correlations
because its ancestors that
did, obtained differential
reproductive success
why does an organism
react to a stimulus?
why does an organism
respond differently
following some
contingencies?
why does the organism
consistent- ly respond
that way?
why does exposure to
commonalities in
correlations result in
characteristic ways of
responding?
why does an organism
respond in "speciestypical" ways?
why does genetic
selection produce
different behavior?
of what is
RECEPTION
a function of?
Product
(virtually life-long but
does not affect offspring)
which factors change
reception?; how, and by
how much?
of what is
LEARNING
a function of?
which factors change
learning?; how, and by
how much?
of what is
DISPOSITION
a function of?
which factors change
dispositions?; how, and
by how much?
of what is
INSTINCT
a function of?
which factors change
instincts?; how, and by
how much?
Structure for Study of Nature: Time Scale
Time Scale by Level of Molarity by Goal Summary
inst ant anous
TIME
SCALE
short
practit ioning
medium
applied
long
E
A
C
O
organismic
cellular
atomic
ex istent ial
adapt at ion adapt at ion adapt at ion adapt at ion
G
S
sy st emat ic
group
adapt at ion adapt at ion
MOLARITY OF PARADIGMATIC CONTEXTS
pure
GOALS
Research: The Acquisition
of Knowledge about
Nature
Research: The Acquisition of Knowledge
Explanation
Rules of the Paradigm
Structure
Causation
Research: The Acquisition of Knowledge
Causation
Cause in past
Cause in future
determinism
teleology
Start
*
Time
End
Research: The Acquisition of Knowledge
Type of Causal Appeal
Cellular
adaptation
Organismic
adaptation
Group
adaptation
Contextualistic
Reductionistic
Short
term
correlative
Research: The Acquisition of Knowledge
The Analysis of Variability
Knowledge is Covariance
Y
.
.
.
. . .. . ... ..
. .. .... .... ...... . .
.......
..
............... . .
... .........................
.
. ... .............. ......
... . . . . . . . ...
X
y
Y
.
.
.
.......
.
.
..
..... .
..
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
....................
.
.
.
.
...........
.......
.
.
.
.
.
.
...... .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..... ....... .
X
x
y x
Research: The Acquisition of Knowledge
The Analysis of Variability
Accountable Variance
Residual Variance
Research: The Acquisition of Knowledge
The Analysis of Variability
Accountable Variance
cause/effect
mechanistic
functional
correlational
Residual Variance
Research: The Acquisition of Knowledge
The Analysis of Variability
Accountable Variance
Residual Variance
experimental solution
assumption of nonlinear dynamics
assumption of true score
delegate problem
decline judgment
Research: The Acquisition of Knowledge
Motivation To Do Research
Indulge curiosity
Challenge
Social reinforcers
Research: The Acquisition of Knowledge
Goal of Research
Satisfy curiosity
Construct functional context
Test theory
Research: The Acquisition of Knowledge
Sources of Problems
Expert
Folklore
Insight
Informal discussion
Knowledge of techniques and apparatus
Reading literature
Paradoxical incident conflicting results
Deduced from paradigm
Research: The Acquisition of Knowledge
Research Activities
What if
Verification
Improve measure
Unconfounding
Specialization
Generalization
Technological advancement
Recombination
Establish existence
Testing prediction
Construction of functional context
Integration into existing paradigm
Research: The Acquisition of Knowledge
Classifications
Deductive vs. inductive
Analysis vs. synthesis
Manipulation vs. no manipulation
Single fact vs. function
Structural vs. functional
Face value vs. model of something else
Research: The Acquisition of Knowledge
Research Optimization
Reliability
Generality
Detectability
Meaningfulness
Research: The Acquisition of Knowledge
Research Design
Difference measures cancel confounds
Evaluation
comparison to chance
consistency with database
coherence with paradigm
Research: The Acquisition of Knowledge
Research Tactics
Be committed
Be well read
Balance novel with mainstream
Focus on productive relationships
Maximize chances to discover
Be alert, ingenious, and relentless
Be diligent, meticulous, and honest
Research: The Acquisition of Knowledge
Communicating Research Findings
Introduction
Method
Results
Discussion
Research: Communicating Research Findings
Introduction
Background to understand and appreciate
Case for question
Case for method
Research: Communicating Research Findings
Method
Information necessary to realize problems
Information necessary to replicate
Research: Communicating Research Findings
Results
What happened
Information necessary to justify summaries
Document reliability
Document power or VAF
Research: Communicating Research Findings
Discussion
How original question was answered
Nonstatistical arguments for:
reliability
generality
detectability
meaningfulness
Implication of research - “so what”
Example Science
Paradigmatic Psychology:
Short-term Adaptation
or “Learning”
Paradigmatic Psychology
inst ant anous
TIME
SCALE
*
short
medium
long
E
A
C
O
ex istent ial
atomic
cellular
organismic
adapt at ion adapt at ion adapt at ion adapt at ion
practit ioning
applied
G
S
group
sy st emat ic
adapt at ion adapt at ion
MOLARITY OF PARADIGMATIC CONTEXTS
pure
GOALS
Paradigmatic Psychology
Causation
Contextual
correlative
Reductionistic
IV
DV
experience
behavior
Paradigmatic Psychology
Relationships of Interest
*
S
S
S
S-S
relationship
S
S* S* S*
S*
S*
S
*
R-S
relationship
Organism
S-R
relationship
R
R
R
R
R
Paradigmatic Psychology
Illuminating Grammar
•
•
•
•
•
•
Avoid active voice and reference to animal
A key peck occurred when light came on
The pigeon pecked when the light came on
The pigeon learned to peck when …
The pigeon learned to peck in order to get …
The pigeon learned the rule “pecking …”
The pigeon understood that if it was to eat …
Paradigmatic Psychology
The Task
IV
stimulus
DV
response
DV = f(IV)
Paradigmatic Psychology
Time Scale Subset:
Short-term Adaptation
DV
minutes / days
Paradigmatic Psychology
Principal Factors
Reinforcement
Shaping
Stimulus control
Nonlinear temporal discounting
Paradigmatic Psychology: Principal Factors
Reinforcement
Some events with some relationships
with stimuli or behavior have an
enduring effect on subsequent behavior
Paradigmatic Psychology: Principal Factors
Reinforcement
Operant conditioning (Thorndike)
S*
R1 R2 R3 R4
R4 R4 R1 R4 R3 R4 R4
Paradigmatic Psychology: Principal Factors
Reinforcement
Reflex conditioning (Pavlov)
S*
S1 S2S3S4
R
S1 S2S3S4
R
Paradigmatic Psychology: Principal Factors
Shaping
S*
R1 R2 R3 R4 R 5
S*
R3 R4 R5 R 6 R 7
R 20 R 21 R 22 R 23
Paradigmatic Psychology: Principal Factors
Stimulus Control
S 1 R1
S*
S 2 R1
S1
S2
R1
Paradigmatic Psychology: Principal Factors
Nonlinear Temporal Discounting
Experimental Demonstration
smaller
sooner
1 oz now
larger
later
2 lbs in 10 min
Paradigmatic Psychology: Principal Factors
Nonlinear Temporal Discounting
Metaphor: Visual angle
Whole
universe
Sun
dime
You
Paradigmatic Psychology: Principal Factors
Reinforcement
Shaping
Stimulus control
Nonlinear temporal discounting
All Behavior
Models in Science
Task
Model
Target
Models in Science
Features
Relevant features
Irrelevant features
Models in Science
Purpose:
Maximize the positive
Minimize the negative
Models in Science
Optimization
•
•
•
•
•
•
Cost
Time
Complexity
IV
DV
Confounding variable
Models in Science
Chosen Basis of Generality
Maximize similarity to maximize generality
Maximize understanding to maximize generality
Models: Chosen Basis of Generality
Similarity
“Real” world
People or at least primates
but confounds
not broadly generalizable
Understanding
Laboratory
Primitive animals
but generality functions
Models in Science
Types
Mathematical model
Physical model
Model procedures
Model apparatus/settings
Model subjects
Models in Science
Animal Models in Psychology
Conditioning and learning research is
based upon the use of pigeons pecking
to colored stimuli for access to food
pellet reinforcers in sealed experimental
chambers with transilluminated keys
and food magazine under schedules of
reinforcement.
Models in Science
Subjects/Apparatus Models
in Psychology
• Pigeons are pests in nature
• Mature rapidly, live 20+ years
• Behaviorally stable at >6 months
• Small, inexpensive, easy to maintain
• Rarely exchange diseases with humans
• Good color vision
inexpensive stimuli
easy to control and eliminate
Models in Science
Key pecking is easy behavior to maintain
Operant defined as key operation
Transilluminated key assures exposure
Food pellets inexpensive, easy to use
Hunger motivation easy to maintain
and control
• Schedules control events at moment of
food
•
•
•
•
•
Models in Science
Life
People fear
heights
People play
slot machines
Models in Science
Procedural Model in Psychology
Reflex conditioning
BOTH THIS
CS
US
UR/CR
ant ecedent
event
subsequent
event
behavior
ax is
AND
THIS
PRODUCES
Operant conditioning
THIS
BOTH THIS
SD
R
S*
stimulus
ax is
antecedent
event
subsequent
event
AND
THIS
PRODUCES
THIS
Models: Procedural Model in Psychology
Contingency
Subsequent
Outcome
D
these conjunctions
are absent
these conjunctions
occur
C
these conjunctions
occur
these conjunctions
are absent
A
B
Antecedent Event
Models: Procedural Model in Psychology
Contingency
Models: Procedural Model in Psychology
Contingency
Subsequent
Outcomes
Reduced
variance on
regression axis


•
• •• •
•• •
• •
•
•
•
•
•
•
•• •
• • •
Antecedent Events
•
Exposure
to both
Models: Procedural Model in Psychology
Mathematical Models in Psychology
• Rescorla Wagner Model
• Scalar Expectancy Model
• Behavior Theory of Timing
Models: Mathematical models in Psychology
Life
A S*
100
A
Response
Strength
Acquisition
Trials
Models: Mathematical models in Psychology
Rescorla-Wagner Model of Learning
V

V

∆V for trial
=     V
increment
stimulus strength
CS salience
Vafter trial
0
10.0 = .1(100-0)
10
9.0 = .1(100-10) 19
8.1 = .1(100-19) 27
7.3 = .1(100-27) 34


V
US salience
limit
total all stimuli
34
27
19
10
1
2
3
4