Bandura
- Self-efficacy
- Outcome expectancy
Paivio
- Dual coding theory (1971)
Piaget
- His stagewise view of cognitive development is a prominent representative of
endogenous constructivism (p. 216)
o Endogenous Constructivism: biological organism—the key process is
coordination of cognitive activities.
 Concepts are not mirrors of the external world. Knowledge exists
at a more abstract level and develops through cognitive activity.
 Cognitive structures are created from other, earlier structures, not
directly from information provided by the environment.
o Exogenous Constructivism: Knowledge formation is basically a
reconstruction of structures (e.g., cause-effect relationships, presented
information, observed behavior) that already exists in external reality.
 Mental structures reflect the organization of the organization of the
world.
 Schemata, network models, production systems fit this
perspective.
- Stages
o Preoperational state: kindergarten
o Concrete-Operations stage: Grades one through three
o
Skinnner: Mid 1960s: Behaviorism: Stimulus-response
- Standardized learning environments
- Carefully specifying behavioral goals
- Teaching machines
o Frequent responding, progress in small steps, shaping, and positive
reinforcement
- Education in the 1970s reflected this movement
- Could not account for complex thinking, memory, problem solving, decision
making, and creativity (as commented by Bandura, 19690.
Vygotsky
- Core of Vygotsky’s theory is it’s integration of “internal” and “external” aspects
of learning and its emphasis on the social environment of learning.
o Cultures externalize individual cognition in their “tools,” by which he
means not only the shared physical objects of a culture (e.g., a toothbrush,
artwork, car), but also more abstract social-psychological tools (e.g.,
written language, social institutions).
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Whereas physical tools are directed toward the external world,
social-psychological tools are “symbol systems used by individuals
engaged in thinking”
 Cognitive change occurs as children use these mental tools
in social interactions and internalize and transform these
interactions.
 In Vygotsky’s view, all higher human cognitive functions
have their origin in each individual’s social interactions in a
social and cultural context.
Zone of proximal development: The difference between the difficulty level of a
problem a child can cope with independently and the level that can be
accomplished with adult help.
o A child and adult (or novice and expert) work together on problems that
the child (or novice) alone could not work on successfully.
o Instruction should be designed just beyond the student’s current level of
development.
Instructional scaffolding: closely aligned with Vygotsky’s theoretical perspective.
Weiner
- Attribution theory, 1985, 1995
Schema
Sensory Memory
- Briefly holds stimuli in sensory registers
- Perception
o Recognizing incoming stumuli and allocating attention to them.
o Then pattern recognition
o Then forwarded to working memory for additional processing
- Visual registers: George Sperling (1960)
o Holds information for approximately .5 second
- Auditory registers: Darwin, Turvey, & Crowder, 1972
o Holds information for 3 seconds
Working memory (formerly short-term memory)
- Developed by Baddeley & Hitch, 1974 and more fully by Baddeley, 1986.
- Executive control system (select, plan, transfer to LTM)
- Articulartory Lop
o Auditory rehearsal, articulation processs
- Visual-spatial sketch pad
o Visual rehearsal, Spatial Comparisons
LTM
- Concept
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Mental structures by which we represent meaningful categories
Objects or events grouped together on the basis of perceived similarities
Examples and nonexamples
Attributes: essential features
 Based on early work of Bruner (1956)
o Prototype theory: Rosch & Mervis, 1975
Propositions
o Smallest unit of meaning
 E.g., John sleeps = sleep, John
 E.g., A bird has feathers = have, bird, featuers
 E.g., If Mary trusts John, she is a fool = If (trust, mary, john) (fool,
mary)
o Frederiksen, 1975; Kintsch, 1974; Rumelhart & Norman, 1978
o Can be judged true or false
o Usually don’t stand alone. They are connected with one another and may
be embedded within one another: Kintsch, 1986, 1988; Anderson, 1995)
 Propositional network
Productions
o Condition-action rules: If/then (Anderson, 1983)
o Organized networks
o Can fire automatically. Generally implicit memory
Schema
o Anderson, Spiro, & Anderson, 1978; Ausubel, 1960; Rumelhart, 1981)
o Organize declarative knowledge
Scripts
o Underlying organizing framework for procedural knowledge
o Schema representations for events (Schank & Abelson, 1977).
Cognitive Load Theory
- Chandler & Sweller, 1990; Sweller, 1994; Mousavi, Low, & Sweller, 1995
- A Number of researchers pivotal to the cognitive revolution
o Jerome Bruner (Bruner, Goodnow, & Austin, 1956).
o David Ausubel (Ausubel, 1960; Ausubel & Youssef, 1963).
o G. A. Miller’s article “The Magical Number Seven, Plus-or-Minus Two:
Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information” (1956)
o Rumelhard, 1975: Schemata
o Schank & Abelson, 1977: Scripts
- Schemata appeared under many labels
o Minsky, 1975
o Rumelhart, 1975
o Schank & Abelson 1977
o Winograd, 1975
o Research showed value of analogies and metaphors
 Researchers touting need for instruction with analogies and
metaphors
 Anderson & Peasron, 1984
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Automated processes: Neisser, 1967
o Elaborated by Laberge & Samuels, 1974; Schiffrin & Schneider, 1977;
Neves & Anderson, 1981; Nusbaum & Schwab, 1986
o
Self-regulated learning theory
- Schunk, 1991; Zimmerman, 1990; Schunk & Zimmerman, 1994
Expectancy-value theory (Eccles & Wigfield)
- Eccles, 1983, 1987, 1993; Eccles et al., 1989)
- Valence (Lewiun, 1935). Value a person attached to an object in the environment
- Level of Aspiration (Lewin, Dembo, Festinger, & Sears, 1944). The goals or
standard that individuals set for themselves in a task, based on past experience
and familiarity with the task.
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