ITALY
• Italy is a peninsula about 750 miles long north to south.
• The Apennine Mountains run down the middle.
• 2 important fertile plains ideal for farming are along the
Po River
– the plain of Latium, where Rome is located, and
– the plain of Campania, south of Latium.
• Italy’s extensive farmland allowed it to support a large
population.
ROME
• Rome was favorably located 18 miles inland on the Tiber
River.
• It had easy access to the sea but was safe from
pirates.
• It was easily defended because it was built on 7 hills.
• Rome also was located on a north-south route in Italy.
ITALIAN PENINSULA
• Because the Italian peninsula juts out into the
Mediterranean, it naturally was a stopping point for
east-west trade and travel.
• This position helped Rome win and maintain its
Mediterranean empire.
THE LATINS
• Indo-European peoples
moved into Italy from
about 1900 to 1500
B.C.E.
• One group was the Latins
in the region of Latium.
• Herders and farmers who
lived on Rome’s hills, they
spoke Latin, an IndoEuropean language.
• After 800 B.C.E.,
Greeks and Etruscans
moved into Italy.
THE GREEKS
• The Greeks settle in southern Italy, giving the Romans
their alphabet and artistic models for sculpture,
architecture, and literature.
• The Greeks also occupied parts of Sicily.
THE ETRUSCANS
• The Etruscans had more impact on early Rome’s
development.
• After 650 B.C.E., they controlled most of Rome and
Latium.
• The Etruscans turned Rome from a village into a city and
gave the Romans their mode of dress-toga and short
cloak.
• The organization of the Roman army was modeled on the
Etruscan army.
EARLY ROMAN RULERS
• Early Roman was ruled by kings, some o f whom were
Etruscan.
• In 509 B.C.E., the Romans overthrew the last Etruscan
king and established a republic.
• In a republic the leader is not a king and certain citizens
have the right to vote.
YOUNG REPUBLIC
• Enemies surrounded Rome, and so the young republic
began a long a period of continuous warfare.
• By 264 B.C.E., Rome had defeated
– the other states of Latium,
– the people the central Apennines,
– the Greeks in the south,
– and the last Etruscan settlements in the north.
• Rome now controlled almost all of Italy.
PATRICIANS & PLEBEIANS
• Early Rome was divided into (2) groups, the patricians
and the plebeians.
• The patricians were the large landowners who formed
Rome’s ruling class.
• The plebeians were smaller landowning farmers,
craftspeople, and merchants.
• Members of both groups were citizens.
• Only patricians, however, could be elected to political
office.
ROMAN CONSULS
• Consuls were part of the chief executive office, that ran
the government.
• There were two (2) consuls that ran the government and
led the army into battle.
PRAETORS
• The Praetor directed the civil law, or law applied to
citizens.
• Later another praetor was added to handle the law as it
applied to non-citizens.
ROMAN SENATE
• The Roman Senate was especially important.
• About 300 patricians who served for life made up the
original Senate.
• At first the Senate was only and advisory body, but by
the 3rd Century B.C.E., it had the force of law.
COUNCIL OF THE PLEBS
• Often there was conflict between the plebeians and
patricians.
• The plebeians wanted political and social equality,
especially because they fought in the army to protect
Rome.
• In 471 B.C.E., the council of plebs was created to deal
directly with conflicts between the plebeians and the
patricians.
TRIBUNE OF THE PLEBS
• Officials called the tribune of the plebs were created to
protect the plebeians.
• By the 4th Century B.C.E., plebeians could be consuls.
• In 287 B.C.E., the council of the plebs received the
right to pass laws for all Rome.
• Despite these gains, a wealthy ruling class dominated
political life.
THE TWELVE TABLES
• One of Rome’s most important contribution was its
system of law.
• Rome’s first code of law, the Twelve Tables, was
adopted in 450 B.C.E.
• Later Romans adopted a more sophisticated system of
civil law, which applied to Roman citizens only.
LAW OF NATIONS
• As Rome expanded, A body of law known as the Law of
Nations arose to handle legal questions that evolved
between Romans and non-Romans.
• Romans identified the Law of Nations with natural, or
universal law that superseded local law in all Roman
provinces.
STANDARDS OF JUSTICE
• Standards of justice drawn from the Law of Nations
applied to all people equally and used principles
recognized today:
– A person is innocent until proven otherwise
– The accused has the right to a defense before a
judge
– Judges should decide cases based on evidence.
JUPITER, SUPREME GOD OF
ROME, FATHER OF ALL
ROMAN LAW
CARTHAGE
• Rome faced Carthage, a strong power in the
Mediterranean.
• Carthage was founded by the Phoenicians around 800
B.C.E. on the coast of North Africa, and had a large
trading empire in the western Mediterranean.
SICILY
• The presence of Carthaginians in Sicily worried the
Romans.
• The 2 groups began a long struggle in 264 B.C.E.
THE FIRST PUNIC WAR
• The First Punic War, between Rome and Carthage, began
when Rome sent troops to Sicily.
• Romans realized that to win the war they needed a large
navy, which they built.
• Rome defeated Carthage’s navy, in 241 B.C.E.
• Carthage gave up its rights to Sicily and paid money to
Rome.
• Sicily became Rome’s first province.
HANNIBAL’S REVENGE
• Carthage wanted revenge.
• Hannibal, the greatest Carthaginian general, began the
2nd Punic War, which lasted from 218 to 201 B.C.E.
• To take the war to Rome, Hannibal entered Spain, moved
east, and then crossed the Alps with a large army,
including a large number of horses and 37 battle
elephants.
• Many soldiers and animals died during the crossing, but
Rome was still under a real threat.
BATTLE OF CANNAE
• At the Battle of Cannae, Rome lost almost 40,000 men.
• In response, Rome raised another army.
• Hannibal roamed through Italy but couldn’t successfully
attack the major cities.
BATTLE OF ZAMA
• In a brilliant move, Rome attacked Carthage, forcing the
recall of Hannibal.
• At the Battle of Zama, Rome crushed Hannibal’s forces.
• Spain became a Roman province, and Rome controlled the
western Mediterranean.
•
•
•
•
THIRD PUNIC WAR
50 years later, the Romans fought the 3rd Punic War.
In 146 B.C.E., Roman soldiers sacked Carthage.
50,000 men, women and children were sold into slavery.
The territory of Carthage became a Roman province
called Africa.
• Rome also conquered Macedonia and Greece.
• Each was put under Roman control.
• Rome now was master of the Mediterranean Sea.
TRIUMVIRATE
• From 82 to 31 B.C.E., civil wars beset Rome.
• Three men, Crassus, Pompey, and Julius Caesar,
emerged victorious.
• Crassus was wealthy and the other 2 were military
commanders and heroes.
• They combined their power to form the First Triumvirate
in 60 B.C.E.
• A triumvirate is a government by 3 people with equal
power.
JULIUS CAESAR
CRASSUS
POMPEY
RUBICON RIVER
• Each man had a military command.
• When Crassus was killed, the Senate decided rule by
Pompey alone would be best, and it ordered Julius
Caesar to give up his command.
• He refused and kept his loyal army, moving it into Italy
by crossing the Rubicon River.
• Hence our expression, “to cross the Rubicon” means to
do something and be unable to turn back.
DICTATOR
• Caesar defeated Pompey and became dictator in 45
B.C.E.
• As a dictator he had absolute rule, yet Caesar knew
Rome needed reforms.
• He gave land to the poor and expanded the Senate to
900 members.
• He filled the Senate with his supporters, thereby,
weakening its power.
• A group of leading senators assassinated Caesar in 44
B.C.E.
SECOND TRIUMVIRATE
• Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus formed the 2nd
Triumvirate after Caesar’s death.
• Octavian and Antony divided the Roman world between
themselves.
• Octavian took the west and Antony took the east.
• Inevitably, they came into conflict.
OCTAVIAN
LEPIDUS
ANTONY
ANTONY & CLEOPATRA
• Antony allied and fell in love with Egypt’s queen
Cleopatra VII.
• Octavian defeated them at the battle of Actium in 31
B.C.E.
• Both fled to Egypt and committed suicide a year later.
• The civil wars and the Roman Republic ended.
• A new period of Roman history known as the Age of
Augustus began in 31 B.C.E.
AUGUSTUS
• Octavian proclaimed “the restoration of the Republic” in
27 B.C.E.
• He gave only some power to the Senate and became
Rome’s first emperor.
• That same year, the Senate awarded him the title of
Augustus, or “revered one.”
IMPERATOR
• Augustus was popular even though the army was his chief
source of power.
• The Senate gave him the title of imperator, or
commander in chief.
• We get our word emperor from this word.
STANDING ARMY
• Augustus had an army of 28 legions of 5,000 troops
each.
• Only citizens could be in the legions.
• Others could serve in auxiliary forces, which numbered
around 130,000 under Augustus.
• He also established the Praetorian guard of 9,000 men
to protect the emperor.
THE POWER OF ROME
• Augustus stabilized Rome’s frontiers and conquered new
areas.
• German warriors wiped out 3 Roman legions.
• The defeat taught Augustus that Rome’s power was
limited, knowledge that devastated him.
• For months he beat his head against the door and
shouted, “Varus, [the defeated commander] give me back
my legions!”
EARLY EMPERORS
• The period called the Early empire lasted from 14 to
180 C.E. [common era].
• After Augustus, the emperor picked his successor from
his family, adopted or natural.
THE AUGUSTUS FAMILY OF EMPERORS
• The first 4 emperors after Augustus were from his
family: Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero.
• Under them the emperor gained more power and became
corrupt.
TIBERIUS
CALIGULA
CLAUDIUS
NERO
PAX ROMANA
• At the beginning of the 2nd century, a series of 5 socalled good emperors led Rome: Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian,
Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius.
• They created a time of peace and prosperity called the
Pax Romana (“Roman Peace”).
• It lasted for almost 100 years.
THE “GOOD EMPERORS”
• The good emperors stopped unnecessary and wrongful
executions, respected the ruling class, and maintained
peace.
• They took more power from the Senate; officials
appointed and directed by the emperor ran the
government.
NERVA
TRAJAN
HADRIAN
ANTONINUS PIUS
NARCUS AURELIUS
THE EMPERORS
• Some emperors adopted capable men into their families
as successors.
• Some instituted programs to help the people, such as
helping the poor educate their children.
• They created widespread building projects such as
aqueducts, bridges, roads and harbors.
ROMAN EXPANSION
• By the 2nd century, the Roman Empire covered about 3 ½
million sq. mi.
• Its population probably was over 50 million.
• The imperial government helped unify the empire by
acknowledging local customs and granting Roman
citizenship.
• In 212 C.E., the emperor Caracalla gave Roman
citizenship to all free people in the empire.
EARLY EMPIRE ECONOMY
• Farming remained the basis of Rome’s prosperity and the
work of most of the people.
• Landed estates called latifundia dominated farming.
• Largely slave labor raised sheep and cattle on these
estates.
• There were many small peasant farms as well.
EARLY EMPIRE SOCIETY
• There was a huge gap between rich and poor in Roman
society.
• Small farmers depended on the huge estates of the
wealthy, who lived extravagant lives.
• Many poor lived in the cities.
• Thousands of unemployed people depended on the
emperor’s handouts of grain to survive.
ROMAN WOMEN
• Women increasingly were not required to have a male
guardian.
• Upper-class women could own, sell, and inherit property.
• Unlike Greek wives, Roman wives were not segregated
from men in the home.
• Outside the home women could attend the races, the
theater, and events in the amphitheater, where they
had their own seating section.
• Women couldn’t participate directly in politics.
SLAVERY IN ROME
• No people relied on slavery as much as the Romans.
• Before the 3rd century B.C.E., even a small Roman
farmer would have 1 or 2 slaves.
• The wealthy had many more.
PUBLIC BUILDINGS
• Rome was adorned with unequaled public buildings, such
as baths, temples, theaters and markets.
ROMAN ENTERTAINMENT
• The people were entertained by grand public spectacles
and entertainments.
• The most popular were gladiatorial contests, in which
animals, slaves, and condemned criminals would fight to
the death.
• Horse and chariot races at the Circus Maximus were also
popular, as were dramatic performances.
• Beginning with Augustus, the city’s 200,000 poor
received free grain from the emperor.
ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS
1. What made the bad emperors bad and who were they?
2. What made the good emperors good, and who were
they?
STRUGGLE FOR POWER
• A long period of unrest after the death of the last good
emperor, Marcus Aurelius, in 180 C.E.
• Rome was ruled by the Severans, whose motto was “pay
the soldiers and ignore everyone else.”
• After their rule ended, between 235 and 284, Rome was
ruled by whoever had the army to seize it.
• There were 22 emperors during these years; many died a
violent death.
INVASION
• The Roman Empire suffered invasions by Persians and
Germanic peoples.
• Invasions, civil wars, and plague almost caused the
Roman economy to collapse in the 3rd century C.E.
• Trade and industry declined and there was a labor
shortage due to the plague.
• Farm production declined on fields ravaged by invading
armies.
GERMANIC SOLDIERS
• Money was short, but Rome needed soldiers more than
ever.
• By mid 3rd century, the state was depending on hired
Germanic soldiers.
• They had no loyalty to Roman traditions.
LATE ROMAN EMPIRE
• At the end of the 3rd and beginning of the 4th centuries,
the emperors Diocletian and Constantine revived Rome,
founding a state called the Late Roman Empire.
• It had a new governmental structure, a rigid economic
and social system, and a new religion, Christianity.
TETRARCHY OF DIOCLETIAN
• Diocletian ruled from 284 to 305.
• Believing the empire was too large to have only one
ruler, he divided the empire into 4 sections called
prefectures each with its own ruler, including himself.
– Prefecture of Gaul
– Prefecture of Italy
– Prefecture of Illyricum
– Prefecture of the East
• His military power made him the ultimate authority.
DIOCLETIAN’S POLICIES
• During his reign Diocletian
– Expanded the bureaucracy and civil service jobs
– Enlarged the army to 500,000
– Drained the treasury for the military
– Issued strict wage and price controls
– Forced people to stay in their jobs, making jobs
hereditary
– Many free farmers became increasingly in debt to
large landowners.
CONSTANTINE
• Constantine ruled from 306 to 337 and extended many
of Diocletian’s policies.
• The policies of Diocletian and Constantine were based on
coercion and control that stifled the vitality that Rome
needed to revive.
• In 324 Constantine became the sole ruler of Rome.
• His biggest project was constructing a new capital city in
the east on the site of Byzantium on the shores of the
Bosporus.
CONSTANTINOPLE
• Founded for defensive purposes, the city eventually was
named Constantinople (Istanbul).
• Calling it his “New Rome,” Constantine filled the city
with a forum, palaces, an amphitheater, and other signs
of Roman and civic glory.
• It became the center of the Eastern Roman Empire and
one of the world’s greatest cities.
DIVIDED EMPIRE
• The empire restored by Diocletian and Constantine
continued for another hundred-plus years.
• It had 2 capitals, Rome in the west and Constantinople in
the east.
HUNS & VISIGOTHS
• In the 2nd half of 4th century, Huns from Asia moved
into eastern Europe and put pressure on the Germanic
Visigoths.
• The Visigoths moved south, crossing the Danube into
Roman territory.
• In 410 the Visigoths sacked the city of Rome.
VANDALS
• In 455 C.E, another group, called the Vandals, also
sacked the city of Rome.
• Our modern word vandal comes from the name of this
ruthless Germanic tribe.
FALL OF WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE
• In 476, the western emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was
deposed by the Germanic head of the army.
• This event is usually taken as the fall of the Western
Roman Empire.
• The Eastern Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire,
continued on.
REASONS FOR THE FALL
• Many theories have been proposed to explain the fall of
the Roman Empire.
– Christianity weakened Rome’s military virtues
– Roman values declined as non-Italians gained
prominent positions
– Lead poisoning from water pipes and vessels caused a
mental decline
– Slavery kept Rome from advancing technologically
– Roman’s political system proved unworkable.