Cherub Ami Ruiz
Martin Downing, MS
SSY 101.1934
October 25, 2007
Summary (pages. 349-192)
MEMORY
 What is so extraordinary about memory and why is it important?
Memory is the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.
It is through memory that people are able to understand languages, know others, cook, dress,
driving and lack of memory makes people become strangers to themselves and to everything and
everyone surrounding their lives. You live each day fresh without any recollection of what you
did the previous day. A roman statesman Cicero defined memory as “the treasure and guardian
of all things.” However, emotionally charged events called flashbulb memories have striking
clarity as compared to other memories. An example will be the ability to tell precisely where one
was when the world trade center was hit. To have a memory about any thing, first information
about that particular thing must be gathered or encoded, next, the encoded information must be
stored and then it can be recalled or retrieved when the need arises. Psychologists Richard
Atkinson and Richard shiffrin (1968) proposed that there are three stages in processing
information before retrieval. The sensory memory (stage1) is where to- be –remembered sensory
information are immediately but very briefly recorded and then forwarded or processed into the
short-term memory (stage2). In this stage, the recorded information is then encoded further by
rehearsal and then it is send into the long-term memory (stage 3) which is a limitless and
relatively permanent storehouse or reservoir that houses the information. However,
contemporary psychological studies have found out that not all information undergoes these 3
stage process, in fact some skips the first two stages and goes straight into the long-term memory
through a “back door”. Latest researchers also prefer the term working memory to short-term
memory because it involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory (sound) and
visual-spatial (photo imagery) and also retrieves information from the long-term memory.
 How and what information do we encode (get it in)?
The process involved in encoding can be in two forms automatically and effortful. Automatic
process occurs unconsciously as we absorb information in our vicinity. It is associated with time,
space, frequency and also due to over learn. Moreover, effortful processes require conscious
attention and deliberate effort (constant rehearsal) to learn information by attaching meaning,
imagery and organization to facilitate accommodation. To enhance effortful processes we attach
imagery to certain words such as fire to recall faster. Also it is easier to recollect organized
information as oppose to random data because it has a pattern. There are three strategies that we
use to encode: Next-in-line-effect is the tendency for people to forget what another person
standing in front of them in a line said due to the fact that they were more focused on what they
have to say instead. Spacing effect is our tendency to retain information better when rehearsed
over time than to learn everything at one shot such as studying for exams. Serial position effect is
our ability to recall the first and last item in a long list such as grocery list. Visual (picture
images) and acoustic (sounds of words) encoding are lower forms of encoding as compared to
semantic (associate meaning). Hence we encode verbal information best when we attach
meaning and apply the self –reference effect (how that information pertains to you).
 How do we store (retain) information?
We receive information via our senses into the sensory memory where picture images are stored
as iconic memory for a period of few seconds and sound information as echoic memory also last
about 2 or 3 seconds. In the short-term (working) memory we are able recall and process seven
times information and then forgotten if not rehearsed. However, information that reaches the
long-term memory is stored permanently. The long –term memory has unlimited storage
capacity. . Recent researchers have noticed that experience (continues transfer of information)
have strengthened the pathway between and within neurons and thus synaptic transitions are
more efficient. This brought about the long-term potentiation (LTP); a pathway in which sending
neurons release neurotransmitters more quickly thus causing receptive neurons to develop more
receptors to increase their ability to detect incoming neurotransmitters better. This LTP also
serve as a neural base for learning and memory. Stress hormones also affect memory in the sense
that when we are stress, we produce extra glucose (pumps brain activity) and hence alert the
brain of important events. Stress also arouses the part of the amygdala that processes emotion
which then triggers hormonal changes which creates permanent memories. There are two storage
bins: implicit (procedural) memories are independent, unconscious recall of memories such as
our own skills, classically and operantly conditioned responses which are partly produced by the
cerebellum near the brainstem. Explicit (declarative) memory is also an independent, conscious
recall of general knowledge, specific facts and personally experienced events. It is processed in
various sub regions of the hippocampus and then later stored at other parts of the brain. Hence
when explicit is malfunction the other is not affected and vise versa.
 How do we get the information out?
We recall (ability to retrieve information without our awareness), recognize (to be able to
identify items which we have learnt already) and relearn (to be able to master previously stored
information). In order to retrieve targeted information we create retrieval cues that make it easier
to obtain that information into our conscious awareness. This unconscious association is known
as priming. Déjà vu occurs as retrieval cues from current situation may subconsciously trigger a
past experience. Our internal emotions also affect retrieval. Hence, when we are in a happy state
we tend to retrieve other happy memories and vise versa. We also extend this mood association
to other people’s behaviors as well.
 What causes memory failure and why is it important?
It is good to forget otherwise we will always be overload with irrelevant and out dated
information. Three general ways our memory can fail us through 1.forgetting by not paying
attention, short lived and blocking of information. 2. Distortion by creating bias, suggestibility
and misattribution.3.Intrusion which is due to unwanted persistence of other memories. Encoding
failure also aids in forgetfulness. This is because very limited sensory stimuli are encoded so as
we age our encoding slows and becomes less efficient. Unless information is encoded, they
cannot be stored in the long-term memory and hence cannot be recalled. Herman Ebbinghaus a
very important name in terms of memory studies, created the forgetting curve which indicates
that forgetfulness increases over time if materials are not rehearsed. Another way retrieval fails is
when proactive interference (old) and retroactive interference (new) information compete for
retrieval. Another brilliant researcher Freud suggested that we consciously banish anxiety
arousing thoughts, feelings and memories so that we can go back for those memories at an
appointed time. He called this repression. Current studies moreover, suggested that repression
hardly occurs.
 What construct or makes up the memory?
Over exposure to misinformation and imagination can change the way store or retrieve
memories. The only difference between true or false memories is that true memories have more
details. Other than that they both can stand the test of time and sincerity.
 What needs to be done to improve our memory?
1. We need to study materials repeatedly to foster long-term recall. 2. Spend more time
rehearsing or actively thinking about the material you are studying to increase retention. 3.
Attach personal meanings to study materials, in so doing, you increase your understanding of the
material so recalling becomes easier. 4. Use mnemonic devices (conjure stories that attaches
vivid images to said items) to remember a list of unfamiliar items. 5. Refresh you memory by
allowing one thought to cue the next. 6. Recall fresh events before you encounter possible
misinformation. 7. Minimize interference by studying before sleeping, not scheduling study
topics that are liable to interfere with each other. 8.test your own knowledge to find where your
weakness lies and enhance learning.