LEGAL CHALLENGES POSED
BY THE ACTION OF NONSTATE ACTORS
IN OUTER SPACE
George D. Kyriakopoulos
Lecturer in international Law,
School of Law,
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens
THE PROGRESSIVELY INCREASING INVOLVEMENT OF
NON-STATE ENTITIES IN INTERNATIONAL
RELATIONS HAS LED, IN RECENT YEARS, AN INTENSE
DEB ATE ABOUT THE ROLE OF THE SO -C ALLED NONSTATE ACTORS (NSAS) IN SHAPING MODERN
INTERNATIONAL LAW
A ‘NON-STATE ACTOR’ IS AN ENTITY THAT IS NOT A
STATE UNDER INTERNATIONAL LAW
 IGOS, NGOS, MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS,
REBEL GROUPS, TERRORIST ORGANIZATIONS, CIVIL
SOCIETY ORGANIZATIONS, CORPORATIONS,
INDIVIDUALS
NSAS INEVITABLY AFFECT SPACE LAW,
WHICH WAS INITIALLY MODELED BY
STATE ACTION
THIS STATE DOMINANCE WAS, INTER
ALIA, REFLECTED IN ARTICLE VI OST –
ARTICLES VII OST, 2-3 LIAB, WHICH
ESTABLISH STATE RESPONSIBILITY AND
LIABILITY FOR OS ACTIVITIES
NSAS IN OUTER SPACE:
- UNIVERSITIES (CAPACITY TO BUILD
SATELLITES);
-INDIVIDUALS (TOURISM);
-SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
ORGANISATIONS (ITSO, IMSO, EUTELSAT IGO);
- IGOS (ESA);
- PRIVATE COMPANIES (COMMERCIAL
ACTIVITIES);
- POTENTIAL TERRORISTS
FOCUS ON NSAS IN OS:
A) NOTE THEIR INCREASINGLY
IMPORTANT ROLE IN SPACE ACTIVITIES
B) REFLECT ON EMERGING
CHALLENGES THAT NSAS IMPLY FOR THE
LAW OF OS
I. ORGANISATIONS (IGOS, NGOS)
ENGAGED IN OUTER SPACE ACTIVITIES
- UNGA, UNCOPUOS  FUNDAMENTAL
PRINCIPLES OF SPACE LAW, FIVE OS TREATIES
- INTELSAT, INMARSAT, EUTELSAT 
SATELLITE TELECOMMUNICATIONS
- ESA  SPACE RESEARCH, TECHNOLOGY,
APPLICATIONS
I. ORGANISATIONS (IGOS, NGOS)
ENGAGED IN OUTER SPACE ACTIVITIES
DESPITE THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO SPACE
ACTIVITIES - SPACE LAW, “SPACE” ORGANIZATIONS
ARE NOT CONSIDERED PER SE AS LAWMAKERS,
SINCE THEIR PRACTICE ESSENTIALLY
CORRESPONDS TO A COLLECTIVE PRACTICE OF
THEIR MEMBER STATES
LITTLE IGO ACTIVITY C AN BE DEPLOYED
WITHOUT STATES’ CONSENT. IGO’S PRACTICE[S]
MUST BE VIEWED AS ‘JOINT STATE PRACTICE’ OF ITS
MEMBER STATES
II. COMMERCIAL HUMAN SPACEFLIGHT –
COMMERCIAL SPACE LAUNCH INDUSTRY
COMMERCIAL LAUNCH REVENUES WORLDWIDE
AMOUNTED TO AN ESTIMATED $2.45 BILLION.
THE U.S. COMMERCIAL SPACE TRANSPORTATION
INDUSTRY AND THE INDUSTRIES IT ENABLED,
INCLUDING SATELLITE MANUFACTURING AND
SERVICES, WAS RESPONSIBLE FOR GENERATING
NEARLY $208.3 BILLION IN ECONOMIC ACTIVITY IN
THE UNITED STATES.
THAT LEVEL WAS EXPECTED TO GROW IN THE
FUTURE
II. COMMERCIAL HUMAN SPACEFLIGHT –
COMMERCIAL SPACE LAUNCH INDUSTRY
U . S . C O M M E R C I A L S P AC E L AU N C H AC T O F 1 9 8 4  “ T H E G E N E R A L
W E L FA R E O F T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S R E Q U I R E S T H AT T H E A D M I N I S T R AT I O N
S E E K A N D E N C O U R AG E , TO T H E M A X I M U M E X T E N T P O S S I B L E , T H E
F U L L E S T C O M M E R C I A L U S E O F S PAC E ”
5 1 U. S . C . § § 5 0 9 0 1 – 5 0 9 2 3 : FA A / A S T TO OV E R S E E , A U T H O R I Z E , A N D
R E G U L AT E B OT H L A U N C H E S A N D R E E N T R I E S O F L A U N C H A N D R E E N T RY
V E H I C L E S , A N D T H E O P E R AT I O N O F L A U N C H A N D R E E N T RY S I T E S W H E N
C A R R I E D O U T B Y U . S . C I T I Z E N S O R W I T H I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S
§ 5 0 9 0 9 : S E C R E TA RY O F T R A N S P O RTAT I O N TO P RO H I B I T, S U S P E N D, O R
E N D T H E L A U N C H O R R E E N T RY O F A V E H I C L E L I C E N S E D I F T H E
O P E R AT I O N I S D E T R I M E N TA L TO T H E P U B L I C H E A LT H A N D S A F E T Y O R A
N AT I O N A L S E C U R I T Y O R F O R E I G N P O L I C Y I N T E R E S T O F T H E U N I T E D
S TAT E S
II. COMMERCIAL HUMAN SPACEFLIGHT –
COMMERCIAL SPACE LAUNCH INDUSTRY
C O M M E R C I A L S P AC E L AU N C H A M E N D M E N T S AC T O F 2 0 0 4  “ S PAC E
T R A N S P O RTAT I O N I S I N H E R E N T LY R I S K Y, A N D T H E F U T U R E O F T H E
C O M M E R C I A L H U M A N S PAC E F L I G H T I N D U S T RY W I L L D E P E N D O N I T S
A B I L I T Y TO C O N T I N U A L LY I M P ROV E I T S S A F E T Y P E R F O R M A N C E ”
5 1 U . S . C . § 5 0 9 0 5  “ T H E H O L D E R O F A L I C E N S E O R A P E R M I T M AY
L A U N C H O R R E E N T E R A S PAC E F L I G H T PA RT I C I PA N T O N LY I F T H E S PAC E
F L I G H T PA RT I C I PA N T H A S P ROV I D E D W R I T T E N I N F O R M E D C O N S E N T
TO PA RT I C I PAT E I N T H E L A U N C H A N D R E E N T RY A N D W R I T T E N
C E RT I F I C AT I O N O F C O M P L I A N C E W I T H A N Y R E G U L AT I O N S
P RO M U L G AT E D … ”
5 1 U . S . C . § 5 0 9 1 4  L I C E N S E E M U S T O B TA I N L I A B I L I T Y I N S U R A N C E TO
C O M P E N S AT E F O R T H E M A X I M U M P RO B A B L E L O S S F RO M C L A I M S B Y A
T H I R D PA RT Y O R T H E U S G OV E R N M E N T AG A I N S T A P E R S O N F O R DA M AG E
O R L O S S TO G OV E R N M E N T P RO P E RT Y R E S U LT I N G F RO M A N AC T I V I T Y
CARRIED OUT UNDER THE LICENSE
II. COMMERCIAL HUMAN SPACEFLIGHT –
COMMERCIAL SPACE LAUNCH INDUSTRY
U S D O M E S T I C L E G I S L AT I O N  FAC E T H E A B S E N C E O F P E RT I N E N T
I N T E R N AT I O N A L R E G U L AT I O N S
I N T E R N AT I O N A L S PAC E L AW D O E S N OT P ROV I D E F O R A D E TA I L E D
A N D C O M P R E H E N S I V E R E G U L AT I O N O F S A F E T Y I N O U T E R S PAC E ,
A S A I R L AW D O E S , I N T H E C O N T E X T O F W H I C H S A F E T Y O F
A I R C R A F T A S W E L L A S A I R T R A F F I C M A N AG E M E N T A R E R E G U L AT E D
I N D E TA I L B Y T H E R E S P E C T I V E P ROV I S I O N S O F T H E I C AO
(ANNEXES 2,6, 8, 11, 13, 18)
O B L I G AT I O N F O R L I A B I L I T Y I N S U R A N C E C L E A R LY O P E R AT E S TO
T H E D I S C H A R G E O F T H E S TAT E F RO M A N Y L I A B I L I T Y, W H E R E A S I N
AV I AT I O N L AW T H E L I A B I L I T Y O F T H E O P E R ATO R / C A R R I E R I S
E S TA B L I S H E D ( 1 9 5 2 RO M E C O N V E N T I O N , 1 9 2 9 WA R S AW
CONVENTION, 1999 MONTREAL CONVENTION)
III. SPACE TERRORISM
A SCE NAR I O FOR T H E FUT UR E . AFT E R 9 / 1 1 , FE AR S T H AT T H E
SPACE SH UT T L E COUL D B E T H E TAR G E T OF A T E R ROR I ST
ATTACK
E S P I RE P O RT: “NE W T H R E ATS AR E NO L ONG ER COMI NG
FROM OT H E R STAT E S B UT FROM NON - STAT E ACTOR S AS
W E L L”
TE RRO R IST O P T I O NS : SATE L L IT E J AMMI NG ; L ASE R OR
DI R E CT E NE R GY ATTACK S ON SATE L L IT E SE NSOR S; USE OF
DI R E CT ASCE NT AND OR B I TAL W E AP ONS AS W E L L AS DI R E CT
E NE R GY B E AMS; USE OF A NUCL EAR E XP L OSI ON AT AN
ALT I T UDE OF 2 5 0 K I L OMET RES I N L E O, CR E ATI NG E MP
III. SPACE TERRORISM
P O S S I B L E L E G A L R E S P O N S E S AG A I N S T S PAC E T E R R O R I S M :
A ) E S TA B L I S H M E N T O F A P R E V E N T I V E I N T E R N AT I O N A L L E G A L
F R A M E WO R K , W H I C H WO U L D I N VO LV E T H E P R E PA R AT I O N O F
S PAC E M I S S I O N S A S W E L L A S T H E M A N U FAC T U R I N G O F S PAC E
OBJECTS
B ) T H E A D O P T I O N O F A N I N T E R N AT I O N A L C R I M I N A L L AW
C O N V E N T I O N O N T H E S E C U R I T Y O F S PAC E AC T I V I T I E S , M O D E L E D
O N T H E 1 9 7 0 H AG U E C O N V E N T I O N A N D / O R T H E 1 9 7 1 M O N T R E A L
CONVENTION
S T RO N G L E G A L T R A D I T I O N O F C O M B AT T I N G I N T E R N AT I O N A L
T E R RO R I S M T H RO U G H A D H O C I N T E R N AT I O N A L C R I M I N A L
CONVENTIONS
III. SPACE TERRORISM
RECOURSE TO MILITARY ACTION C ANNOT BE
REGARDED AS A LEGITIMATE MEANS TO ADDRESS A
TERRORIST ATTACK IN OUTER SPACE AS THE
CONCEPT OF SELF -DEFENSE, PURSUANT THE UN
CHARTER (ARTICLE 51), PRESUPPOSES AN ARMED
ATTACK AGAINST A STATE FROM ANOTHER STATE
USE OF FORCE  LAWFUL IF EXPLICITLY
AUTHORIZED BY THE UN SECURITY COUNCIL
(CHAPTER VII)
IV. SPACE MINING
W H E R E DO W E STAND W I T H AST E ROI D E XP L OR ATI ON?
ON 6 AUG UST 2 0 1 4, E SA’ S OR B I T E R “ROSE T TA” AR R I V E D AT
COME T 6 7 P / CHURYUMOV- GERASIMENKO - L A ND E R “P H I L AE ”
L ANDE D ON T H E COME T ON 1 2 NOV E MBE R 2 0 1 4.
NASA P L ANS TO L AND ‘ OSI R I S - REX’ ON T H E AST E ROI D
“B E NNU ” I N SE P T E MB ER 2 0 1 6
NASA CL AI MS T H AT T H E R E AR E AP P ROXI MATE LY 1 0 0 ,000
NE OS , AND A G R E AT NUMBE R OF T H E M POT E NT I AL LY
CONTAI N WATE R AND I MP ORTANT MI NE R AL S, SUCH AS
NI CK E L, COB ALT, AND I RON
IV. SPACE MINING
U . S . C O M M E R C I A L S PAC E L AU N C H C O M P E T I T I V E N E S S AC T ( H . R .
2262)
T I T L E I V S E C . 4 0 2  FAC I L I TAT E T H E C O M M E R C I A L
E X P L O R AT I O N F O R A N D C O M M E R C I A L R E C OV E RY O F S PAC E
R E S O U R C E S B Y U. S . C I T I Z E N S
“ A U. S . C I T I Z E N E N G AG E D I N C O M M E R C I A L R E C OV E RY O F A N
A S T E RO I D R E S O U R C E O R A S PAC E R E S O U R C E S H A L L B E E N T I T L E D
TO A N Y A S T E RO I D R E S O U R C E O R S PAC E R E S O U R C E O B TA I N E D,
I N C L U D I N G TO P O S S E S S , OW N , T R A N S P O RT, U S E , A N D S E L L I T
AC C O R D I N G TO A P P L I C A B L E L AW, I N C L U D I N G U. S .
I N T E R N AT I O N A L O B L I G AT I O N S ”
( S E C . 4 0 3 ) “ I T I S T H E S E N S E O F C O N G R E S S T H AT T H E U N I T E D
S TAT E S D O E S N OT, B Y E N AC T M E N T O F T H I S AC T, A S S E RT
S OV E R E I G N T Y O R S OV E R E I G N O R E X C L U S I V E R I G H T S O R
J U R I S D I C T I O N OV E R , O R OW N E R S H I P O F, A N Y C E L E S T I A L B O DY ”
IV. SPACE MINING
A ) “ C O M M E R C I A L” E X P L O R AT I O N A N D R E C OV E RY O F S PAC E R E S O U R C E S
I S E N C O U R AG E D A N D P RO M OT E D. W E A L L K N OW O F C O U R S E T H AT
“ C O M M E R C I A L” I S A T E R M R E L AT E D TO O R U S E D I N T H E B U Y I N G A N D
S E L L I N G O F G O O D S A N D S E RV I C E S . I N O R D E R F O R A C O M M E R C I A L G O O D
TO B E S O L D, T H E M E R C H A N T S H O U L D B E T H E P RO P R I E TO R O F I T.
B ) T H E AC T E X P L I C I T LY C O N F E R S TO U . S . C I T I Z E N S P RO P E RT Y R I G H T S TO
R E S O U R C E S I N O U T E R S PAC E .
I I S L  I N V I E W O F T H E A B S E N C E O F A C L E A R P RO H I B I T I O N O F T H E
TA K I N G O F R E S O U R C E S I N T H E O U T E R S PAC E T R E AT Y O N E C A N
C O N C L U D E T H AT T H E U S E O F S PAC E R E S O U R C E S I S P E R M I T T E D. V I E W E D
F RO M T H I S P E R S P E C T I V E , T H E N E W U N I T E D S TAT E S AC T I S A P O S S I B L E
I N T E R P R E TAT I O N O F T H E O U T E R S PAC E T R E AT Y.
P R O F. R A M J A K H U  T H E I I S L H A D R E C O U R S E TO T H E “ L OT U S
P R I N C I P L E ”  “ E V E RY T H I N G W H I C H I S N OT F O R B I D D E N I S A L L OW E D ” .
T H E U . S . S PAC E AC T D I R E C T LY V I O L AT E S T H E O U T E R S PAC E T R E AT Y, A S I T
A L L OW S S TAT E S , P R I VAT E F I R M S O R I N T E R N AT I O N A L O R G A N I Z AT I O N S TO
A P P RO P R I AT E N AT U R A L S PAC E R E S O U R C E S
IV. SPACE MINING
ADOPT I ON OF H . R . 2 2 6 2 DE CI SI VELY I NFL UENCED B Y NON STATE ACTOR S W I T H SUB STANT I AL I NT E R E STS I N T H E
UPCOMI NG R E SOUR CE E XP L OI TAT ION I NDUST RY I N SPACE
( PR I VATE COMPANI E S) . I N 2 0 1 3, P L ANE TARY R E SOUR CES
COMPANY H I R E D A L OB B Y I NG FI R M I N OR DE R TO ADVANCE
I T S C AUSE . OT H E R P R I VATE E NT I T I ES, SUCH AS DE E P SPACE
I NDUST R I ES ( DSI ) , B I G E LOW R E SOUR CES AND MOON E XP R E SS
H AD ANAL OG OUS CONTACT S ON C AP I TOL H I L L .
ON NOV E MB E R 2 0 1 4, NASA CONT R ACT E D W I T H DE E P SPACE
I NDUST R I ES AND P L ANE TARY R E SOUR CES, R E V E ALING A
PE R SPE CT IV E OF USI NG E XT R ACT ED R E SOUR CES FOR OT H E R
SPACE MI SSI ONS
IV. SPACE MINING
WHAT WILL HAPPEN IF OTHER COUNTRIES FOLLOW
THE U.S. PARADIGM? LUXEMBOURG ANNOUNCED
INTENTIONS TO JUMP -START AN INDUSTRIAL
SECTOR TO MINE ASTEROIDS THROUGH THE
CREATION OF REGULATORY AND FINANCIAL
INCENTIVES, SUCH AS CO -INVESTMENT IN
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OR DIRECT
INVESTMENT IN C ASE THAT SPACE MINING ENTITIES
WOULD DECIDE TO CREATE SUBSIDIARIES IN
LUXEMBOURG. DEEP SPACE INDUSTRIES HAS
ALREADY SIGNED A MEMORANDUM OF
UNDERSTANDING WITH THE LUXEMBOURG
GOVERNMENT TO CO -FUND THE DEVELOPMENT
AND LAUNCH OF ITS FIRST SPACECRAFT,
PROSPECTOR-X
IV. SPACE MINING
IF OTHER COUNTRIES FOLLOW THE U.S. PRACTICE
BY INTRODUCING DOMESTIC LEGISLATION ON
COMMERCIAL EXTRACTION OF SPACE RESOURCES
BY PRIVATE ENTITIES, A NEW PRACTICE WILL BEGIN
TO TAKE SHAPE
TO THE EXTENT THAT SAID PRACTICE WILL BE
FOLLOWED BY MAJOR SPACE -FARING STATES, A
NEW INTERPRETATION OF ARTICLE II OF THE OST
AND THE NON-APPROPRIATION PRINCIPLE WILL
POSSIBLY EMERGE, WHICH WILL CONSTITUTE A NEW
CUSTOMARY RULE AND WOULD THUS AMOUNT TO
AN AMENDMENT OF SAID ARTICLE – AT LEAST
AMONG THE STATES THAT WILL BE BOUND BY THIS
FRESH CUSTOM
IV. SPACE MINING
SUCH A PROCESS IS COMPLETELY CONCEIVABLE IN
INTERNATIONAL LAW, GIVEN THAT THERE IS NO
ESTABLISHED HIERARCHY BETWEEN ITS PRIMARY
SOURCES (TREATY – CUSTOM) AND, THUS, A NEW
CUSTOMARY RULE IS C APABLE TO AMEND, EVEN TO
ABOLISH, A CONVENTIONAL PROVISION
SO, A NEW BUT LEGALLY ACCEPTABLE REGIME OF
EXPLOITATION OF SPACE ASSETS WILL EMERGE. IN SUCH
A C ASE, ONE THING IS FOR SURE: THE INTERACTIONS
OF STATES THAT WILL BE BOUND BY THE NEW
CUSTOMARY RULE AND THOSE WHO HAVE SO FAR
RATIFIED THE MOON AGREEMENT OF 1979, WILL
CONSTITUTE UNCHARTED WATERS FOR BOTH
INTERNATIONAL AND SPACE LAW