ENGLISH 11 AP LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION - GLOSSARY
Style - How the author uses words, phrases, and sentences to form his or her ideas. Style is also
thought of as the qualities and characteristics that distinguish one writer’s work from the work of
others.
Rhetoric - from the Greek for “orator,” this term describes the principles governing the art of
writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.
Argument – a thesis-driven position that takes into consideration the contentions of the other side.
Abstract nouns - Nouns which refer to concepts like freedom and love
Ad hominem argument - an argument attacking an individual’s character rather than his or her position
on an issue
Alliteration - repetition of the same consonant sound beginning several words in sequence.
“Let us go forth to lead the land we love.” (JFK, Inaugural Address)
“Sally sells seashells by the seashore.” (famous tongue twister)
Allusion - A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an
event, book, myth, place, or work of art. Allusions can be historical (like referring to Hitler), religious
(like referring to Noah and the flood), or mythical (like referring to Atlas). There are, of course, many
more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion.
“He met his Waterloo.”
Ambiguity - The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or
passage.
Analogy - A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them.
An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to
something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually
engaging.
Anaphora – the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, or lines.
“We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on
the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we
shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on
the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We
shall never surrender.” (Churchill)
Anecdote - A short summary of an interesting or humorous, often biographical incident or event.
Antimetabole (an-te-me-tab’-o-le) – repetition of words, in successive clauses, in reverse grammatical
order…often identified as chiasmus. (See chiasmus)
“Your manuscript is both good and original; but the part that is good is not original, and the part
that is original is not good.” (Samuel Johnson)
“When the going gets tough, the tough get going.” (Knut Rockne/John Dean)
“Mankind must put an end to war, or war will put an end to mankind.” (JFK, UN Speech, 1961)
Antithesis - Balancing or contrasting one word or idea against another, usually in the same sentence.
“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times; it was the age of wisdom, it was the
age of foolishness...” (Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities)
“Extremism in defense of liberty is no vice, moderation in the pursuit of justice is no
virtue.” (Barry Goldwater)
“Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more.” (Shakespeare, Julius Caesar)
Aphorism - A terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or moral principle (if
the authorship is known, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb). An aphorism can be
a memorable summation of the author’s point. (“A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds.”)
Apostrophe - A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified
abstraction, such as liberty or love. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity.
William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, “Milton, thou shouldst be living at this
hour: England has need of thee.”
Appeal - An address to the audience usually through the pronoun “you” or “we.” Used to link the
speaker to listeners. (See pathos, ethos, logos)
Assonance – the repetition of vowel sounds in words close to each other.
“Our smiles bind us.”
Asyndeton – a construction in which elements are presented in a series without conjunctions.
“The US has a government of the people, by the people, for the people.” (Barron’s, The Art of
Styling Sentences, Pattern 3!)
Begging the Question – an assumption that a statement has been proved, when actually it has not.
“I fail to see why my daughter should waste her time going to college. She’s only going to get
married.”
Cacophony - harsh joining of sounds
“We want no parlay with you and your grisly gang who work your wicked will.” (Churchill)
Chiasmus (ki-ass’-moose)– the reversal of grammatical structures in successive phrases or clauses; from
the shape of the Greek letter “chi” (X).
“Those gallant men will remain often in my thoughts and in my prayers always.” (MacArthur)
“Language changes. So should your dictionary.” (caption from ad for Webster’s Seventh New
Collegiate Dictionary)
“It is hard to make money, but to spend it is easy.” (Student paper)
“Susan walked in, and out rushed Mary.”
N.B. Chiasmus is similar to antimetabole in that it too involves a reversal of grammatical
structures in successive phrases or clauses, but it is unlike antimetabole in that it does not
involve a repetition of words. Both chiasmus and antimetabole can be used to reinforce
antithesis.
Cliché – an expression that has been overused to the extent that its freshness has worn off.
“…hungry as a bear”
“…gentle as a lamb”
“…dumb as an ox”
Complex sentence – a sentence with one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
“You said that you would tell the truth.”
Compound sentence – a sentence with two or more coordinate independent clauses, often joined by one
or more conjunctions.
“The singer bowed to the audience, but she sang no encores.”
Concrete - Refers to nouns that name physical objects - a bridge, a book, a cat.
Connotation - The non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning.
Connotations may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes. (Hut or mansion?)
Cumulative (or loose) sentence – a sentence in which the main independent clause is elaborated by the
successive addition of modifying clauses or phrases. (See periodic sentence)
“We reached Edmonton/that night/after a turbulent flight/and some exciting experiences.”
Deduction - Arguing from a general point to particular applications.
“The sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning.”
Denotation - The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color.
Devices - The figures of speech, syntax, diction, and other stylistic elements that collectively produce a
particular artistic effect.
Diction - An author’s choice of words based on their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness.
Archaic words are words that are old-fashioned and no longer sound natural when used, as “I
believe thee not” for “I don’t believe you.”
Colloquialism is an expression that is usually accepted in informal situations and certain
locations, as in “He really grinds my beans.”
Jargon (technical diction) is the specialized language used by a specific group, such as those
who use computers: override, interface, download.
Profanity is language that shows disrespect for someone or something regarded as holy or
sacred.
Slang is language used by a particular group of people among themselves; it is also language
that is used in fiction and special writing situations to lend color and feeling: awesome, chill
out.
Trite expressions are expressions that lack depth or originality, or are overworked or not worth
mentioning in the first place. Clichés are trite expressions: “apple of her eye,” “black sheep,”
“thick as thieves,” “lazy as a dog,” “busy as a bee.”
Vulgarity is language that is generally considered common, crude, gross, and, at times,
offensive. It is sometimes used in fiction to add realism.
Didactic - Literature that instructs or presents a moral or religious statement. It can also be, as in the
case of Dante’s Divine Comedy or Milton’s Paradise Lost, a work that stands on its own as valuable
literature.
Ellipsis – the omission of a word or phrase which is grammatically necessary but can be deduced from
the context.
“Some people prefer cats; others, dogs.”
Epithet – a term used to point out a characteristic of a person. Homeric epithets are often compound
adjectives (“swift-footed Achilles”) that become an almost formulaic part of a name. Epithets can be
abusive or offensive but are not so by definition. For example, athletes may be proud of their given
epithets (“The Rocket”).
Equivocation – using the same term with different meanings (sometimes with the goal to be
intentionally vague).
“You say you want to be fair. You should vote for my candidate because he has a fair record.”
Ethos – An appeal based on the character of the speaker. An ethos-driven document relies on the
reputation of the author. (See appeal, logos, pathos)
Eulogy – a formal speech praising the person who has died.
Euphemism - An agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept.
“custodian” for “janitor”; “powder room” for “bathroom”
“When the final news came, there would be a ring at the front door – a wife in this situation
finds herself staring at the front door as if she ho longer owns it or controls it – and outside the
door would be a man…come to inform her that unfortunately something has happened out
there, and her husband’s body now lies incinerated in the swamps or the pines or the palmetto
grass, “burned beyond recognition,” which anyone who had been around an air base very long
(fortunately Jane had not) realized was quite an artful euphemism to describe a human body that
now looked like an enormous fowl that has burned up in a stove, burned a blackish brown all
over, greasy and blistered, fried, in a word, with not only the entire face and all the hair and the
ears burned off, not to mention all the clothing, but also the hands and feet, with what remains
of the arms and legs bent at the knees and elbows and burned into absolutely rigid angles,
burned a greasy blackish brown like the bursting body itself, so that his husband, father, officer,
gentleman, this ornamentum of some mother’s eye, His Majesty the Baby of just twenty-odd
years back, has been reduced to a charred hulk with wings and shanks sticking out of it.”
(Tom Wolfe, The Right Stuff)
False Analogy – assumption that because two persons or objects are similar in one or more aspects, they
must be similar in other ways.
“Since Jim and Bill are brothers and Jim is a good athlete, Bill must be good at sports, too.”
False Dilemma – an assumption that only one choice between two alternatives exists, when actually
many alternatives are possible.
“We assume that the newly emerging nations must choose to be allies of either Russia or the
United States, when they may, in fact, choose to remain neutral.”
Hasty Generalization – a fact becomes true only if a particular situation is converted into a general
statement. This reasoning usually involves stereotyping.
“Englishmen have no sense of humor because Mr. Bradford is an Englishman and he has no
sense of humor.”
Hyperbole (hi-per’-bo-le) - An exaggeration, or overstatement
“I have seen this river so wide it had only one bank.” (Twain, Life on the Mississippi)
Ignoring the Question – a deliberate shift from real issues to secondary or false issues in order to
distract one’s opponent from the real matter at stake.
A girl who has spent too much money shopping for clothes might distract her father by asking
if he as watched the game on television.
Imagery - The words or phrases a writer selects to create a certain picture in the reader’s mind. Imagery
is usually based on sensory details.
“The sky was dark and gloomy, the air was damp and raw, the streets were wet and sloppy.”
(Dickens, The Pickwick Papers)
Inductive reasoning – deriving general principles from particular facts or instances
“Every cat I have ever seen has four legs; cats are four-legged animals.”
Irony - Using a word or phrase to mean the exact opposite of its literal or normal meaning.
Dramatic irony - The reader or the audience sees a character’s mistakes or misunderstandings,
but the character himself or herself does not.
Verbal irony - The writer says one thing and means another.
Situational irony - There is a great difference between the purpose of a particular action and
the result. Events turn out the opposite of what was expected.
Juxtaposition - Placing two ideas (words or pictures) side by side so that their closeness creates a new,
often ironic meaning.
Litotes (LI to tez) - A form of understatement; a denial of the contrary. The negative of the antonym is
used to achieve emphasis and intensity.
“He was not too bright” is used to describe someone dull and dim-witted.
“A period of silence from you would not be too unwelcome” is used to address someone who
talks too much.
From a newspaper article: “The increase in the bank-load interest rate will not be trivial in its
effect.”
“A few unannounced quizzes are not inconceivable.”
“It was not a pretty picture” would describe a horrific scene.
“War is not healthy for children and other living things.”
In litotes, more is understood than said, as in “He is not the wisest man in the world” when we
mean “He is a fool.”
Loose sentence (also cumulative sentence) - A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent
clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period
were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence. A work
containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, and conversational.
“I fought the migraine, then, ignoring the warnings it sent, went to school and later to work in
spite of it, sat through lectures in Middle English...”
Metaphor - A comparison of two unlike things in which no word of comparison (like or as) is used.
“Juliet is the sun.” (Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet)
“Life’s but a walking shadow; a poor player,
That struts and frets his hour upon the stage.” (Shakespeare, Macbeth)
Metonymy - The substituting of one word for another that is closely related to it. (See synecdoche.)
“The White House has decided to provide a million more public service jobs.”
(White House is substituting for president.)
“He is a man of the cloth.”
“The pen [writing] is mightier than the sword [war/fighting].”
Motif - An often repeated idea or theme in literature. In The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Huck is
constantly in conflict with the “civilized” world. This conflict becomes a motif throughout the novel.
Non sequitur – having a conclusion that does not follow from the premise that went before.
“Carol does not drink nor smoke, so she will make a wonderful wife.”
Only cause – incorrect conclusion in reasoning from effect to cause by stating there is only one cause for
an effect.
“I failed because I was absent the day before the test.”
Oxymoron – apparent paradox achieved by the juxtaposition of words which seem to contradict one
another.
“I must be cruel only to be kind.” (Shakespeare, Hamlet)
“sick health” “cold fire” “feather of lead” (Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet)
Paradox - A statement that seems contrary to common sense yet may, in fact, be true.
“The coach considers this a good loss.”
“What a pity that youth must be wasted on the young.” (George Bernard Shaw)
Parallelism - Refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs
to give structural similarity. This can involve, but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element
such as a preposition or verbal phrase.
“Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any
burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival
and the success of liberty.” (Kennedy’s Inaugural Address, 1961)
Parody - A form of literature intended to mock a particular literary work or its style; a comic effect is
intended.
Pathos – An appeal based on emotion. Advertisements tend to be pathos-driven. (See appeal, ethos,
logos)
Pedantic - An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic,
or bombastic.
Periodic sentence - A sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This
independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone. For example, “Ecstatic
with my AP scores, I let out a loud shout of joy!” The effect of a periodic sentence is to add emphasis
and structural variety.
Personification - A literary device in which the author speaks of or describes an animal, object, or idea
as if it were a person.
“The rock stubbornly refused to move.”
“England expects everyone to do his duty.” (Lord Nelson)
Point of view - In literature, the perspective from which a story is told. There are two general divisions
of point of view and many subdivisions within those.
1. The first person narrator tells the story with the first person pronoun, “I,” and is a character
in the story. This narrator can be the protagonist (the hero or heroine), a participant (a character
in a secondary role), or an observer (a character who merely watches the action).
2. The third person narrator relates the events with the third person pronouns, (“he,” “she,”
and “it”). There are two main subdivisions to be aware of:
Omniscient - The narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts and actions of
any or all characters. This all-knowing narrator can reveal what each character feels and
thinks at any given moment.
Limited Omniscient - As its name implies, this point of view presents the feelings and
thoughts of only one character, presenting only the actions of all remaining characters.
N.B. This definition applies in questions in the multiple choice section. On the essay
portion of the exam, the term “point of view” carries a different meaning. When you’re
asked to analyze an author’s point of view, the appropriate point for you to address is the
author’s attitude.
Polysyndeton – the use, for rhetorical effect, of more conjunctions than is necessary or natural.
“Even though he is smart, I have never seen Keith arrogant or annoyed or impatient.”
(Barron’s, The Art of Styling Sentences)
Prose - One of the major divisions of genre, prose refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms,
because they are written in ordinary language and most closely resemble everyday speech. Technically,
anything that isn’t poetry or drama is prose. Of course, prose writers often borrow poetic and dramatic
elements.
Repetition - The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound,
word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern. When repetition is poorly done, it bores, but
when it’s well done, it links and emphasizes ideas while allowing the reader the comfort or recognizing
something familiar.
Rhetoric – the art of presenting ideas in a clear, effective, and persuasive manner.
Rhetorical modes - This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the
major kinds of writing.
Narration - seeks to answer the basic question, “What happened?” The goal of narration is to
tell a story (the Bible, Greek myths, Native American fables, novels, short stories, diaries,
autobiographies, history books, newspaper articles, physicians’ records of patients’ histories,
police crime reports).
Description - captures the essence of a person, place, object, or condition through sensory details.
Nearly all writing requires description.
Definition - establishes meaning, provides a common or shared understanding. Evolving
definitions frequently suggest alternative interpretations. (Striking a child: spanking or abuse?
Graffiti: street art or vandalism? Drug addicts: criminals who should be imprisoned or sufferers
needing treatment?)
Comparison and Contrast - 1) draws distinctions among related subjects to inform readers of
similarities and differences, and 2) recommends a choice between two things to persuade readers
to make a choice.
Analysis - moves beyond description and narration to make judgments or evaluations about
persons, places, objects, ideas, or situations. (A movie reviewer describes a new film and then
analyzes it - critiquing the plot, acting, special effects, and social message. A historian narrates
an event and then evaluates its lasting significance. Marketing executives summarize sales
reports to judge the results of their advertising campaign.)
Division and Classification Division helps readers understand complex subjects by separating them into parts
(departments of a hospital, colleges of a university, decades of a century, systems of the
human body)
Classification also breaks a complex subject into parts, but the categories are ranked or
rated according to a single standard (1st, 2nd, 3rd degree burns; motion picture ratings,
grades on a test; homicide classifications)
Process - shows how things work or how specific tasks are accomplished (how an engine works,
how inflation affects the economy, how the IRS audits an account; recipes, owners’ manuals,
textbooks, home repair articles)
Cause and Effect - seeks to establish reasons why something occurred or to predict future
results. (What led to the stock market crash of 1929? Why did the Hindenburg explode? Did
Lenin cause the Russian Revolution, or did the revolution create Lenin? How will a change in
American foreign policy affect chances for peace in the Middle East?)
Deductive and Inductive Reasoning
Arguments - are assertions designed to convince readers to accept an idea, adopt a solution, or
change their way of thinking. (Newspaper editorials, sales brochures, fund-raising letters,
billboards, bumper stickers, public service announcements, resumes)
Persuasion: Pathos, Ethos, Logos
Connelly, Mark. The Brief Sundance Reader. Boston: Heinle, 2003.
Rhetorical question - To ask a question of an audience to engage them without expecting a response
from the audience.
Rhetorical Structure - This phrase refers to how a passage is constructed. If asked to consider
rhetorical structure, look at the passage’s organization and how the writer combines images, details, or
arguments to serve his or her purpose.
Sarcasm - From the Greek meaning “to tear flesh,” sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language that is
meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic
statements are sarcastic, that is, intending to ridicule. When well done, sarcasm can be witty and
insightful; when poorly done, it’s simply cruel.
Satire - A literary tone used to ridicule or make fun of human vice or weakness, often with the intent of
correcting, or changing, the subject of the satiric attack.
Semantics - The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and
psychological development, their connotations, and their relation to one another.
Simile - A comparison of two unlike things in which a word of comparison (like or as) is used.
“She stood in front of the altar, shaking like a freshly caught trout.”
(Angelou, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings)
“My love is as a fever, longing still
For that which longer nurseth the disease.” (Shakespeare, Sonnet CXLVII)
Syllogism - From the Greek for “reckoning together,” a syllogism (or syllogistic reasoning) is a
deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first one called “major” and second
“minor”) that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion. A frequently cited example proceeds as follows:
Major premise:
Minor premise:
Conclusion:
All men are mortal.
Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
A syllogism’s conclusion is valid only if each of the two premises is valid. Syllogisms may also
present the specific idea first (“Socrates”) and the general second (“All men”).
Synecdoche (sin EC duh key) - Substitution of part for the whole.
“All hands on deck.”
(See metonymy.)
Synesthesia - A phenomenon in which one type of stimulation evokes the sensation of another, as the
hearing of a sound resulting in the sensation of the visualization of a color. (“blue note”)
Syntax - The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses and sentences. Syntax is similar
to diction, but you can differentiate them by thinking of syntax as the groups of words, while diction
refers to the individual words.
Thesis - In expository writing, the thesis statement is the sentence or group of sentences that directly
expresses the author’s opinion, purpose, meaning, or proposition. Expository writing is usually judged
by analyzing how accurately, effectively, and thoroughly a writer has proven the thesis.
Tone - Similar to mood, tone describes the author’s attitude toward his or her material, the audience, or
both. Tone is easier to determine in spoken language than in written language. Considering how a work
would sound if it were read aloud can help in identifying an author’s tone. Some words describing tone
are playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, ornate, and somber.
Tricolon - a series of three parallel words, phrases, or clauses, usually of increasing importance.
“Tell me and I forget. Teach me and I remember. Involve me and I learn.” (Benjamin
Franklin)
Understatement - Stating an idea with restraint (holding back) to emphasize what is being talked about.
Mark Twain once described Tom Sawyer’s Aunt Polly as being “prejudiced against snakes.”
Since she could not stand snakes, this way of saying so is called understatement.