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Ap world-brown – lecture notes- chapter 4
1)Background
Classical Greece built on the legacy of earlier regional civilizations in the Middle East, Egypt, Crete, and
Mycenae. Indo-European Greek-speaking invaders were assimilated. Internal warfare and new IndoEuropean invasions destroyed the early civilization, but Greek-speakers spread around the Aegean Sea. By
800 B.C.E. a new classical civilization began to emerge. Greek politics and culture flourished until 400
B.C.E. Then Alexander the Great formed a military empire and introduced the Hellenistic period, a time
when Greek culture spread widely in the Middle East, North Africa, and southern Europe. The Greeks
demonstrated new political and cultural capacities in philosophy and politics, and in scientific and
mathematical advances. The Greek legacy influenced many later societies.
2)The Persian Empire: Parallel Power in the Middle East. The Persians developed different political
and cultural values than the Greeks. They influenced many world historical currents and today's nation of
Iran. About 550 B.C.E. Cyrus the Great established a Persian empire as successor to the Mesopotamian
states of the past. The empire tolerated traditional cultures and Persians advanced iron technology.
Religious leader Zoroaster revised Sumerian beliefs to produce a religion emphasizing the importance of
choosing between the divine forces of good and evil; a last judgment decided the eternal fate of each person.
Later Persian rulers expanded the empire and provided much of the Middle East with a long period of peace
and prosperity. Although ultimately conquered by Alexander, Persian language and culture remained
influential.
Cyrus the Great
3)The Political Character of Classical Greece. Greek civilization emerged in small communities
incorporating the heritage of Crete (Minoan) and Mycenae. Invading Indo-Europeans contributed a
polytheistic religion carried through oral traditions embodying societal cultural values. Another stimulation
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to Greek civilization came from a general revival of trade in the eastern Mediterranean spurred by
the introduction of coined money (created by the Lydians). Increased wealth spurred population growth
and social change in Greece that encouraged new political forms.
4)The Emergence of Greek Forms. The Greeks adapted the Phoenician alphabet to write their own
language. The spread of literacy enhanced commercial exchanges and cultural life. The Iliad and the
Odyssey were written down and provided a mythic foundation for Hellenic (not Hellenistic) culture. In
architecture the Greeks developed distinctive forms based upon an oblong building framed by pillars.
Sculpture moved to a more realistic portrayal of the human body, while decorated pottery depicted scenes of
human activity.
5)The City-State as a Political Unit. After 800 B.C.E. government revolved around a city-state (polis),
polities varying in size and embracing a city and its agricultural hinterland. Many city-states formed, but
political unification did not occur. The city-states were ruled by landowning aristocrats descended from
Indo-European warriors. They and free farmer citizens met to discuss political issues in councils, even
when there were kings. After 700 B.C.E. the system of aristocratic control was challenged as a result of
commercial expansion and the growth of specialized commercial agriculture. Small landholders
suffered and a growing gulf emerged between the rich and poor. Some aristocratic oligarchies in purely
agricultural regions, as in Sparta, remained unchallenged, but others faced steady pressure. By the 6th
century B.C.E. urban commercial groups and dispossessed farmers sought reform. Tyrants won support by
challenging aristocratic interests. Other reformers, like Solon of Athens, labored to develop new laws to
regulate economic relationships. Additional cause for change came from the democratization of
military service by qualified citizens. By 500 B.C.E. most city-states were based upon principles of
loyalty to the public community rather than to an individual ruler. Widespread participation in public
life by male citizens was common. Since each city-state had its own gods, religious rituals also supported
involvement.
6)The Rise of Democracy in Athens. Athens took the lead in democratic development, but Solon's
reforms did not resolve all societal tensions. Pisastratus ruled as a tyrant, but following his death the
reformer Cleisthenes (508BC) reestablished a council elected by all citizens. Athens continued to depend
upon a popular assembly of citizens as sovereign authority. Citizens formed the army and served as jurors.
Most officials were chosen by lot and were responsible to the assembly. The Athenians did not follow
today's democratic ideals. Many adults - women, slaves, and foreigners - were excluded from political
rights, and aristocrats, as Pericles and Alcibiades, had excessive importance.
7)A Comparison of Greek and Chinese Political Styles. Greek political life emphasized individual
participation, but in a decentralized system quite different from the single centralized Chinese state. Formal
law was more important to the Greeks, while the Chinese stressed bureaucratic codes of hierarchy.
8)Greek Diplomacy and the Tensions of United Effort. Many city-states founded colonies along the
coasts of the Mediterranean and Black Sea. They relieved population pressure, provided grain supplies,
and served as markets for Greek products. The city-states acted together in a few activities. They
cooperated in the Olympic games and recognized the oracle at Delphi. An important collaboration
occurred when Greeks united and preserved independence by defeating a Persian Wars (invasion).
After the wars Athens dominated other Greek city-states through an alliance, the Delian League. Athens
gained valuable resources, but the new wealth caused political divisions and infighting.
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Persian Wars
9)Athens versus Sparta. The growing power of a democratic, commercially active Athens led to
competition with oligarchic, conservative, and militaristic Sparta. They fought from 431 to 404 B.C.E. in
the Peloponnesian War. Athens, weakened by a disastrous plague and an unsuccessful invasion of Sicily,
surrendered to Sparta in 404 B.C.E. The defeat marked the end of the dominance of the polis.
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Peloponnesian Wars
10)The Hellenistic Period. Sparta (also weakened) failed to dominate Greece after its victory. The
Peloponnesian War had destroyed any basis for Greek unity and weakened the major participants. A
conquering northern state took control of Greece and expanded into the Middle East and Egypt. The shortlived empire of Alexander the Great greatly expanded the impact of Greek culture.
11)Macedonian Conquest. The northern kingdom of Macedon filled the power vacuum in Greece. The
loosely organized, Greek-influenced state, was strengthened militarily during the rule of Philip II (359-336
B.C.E.). Phillip II invaded and conquered the divided Greek city-states by 338 B.C.E.
12)Alexander the Great. Philip's son, Alexander, invaded and defeated the Persian empire in campaigns
between 334 and 331 B.C.E. He also took control of Egypt. Alexander pressed on into India but was
halted when his army refused to go on. Alexander hoped to merge Greek and Asian traditions. He
founded numerous cities, spread Greek officials widely, encouraged intermarriage with local women,
and established centers of Greek scholarship. Alexander's unexpected death in 323 B.C.E. ended the
dream of a multinational empire.
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Alexander’s Empire
13)Later Hellenistic States. The new empire quickly fragmented into states run by former generals. Citystates still existed, but politics centered on military empires. The three principal dynasties were the
Ptolemies in Egypt, the Seleucids in Persia, and the Antigonids in Macedon and Greece. Many Greeks
remained in the successor states as officials and merchants, and Greek culture spread widely to mix with
other cultures and form a new intellectual framework for much of the civilized world. In northwestern India
the kingdom of Bactria importantly mixed Greek and Indian themes.
14)Creativity in Greek and Hellenistic Culture. The genius of Greek civilization expressed itself more in
culture than politics. Greek culture made lasting contributions to the Mediterranean world in art and
philosophy and served as a key contribution to the larger Hellenistic world created by Alexander..
15)Religion, Philosophy, and Science. Unlike the Indians and Chinese, the Greeks did not create a
major religion. They focused upon a pantheon of unruly gods and goddesses who interfered in human
affairs. Both Greeks and Indians drew their religion from Indo-European origins, but the Greeks produced a
more human-centered approach. Its lack of spiritual passion contributed to the development of alternative
“mystery’ religions more satisfying to people’s needs. Since religion did not provide a basis for ethical
thought, Greek thinkers worked to create a separate philosophical system. The effort to understand
phenomena through rational observation became a hallmark of Greek and Hellenistic culture. Socrates
urged consideration of secular criteria for moral decisions. Aristotle stressed the importance of
moderation to balance political and religious instability. The Stoics stressed inner moral
independence. Other philosophers attempted to define appropriate political structures. Plato proposed an
ideal government where philosophers ruled. Most philosophers stressed practical, balanced systems
incorporating democratic and oligarchic elements. A nonreligious philosophy encouraged emphasis on the
powers of human thought. Socrates encouraged skepticism; Plato suggested reason could approach an
understanding of eternal reality. In science the Greeks, unlike the Chinese, speculated about nature’s
order, founding a lasting Western passion for seeking rationality in the universe. Pythagoras and Euclid
contributed major achievements to geometry, while Galen’s contributions to anatomy were a
standard for centuries.
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16)Literature and the Arts. All arts received attention, but drama had a central role in Greek culture. The
Greek division of drama into comedy and tragedy remains a Western tradition. Athenian dramatists
Sophocles used tragedy to demonstrate the fragility of human virtues. Aristophanes did the same through
comedy. Greek literature included a strong epic tradition, and formal historical writing emerged with
Herodotus and Thucydides. In visual arts the Greeks emphasized architecture, ceramics, and realistic
sculpture. Temples, markets, and public buildings had three building styles: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian.
All art was intended for public utilization: temples and markets were for daily use; dramas were public
rituals for all citizens.
17)The Principles of Greek Culture. Cultural achievement was based on four principles. An emphasis
on formal political theory reflected the special political atmosphere of Greece. Art and sculpture glorified
human achievement. Drama and philosophy stressed the importance of human striving. The
philosophical and scientific tradition emphasized the validity of logical constructs for understanding the
natural world. There was, however, a large cultural gap between the elite and the masses. The Greeks
were a class hierarchy
18)Hellenistic Culture during and after Alexander. The decline of the city-state produced significant
changes. Older literary works were preserved and analyzed, but little new drama was produced. Historical
writing flourished. In architecture more elaborate decorative motifs emerged; in art and sculpture old styles
persisted. Hellenistic intellectuals developed new knowledge in science, and mathematics. Astronomical
charts and geographical knowledge improved. Overall, Hellenistic thinkers left a considerable legacy in all
fields for later eras.
19)In Depth: Defining Social History. Until recently historians awarded an undue emphasis to political
and intellectual history. Social and economic history was given a secondary place. It is now recognized
that the lives of ordinary men and women deserve a major place in the study of the past of all societies. The
daily activities of the often silent masses are difficult, but not impossible, to reconstruct. To understand the
past, and the present, historians must attempt to portray the lives of all segments of society. So-called
ordinary people, after all, have made up the bulk of human society. The often-neglected role of women is an
obvious example of the past insensitivity to the reality of human existence. The only way to understand
how a society functions is to give proper attention to all of its members.
20)Patterns of Greek and Hellenistic Society. The standard features of an agricultural society, a large
peasantry and a landowning aristocracy, were basic to Greek and Hellenistic society. Commerce,
although often looked down upon, was vital. Patriarchal family values predominated, although there was
more ambivalence about women than in classical China. Slavery was of major importance.
21)Economic and Social Structure. Economic and social structure in classical Greece resembled that of
other civilizations where warlike invaders had settled down to agriculture. The aristocracy was based on
land ownership and military service. Many independent farmers owned land and claimed political and
social rights. Increasing commerce and urban growth then complicated social structure. Distinctive factors
for the Greeks included an infertile, mountain environment making city-states dependent on trade. War and
colonization allowed the frequent seizing of slaves, thus resulting in less attention being given to
manufacturing technology. Aristocratic dominance in politics and society persisted. Merchants remained
in an ambiguous position; their status was higher than in Confucian China, but lass firm than in
India.
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22)Rural Life and Agriculture. The majority of the population was rural, not urban. They
maintained distinctive beliefs, such as fertility rituals. Even though free farmers played a vital role in early
politics, much societal tension resulted from large landholder efforts to force them from their property. The
problem was increased by the nature of Greek agriculture. Soil was unsuited for grain, the basic life staple.
Farmers turned to crops, olives and grapes and feta, that gave a greater return. They required intensive
capital investment and thus favored aristocratic landowners. Mediterranean agriculture became unusually
market-oriented, spurring tendencies to import grain supplies and to develop export markets. Largescale, commercial agriculture became dominant throughout the Hellenistic world. As a result peasants
clustered in small towns, not the villages typical elsewhere.
23)Slavery and Production. Slavery, justified by Aristotle, was vital to a society and economy dominated
by aristocrats devoted to political and cultural pursuits. Slaves, often acquired in war, served in almost all
occupations. Many enjoyed considerable personal and economic independence, but the system clearly
demonstrated the limited nature of Greek democracy.
24)Men, Women, and Social Divisions. Greek culture emphasized the husband/father in control of a
tightly structured family. Women performed vital economic functions , especially in farming or artisan
families, and powerful female personalities often were influential within households. Although women had
some legal rights, both law and culture held them inferior. Female infanticide might occur in large
families. Marriage was arranged by a father. Divorce was possible for men at will; women needed
court procedure. Adultery was without penalty for men; women could be divorced. Women focused their
lives on household duties. Upper class men consorted more often with lower-class women and male youths
than with wives. In the Hellenistic period conditions for women improved, but they remained a
subordinate group..
25)Conclusion: A Complex Legacy. The durability of classical Greek and Hellenistic culture came from
the power of its cultural forms, settled peasant routine, and technological continuity. The Greeks, unlike the
Chinese, did not develop enduring political forms. Their legacy was in the realm of ideas and examples, in
the ideals of citizenship and the heritage of slavery. Art and philosophy made the most lasting contributions,
particularly in intellectual circles. Ordinary people were less influenced.. Greece's legacy became a
fundamental part of the Middle Eastern and Western heritage.
ROME
26)Background
When the Greek and Hellenistic worlds declined many their political, cultural, and economic traditions were
carried on by the Romans in their own distinct society. Rome grew from a minor city-state to become the
dominant factor in Mediterranean civilization. Its civilization included much of the Greek and Hellenistic
sphere in the eastern Mediterranean and extended beyond it into Europe and North Africa. The Roman
empire surpassed the political and commercial organization of the Greeks in durability and organization..
27)Rome as Heir to Classical Mediterranean Civilization. Roman and Greek societies had many shared
elements, but each emphasized different factors. The Romans preserved, and modified, many features of
Greek society while developing their own focus. They gave engineering and law more emphasis than
philosophy and science. Through mixing old and new factors Rome created a new version of classical
Mediterranean civilization. The greater Roman geographical extent spread that civilization to new regions
in Europe and North Africa and served as a breeding ground for the development of Christianity.
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Ancient Italy
28)The Development of Rome’s Republic. Rome established firm political institutions balancing
aristocratic and popular interests. Rome also quickly began expanding in Italy and beyond. The tensions
between expansion and established political values were a key theme by the 2nd century B.C.E.
29)Etruscan Beginnings and the Early Republic. Rome's people were Indo-European migrants who
assimilated agriculture and interacted with indigenous peoples and Greek colonists. They were ruled for a
time by Etruscans, securing independence around 510-508 B.C.E. The Romans created a republic to avoid
tyrannical control. They adapted the Greek alphabet to form their Latin version. The early constitution
allowed aristocrats to control the most important offices. Lower-class citizens had political and economic
rights; they elected tribunes to voice their interests. The Senate was the center of political life, with two
annually-elected consuls as chief executives. The system balanced the various interests of society, but gave
aristocrats most weight. The early economy resembled that of Greece. Aristocrats controlled large estates,
while smaller holdings belonged to free, citizen, farmers. Social strife was minimized by written laws,
popular participation in government, and patron-client relationships. Rome, without important city-state
rivals, and with fewer societal tensions, went on a different military and diplomatic path than the Greeks.
30)The Expansion of Rome. Rome developed a disciplined army based upon the service of citizen-farmers.
Lacking the protection of natural boundaries, the Romans had to defend themselves against neighboring
rivals. By the mid-4th century B.C.E. Rome, through alliances and warfare, had won control of central and
southern Italy. The success of the aggressive Roman polity was based upon their disciplined legions
(infantry units) and the wealth of its prosperous agricultural economy. The granting of citizenship to
subjugated elites and the continuation of local governing institutions built loyalty to the developing state.
Rivalry in the western Mediterranean with Carthage led to hostilities, the Punic wars, ending in Roman
victory in 146 B.C.E. Rome also expanded into the eastern Mediterranean as Hellenistic kingdoms
collapsed.
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Punic Campaigns
31)The Results of Expansion. The often brutal course of imperial expansion changed Roman society and
politics. The wealth gained widened gaps between the rich and poor and weakened the traditional
constitutional balance between classes. Aristocrats bought out smaller farmers, and client relationships
deteriorated. Large estates producing commercial crops pushed displaced farmers into Rome, swelling the
numbers of its impoverished citizens. Slavery greatly increased because of the conquests.
32)The Crisis of the Republic. The increasing social tensions caused class conflict on a much larger scale
than in Greek society. The republic declined as ambitious individuals battled for power. The tribune
Tiberius Gracchus attempted to redistribute land, but he was assassinated by conservatives. Gaius, his
brother, tried to introduce land reforms and extend citizenship; the Senate ordered his suicide. Then
generals intervened in politics. Marius coerced the Senate with his army, composed of permanent paid
volunteers instead of citizen conscripts. (First army loyal to a person). Sulla sided with the Senate,
which he packed with his followers, and drove out Marius. Later Pompey gained power through military
success. The succession of generals ended with Caesar taking over the government in 49 B.C.E. He
maintained republican forms but dominated through military power. Caesar was assassinated in 44
B.C.E. In the following civil war, Octavian, later called Augustus, emerged as victor in 31 B.C.E. and
became the first Roman emperor.
33)Roman Culture. During the years of political crisis a major cultural transformation merged Roman
ways with the Greek and Hellenistic heritage. Intellectual life did not match the vibrancy of Athens, but
Romans developed their own strengths while carrying forward the Greek heritage.
34)The Range of Roman Art. The Roman cultural foundation was based on Greece. Writers and
artists followed Greek models. Romans advanced rhetorical arts Particularly in Law,, and gave much
attention to ethical philosophy. In architecture engineering advances permitting increases in size were
adapted to Greek forms. Roman arches were unsurpassed. Urban planning efforts were made to regulate
building safety and living conditions in Rome and other cities. A chief Roman contribution was the
dissemination of their culture to the empire’s regions in the Middle East, North Africa ,and Europe.
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35)Major Themes in Roman Literature. The late republic early empire witnessed a literary revival.
Horace adapted Greek poetic meters into Latin, while Ovid stressed aristocratic sensuality in the arts of
love. Livy composed histories linking the empire to its republican past, while Vergil wrote of the glories of
Augustus and his empire. Later intellectual life did not match this attainment.
36)The Institutions of Empire. With the winning of a large empire the importance of military
administration and effective laws increased. Rome did not, as Han China, develop an elaborate
bureaucracy or integrating political culture.
37)Imperial Rule of Law. Rome's rule rested on tolerance and cohesion through law. Considerable
autonomy was granted to local authorities, thus not requiring the development of an elaborate
bureaucracy. Military garrisons kept order where necessary. Rome's greatest contribution to governing
was the development of legal codes. Jurists constructed an extensive legal system based upon general
principles - natural law - and case precedents. The laws focused upon protection of private property and
family stability. They evolved to meet changing conditions, providing firm rules to govern social
relationships. Roman willingness to extend citizenship increased access to the law and loyalty to the
empire.
38)Augustus and His Successors. Augustus maintained republican forms while securing domination of
the government. He consolidated his regime by instituting moral reforms, banning mystery religions in
favor of traditional ceremonies, and strengthening family legislation. A building program created new jobs.
Augustus reformed provincial control and rewarded the military for loyal service. The basic forms
established endured for two centuries (Pax Romana). Civil Law (Jus Civil) and Criminal Law (Jus
Gentium) were further standardized. The army was the source of power, a factor causing trouble when
unclear succession mechanisms for selecting new emperors brought instability, or when incompetent
emperors ruled.
39)Government and Expansion. Efficient administrative and taxation structures allowed the extensive
empire’s long existence. Commerce was regulated to secure vital grain supplies. Public works
facilitated both commercial and military needs, and provided amenities - baths, stadiums - for large urban
populations. The government supported official religious ceremonies, but did not impose beliefs on its
subjects. Worship of local gods was tolerated unless believers - as Jews and Christians - refused
primary loyalty to the state. Expansion continued during the early empire. Trajan (101-106 C.E.)
brought the empire to its greatest extent, bringing the influences of Mediterranean civilization to much of
western Europe and deeper into the Middle East. The process placed heavy burdens on the economy. By
180 C.E. the empire was in gradual decline.
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40)The Evolution of Rome’s Economic and Social Structure. Rome's basic social structure was based on
an agricultural economy composed of an aristocracy and free farmers. A merchant class, both native
and foreign, expanded during the late republic. Its societal prestige never matched that of aristocrats,
but was higher than among the Greeks. Roman cities had large artisan and property-less classes. Family
structure resembled the firm patriarchal pattern of classical Greece. Women were less oppressed than in
Greece or China. They freely appeared in public and a few received education. Inequality between the
sexes increased during the latter empire.
41)Slavery in Rome. The spread of slavery contributed to the decline of free farmers and to Roman
militarism. The plantation based economy was known as the Latifundia. Displaced farmers sought
economic advancement through military careers. Military expansion secured new additions to a slave
population that did not reproduce itself. Slavery caused many societal tensions and occasional slave revolts.
Slaves were used in all occupations; many were better off economically than poor free individuals.
Some were able to buy or secure freedom. Slavery had important consequences for Roman development.
From the 2nd century B.C.E. commercialized agriculture and mining industries increasingly utilized slave
labor. As in Greece, the dominance of slavery led to stagnant technology in manufacturing and
agriculture. Excellence was replaced by laziness.
42)Rome’s Economic Structure. The empire had a varied economic and social structure. In conquered
regions Rome established cities inhabited with soldiers and colonists who often married local women..
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Estate agriculture spread slowly and incompletely to northern Europe,. There were great
cultural gaps between Romans and the indigenous population. In North Africa and Egypt large estates
predominated and peasants often were exploited ruthlessly. The agricultural exploitation resulted in
lasting harm to the environment. In Greece and western Asia pre-Roman traditions were maintained.
43)In Depth: The Classical Mediterranean in Comparative Perspective. The three great classical
civilizations Han, Rome and Gupta, had both striking differences and similarities. Each developed
empires, and relied on an agricultural economy. Greece, Rome, and China emphasized secular over
religious culture. Greco-Roman political values and institutions were unlike the Confucian emphasis
on deference and bureaucratic training. The Greek emphasis on theoretical constructs in science
contrasted with the Indian and Chinese approach. Each civilization had a definite social hierarchy and
the groups at the top subordinated those beneath them to assure their economic supremacy. Greece and
Rome depended upon slave labor. The groups at the top varied in the three civilizations - priests in India,
bureaucrats in China, cultivated aristocrats in Greece and Rome. There was limited opportunity for
social mobility. India’s caste system kept people in their original social and occupational position. In
China only a very few individuals from non-landed aristocratic families managed to gain the education
to enter the bureaucracy. Greek and Roman society allowed some opportunity for those gaining wealth
to rise in status. The concept of political power for Greek and Roman citizens was unusual. Each
civilization held its social hierarchy together in a different manner. Greece and Rome relied on local
authorities to work for common goals; they also relied on military force and clear legal regulations.
China and India used force and legal rules, but had other structures. Hinduism promised reincarnation
as a reward for submission. Confucianism urged cultural values of obedience and self-restraint to legitimize
social ranks. All civilizations had bouts of social unrest, but basic patterns remained firm.
44)The Origins of Christianity. The early history of Christianity is an integral part of the Roman
experience. The Jews, ruled by Rome , believed in the coming of a messiah. The early stages of what
became Christianity focused on reforming aspects of Jewish practices and had little to do with Roman
culture.
45)Life and Death of Jesus. Jesus, a Jewish prophet and teacher, was regarded as the son of god by his
disciples. He urged purification of Jewish religion and taught a moral code based upon love, charity, an
humility. Jesus won many followers among the poor, but roused suspicion among the leaders of the Jewish
community. They helped to convince the Roman authorities that he was a danger to the state. Jesus was
crucified in 30 C.E. His followers believed he rose from the dead three days later. The religion based on
his thought initially spread among Jews, but hostility and persecution from unconvinced Jews caused
disciples to leave Israel for other locations in western Asia.
46)Christianity Gains Converts and Religious Structure. By the 4th century C.E. Christians comprised
about 10% of the population of the Roman Empire. Christianity appealed to the poor because of the social
grievances suffered by farmers, city dwellers, and slaves. The new religion answered spiritual needs
unfilled by Rome's state religion. Christianity also benefited from the political stability and
communications systems of the empire. The early Christians modeled their church organization after
Roman forms, with bishops as local leaders. Under Paul's leadership the religion moved away from Jewish
law to become open to all. He used the Greek language and explained Christianity in terms understandable
to Greco-Roman culture. He emphasized female subordination to men and the dangers of sexuality
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47)Relations with the Roman Empire. By the 4th century C.E. Christian writings were the most
creative cultural expressions within the empire. Theologians related Christian thought to Greek
philosophy and Roman ethics, redirecting Roman culture into new paths and preserving earlier intellectual
achievements. Christians clashed with Roman authorities when they refused to honor the emperor as a
divinity. Some emperors persecuted Christians as scapegoats for political problems, but the persecution was
not constant. Roman influence in time reshaped Christianity to accept the state as a legitimate, but separate,
sphere of authority.
Conclusion
48)Decline. The empire was in decline before Christianity became important. The government lacked the
resources necessary for continuing expansion. Economic disruptions reduced prosperity and tax revenues.
Slavery declined and economic and political units focused on their own regions, not the larger empire.
Epidemics seriously reduced population size.
The Mediterranean Heritage. Classical Mediterranean civilization left an important legacy that survived
the collapse of the Roman empire. Greek and Roman science, philosophy, political theory, and definitions
of citizenship are part of today’s Western civilization. Their attitudes to the role of women had a less
beneficent influence. Greco-Roman religion did not survive.