Basic Tools and Methods of Human
Geographers
• Observation
– Information must be collected
and data recorded
• Methods:
– Fieldwork
– Use of scientific
instruments
– Laboratory experiments
– Archival searches
– Remote sensing
» Aerial photography or
satellite imagery
designed to record data
on visible, infrared, and
microwave sensor
systems
– Visualization or Representation
Written descriptions
• Charts
• Diagrams
• Tables
– Analysis
• Heart of geographic research
• Objective analysis is to
discover patterns and establish
relationships so that
hypotheses can be established
and models be built
• Remote Sensing: acquisition of data about earth’s
surface from satellite images are transmitted in digital
form.
– Example: used with Hurricane Katrina to monitor areas of impact
Using today’s technology
• GIS:
– a computer system that can
capture, story, query, analyze,
and display geographic data.
– Primary requirement for data
to be used in GIS is that the
location variables are known
• Any variable that can be located
spatially can be fed into GIS
• Data capture- putting the
information into the system
– Most time consuming
– Farmed out to “cheap” labor
countries
Layers of a GIS
A geographic information system (GIS) stores information about a location in
several layers.
Each layer represents a different category of information.
Geographical Information Systems
 GIS technology can render
visible many aspects of
geography there were
previously unseen
 Images that could never be
drawn by hand
 GIS can put places under
the microscope, creating
detailed new insights using
huge databases
 Military applications
 Allows infantry commanders
to calculate line of sight from
tans and defensive
emplacements
 Allows cruise missiles to fly
below enemy radar
 GIS allows an enormous
range of problems to be
addressed
 Geodemographic research
 Uses census and commercial
data about the populations of
small districts in creating
profiles for market research
History of the Map
• 2300 B.C.E.
– Babylonians
• 800 B.C.E.
– Turkish map ocean
currents
• 500 B.C.E.
– 1st geography book
commissioned
•Important Names:
•Aristotle- determined that
the earth was spherical
•Eratosthenes- coined the
word “geography” and
determined the
circumference of the world
Maps
• Uses
– Describe data
– Sources of data
– Tools for analysis
• Representations of the
world
– Usually two-dimensional
graphic representations
that use lines and symbols
to convey information or
ideas about spatial
relationships
Types of Maps
• Topographic Maps
– Designed to represent
Earth’s surface and to
show permanent features
such as buildings,
highways, field
boundaries, and political
boundaries
• Device for representing
the form of Earth’s surface
is the contour
– A line that connects
points of equal distance
above or below a zero
data point, usually sea
level
Types of Maps
• Reference Maps
– Show common features such as
boundaries, roads, and mountains
• Thematic Maps
– Designed to represent the spatial
dimensions of particular
conditions, processes, or events
• Isopleth maps
– Maps based on isolines
– A line that connects places
of equal data value
• Dot maps
– Single dot or other
symbol represents a
specified number of
occurrences of some
particular phenomenon
or event
• Choropleth map
– Tonal shadings are
graduated to reflect
variations in numbers,
frequencies, or densities
Thematic Maps
• Isoline: line represents constant quantity (ex:
elevation)
• Proportional Symbol: size of symbol rep
relative magnitude of value
• Dot Map: dots show specific location of
occurrences
• Coropleth: uses color to rep data
• Cartogram: transform country size relative to
data
CARTOGRAM - POPULATION
COROPLETH MAP
Proportional Symbol Map
• Map Scale:
– refers to the
relationship of a
feature’s size on a map
to its actual size on
earth
– Ratio between linear
distance on a map and
linear distance on
Earth’s surface
• Usually expressed in
terms of
corresponding
lengths:
– as in one centimeter
equals one kilometer
• or as a representative
fraction
– Small scale maps=
bigger fraction
– Large scale maps =
smaller fraction
Scale Differences: Maps of Florida
The effects of scale in maps of Florida. (Scales from 1:10 million to 1:10,000)
Types of Scale
a. Fractional
b. Written
- shows the numerical
-relationship between
ratio between distances
the map and earth
on the map on earth’s
distances in words
surface
*example: 1 inch equals 1
*example: 1:24,000
mile
Means 1 map unit=
24, 000 units on ground
1st number represents map’s
distance
2nd number represents
earth’s distance
C. Graphic
-consists of a bar line marked to show
distance on the earth’s surface
example:
*what scale you use depends on what
information you are portraying!*
talking map
Projection
-the scientific method
of transferring
locations on the
earth’s surface to a
flat map
-earth’s surface is
curved and not a
perfect sphere. It is
impossible to
represent on a flat
plane without
distortion
-Four problems:
1. the shape of an area
can be distorted
2. the distance between
two points may increase
or decrease
3. the relative size of
different areas may be
altered so that one area
may appear larger
4. the direction from one
place to another can be
distorted.
the Solution?????
Different types of
projections!
-Equidistant Projections
-can represent distance
accurately in only one
direction (usually northsouth)
-usually provide accurate scale
in perpendicular direction(
equator)
-most aesthetically pleasing
Types of Projections:
• Mercator: preserves direction but distorts area
(higher latitudes distorted - Greenland appears
huge). Also known as Conformal
• Fuller: maintains accurate size and shape;
completely rearranges direction
• Robinson: distorts all 4 but minimizes errors in each
(most balanced)
• Azimuthal: puts N or S pole at center of map…view of
looking up or down at earth
Mercator Projection
Fuller Projection
Robinson Projection
Azimuthal
Projections
• Azimuthal
– Designed such that
compass directions are
correct only from one
central point
– Benefits:
• Can be equidistant
• Direction is accurate
– Uses:
• Show air-route distances
from a specific location
• Or equal-area
Projections
 Equal-Area or Equivalent
projections (Gall-Peters
Projection)
 Portray areas on Earth’s
surface in their true
proportions (scale will be off
–only true on parallels and
PM)
 Examples:
 Eckert IV
 Bartholomew’s Nordic
 Mollweide
 Used for thematic maps
showing economic,
demographic, and cultural data
 Aesthetic maps
 More important than
conformality, equivilance, or
equidistance
 Examples:
 Times Projection
 Used in many world atlases
 Robinson Projection
 Used in National
Geographic publications
Robinson Projection:
-shows uninterrupted projections
-useful for displaying the oceans
Projections
• Peters
– Deliberate attempt to give
prominence to
underdeveloped countries
of equatorial regions and
the Southern Hemisphere
• Adopted by United Nations
• Shape gives “shock value”
• Cartogram
– Usually small-scale
thematic maps
– Space is transformed
according to statistical
factors
• Largest mapping units
represent greatest
statistical values