Chapter Six:
Relationships II
In Chapter 5, you learned how authors use transitions and patterns of
organization to show relationships and make their ideas clear. You also learned about
two common types of relationships:
• Relationships that involve addition
• Relationships that involve time
In this chapter, you will learn about three other types of relationships:
• Relationships that involve illustration
• Relationships that involve comparison and contrast
• Relationships that involve cause and effect
Words That Show Illustration
Look at the following items. Which one is easier
to read and understand?
1. I’ve become very absent-minded. Last week
I went to work on my day off.
2. I’ve become very absent-minded. Last week,
for instance, I went to work on my day off.
The second item is easier to understand.
The words for instance make it clear that
what happened on that day off is just one
example of the absent-mindedness.
For instance and other words and phrases
like it are illustration words.
Illustration words signal that an author is providing one or
more examples to develop and clarify an idea.
In the cartoon above, the husband gives examples of what, to him,
are deep emotions.
Here are some common words that introduce examples:
(for) example
including
(as an) illustration
one
(for) instance
specifically
to illustrate
once
such as
to be specific
© 2003 by Randy Glasbergen. www.glasbergen.com
Words That Show Comparison
Once again, find the item that is easier to read
and understand:
1. Driving a car is a skill that we learn through
practice. Writing a paper is a skill that we learn
through hands-on experience.
2. Driving a car is a skill that we learn through
practice. Similarly, writing a paper is a skill that
we learn through hands-on experience.
HERMAN: © Jim Unger/Dist. By Newspaper Enterprise Association. Inc.
The second item is easier to understand.
The first item makes us wonder, “What does
learning to drive a car have to do with writing a
paper?”
The word similarly makes it clear that the author
intends to compare learning to write a paper
with learning to drive a car.
Similarly and words like it are comparison words.
Comparison words signal similarities. They show that a second
idea is like the first one in some way.
In the cartoon above, the word resemble helps show a comparison
is being made.
Here are some common words that show comparison:
(just) as
likewise
in a similar manner
(just) like
in like manner
in the same way
alike
similarly
resemble
DRABBLE: © Kevin Fagan/Dist. by United Feature Syndicate, Inc.
Words That Show Contrast
Look at the following items. Which one is
easier to read and understand?
1. A roller coaster scares many people. They
love riding on it.
2. Even though a roller coaster scares many
people, they love riding on it.
The second item is easier to understand.
In the first item, the two sentences seem to
contradict each other. We want to ask,
“Do people like a roller coaster, or don’t they?”
In the second item, the phrase even though
makes clear the relationship between the two
ideas: In spite of the fact that a roller coaster is
scary, people still love riding on it.
Even though and other words and phrases like it
are contrast words.
Contrast words show that things differ in one or more ways.
In the cartoon, the speaker is contrasting two ways to die.
Here are some common words that show contrast:
but
instead
still
even though
yet
in contrast
as opposed to
different(ly)
however
on the other hand
in spite of
differs from
although
on the contrary
despite
unlike
nevertheless
converse(ly)
rather than
while
Words That Show Cause and Effect
Look at the following items. Which one is
easier to read and understand?
1. The paint has worn off the wooden siding.
Fungus has begun to grow on it.
2. Because the paint has worn off the wooden
siding, fungus has begun to grow on it.
The second item is easier to understand.
In the first item, it seems the author is simply
listing two things that have happened to the
wooden siding.
The word because in the second item makes
clear the relationship between the two ideas:
the protective paint wore off, and, for this
reason, the fungus was able to grow.
Because and words like it are cause and effect
words.
Cause and effect words
signal that the author is
explaining the reason why
something happened or the
result of something happening.
In the cartoon, the applicant is told
that the result of interest rates
going up or down will, unfortunately
for him, be the same: Either way,
his mortgage payment will go up!
Here are some common words that show cause and effect:
therefore
so
result
because (of)
thus
as a result
effect
reason
as a consequence
results in
cause
explanation
consequently
leads to
if ... then
accordingly
due to
since
affect
© 2007 by Randy Glasbergen. www.glasbergen.com
Chapter Review
In this chapter, you learned about three kinds of relationships that authors use to make their
ideas clear:
∆ Definitions and examples


To help readers understand the important ideas and terms in a subject, textbook authors
often take time to include key definitions (often setting them off in italic or boldface) and
examples of those definitions. When reading a textbook, it is usually a good idea to mark
off both definitions and examples.
Transition words that signal the definition and example pattern include for example, for
instance, to illustrate, and such as.
∆ Comparison and/or contrast

Authors often discuss how two things are alike or how they are different, or both.

Transition words that signal comparisons include alike and similar.

Transition words that signal contrasts include but, however, and in contrast.
∆ Cause and effect

Authors often discuss the reasons why something happens or the effects of something that
has happened.

Transition words that signal causes include reason and because.

Transition words that signal effects include therefore, consequently, and as a result.
Note that pages 265–272 list and offer practice in all the transitions and patterns of
organization you have studied in “Relationships I” and “Relationships II.”
The next chapter—Chapter 7—will sharpen your ability to make inferences in reading.