Chapter 14
Anthropometry and Body Composition
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Chapter Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able
to
1. Define the terms anthropometry, somatotype,
body composition, overfat, obese, and lean body
weight.
2. State why body structure and composition
should be measured.
3. Describe responsibilities after the measurement
of body structure and composition.
4. Describe the major characteristics of Sheldon’s
classification of body types.
5. Correctly interpret height-weight tables.
6. Classify body frames.
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Chapter Objectives
7. State the problems associated with the use of
height-weight tables to determine desirable
weight.
8. Describe eight acceptable sites for skinfold
measurements.
9. Perform skinfold measurements, estimate
percent body fat, and advise individuals of
optimal percent fat ranges.
10. Calculate an individual’s desirable body
weight based upon an acceptable percent body
fat.
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Chapter Objectives
11. Determine body mass index (BMI) and
waist-to-hip ratio and advise individuals of
BMI values and waist-to-hip ratios
associated with the lowest risk of health
problems.
12. Contrast the use of skinfold measurements,
BMI, waist circumference, and waist-to-hip
ratio (i.e. the appropriate use of each).
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Anthropometry, Body Composition, and
Lean Body Weight
Anthropometry - the measurement of the structure
and proportions of the body; may include
measurement of height and weight, measurement of
circumferences, diameters, and lengths of body
segments, and somatotyping (body typing)
Body composition - refers to the component parts
of the body; for measurement purposes body
composition is interpreted as referring to body fat
weight and lean body weight
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Anthropometry, Body Composition, and
Lean Body Weight
Lean body weight - found by subtracting the weight
of the body fat from the total body weight; often
interpreted as fat-free weight
Fat-free weight includes a small amount of essential
lipid, such as the nerve sheaths, the brain, and the cell
membranes.
Depending on body size, about 1.5 to 3% of the weight
of the lean body is essential lipids; 40 to 50% is
composed of muscle weight or mass. Organs and
tissues, such as skin and bones, make up the remaining
portion.
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Anthropometry, Body Composition, and
Lean Body Weight
Overfat indicated when individuals have a
higher percent body fat than is desirable.
A body mass index (BMI) between 25-29 is
considered overfat.
Individuals considered obese if body fat
percent increases risk of mortality and
morbidity.
BMI of 30 and higher is considered obese.
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Why Measure Body Structure and
Composition?
Values found in most weight tables are grouped
into height and body type categories.
Use of height-weight tables not ideal; no
estimation of percent body fat can be made.
If used, should realistically determine body type.
Body type classification may be useful when
planning obtainable fitness goals (e.g.,
endomorphic body type and running goals).
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Why Measure Body Structure and
Composition?
Height and weight and measurements may be
recorded for diagnostic purposes. Recording
during growing years may serve to prevent the
occurrence of long-term health problems.
Height and weight measurements also may be
used for homogeneous grouping of youth for
sports participation.
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Why Measure Body Structure and
Composition?
Measurement of body composition is important for
everyone who promotes good health.
Estimated that 36% of Americans twenty years and
older are obese.
More than 63% of this age group are either overfat
or obese.
Among children and teens, ages 2-19, almost 17%
are obese and 33% are either overfat or obese.
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Why Measure Body Structure and
Composition?
Strong correlation between obesity and increased
of chronic diseases such as:
coronary artery disease
diabetes
hypertension
hyperlipidemia
certain cancers
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Why Measure Body Structure and
Composition?
Millions of Americans on weight-loss diets; fail to understand difference between the loss of body fat and lean
body weight, and the role of exercise in weight
management.
Weight alone should not be used to determine success of
diet.
Professionals in health-related fields need to assume
leadership role in counseling individuals about correct
way to manage weight; help them understand and to
accept healthy percent body fat; have realistic body
images.
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Responsibilities after Measurement
• Work with individuals who need to reduce
body fat
• With children, need support of parents
• May need assistance of nutritionist
• Seek modest decrease in caloric intake
• Combine exercise and diet changes
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Responsibilities after Measurement
• With exercise and diet changes combined,
80% to 95% of weight loss is fat tissue
• With diet changes alone, 30% to 45% of
weight loss is lean tissue
• Gradual weight reduction; 1 to 2
pounds/week
• Monitor percent body fat during weight
loss; seek 1% to 2% loss of percent body fat
every 6 to 8 weeks
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Body Type Classification
(Somatotyping)
Sheldon’s classification
Ectomorph - arms and legs are slender, neck
appears long, and muscle tissue has little definition
Mesomorph - athletic-looking individual; broad
shoulder, narrow hips, and predominant tissue
Endomorph - thick individual; arms and legs are
short compared with the torso, chest and waist are
about same size, neck is thick
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Body Type Classification
(Somatotyping)
Numbers use to designate the components of
each of the three types; 7 the highest and 1 the
lowest rating.
First number = endomorphic characteristics
Second number = mesomorphic characteristics
Third number = ectomorphic characteristics
7-1-1 = pure endomorph
1-7-1 = pure mesomorph
1-1-7 = pure ectomorph
Extremes rare; usually at least two components of
each type are present in an individual.
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Body Type Classification
(Somatotyping)
By knowing major characteristics of each body
type, possible to estimate the two dominant body
types of each individual and put to practical use.
Relationship exists between somatotypes and
certain sports.
Training may result in improved performance, but
it will not result in a change of body type.
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Height-Weight Tables
Metropolitan Life Insurance Company heightweight tables
1959 tables (see table 14.1)
1983 tables - average weight range increases of 13
pounds for short men and 10 pounds for short
women, little increases for medium-height men
and women, and insignificant increases for tall
men and women (see table 14.2)
AHA encouraged Americans to continue to use
1959 tables; cigarette smokers
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Height-Weight Tables
1990 - Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary
Guidelines for
Americans (U.S. Departments of Agriculture and
Health and Human Services) - permitted too much
weight gain in aging process
Major problem: height-weight tables reveal
nothing about body composition. With this
limitation, tables have value as screening device.
Major drawback: some individuals do not
correctly determine their frame size
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Determination of Body Frame
Elbow Breadth
1. Extend right arm and bend the forearm upward
at a 900 angle.
2. Place the thumb and index finger of the left
hand on the two prominent bones on either side
of the right elbow.
3. Measure the space between the thumb and
index finger of the left hand with a ruler or
tape measure.
4. Record the measurement and compare with
standards in table 14.3.
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Table 14.3 Standards for Estimating
Medium Frame Using Elbow Breadth and
Height Males
Females
Height (in.) Elbow B. (in.)**
61 to 62
2 1/2 to 2 7/8
63 to 66
2 5/8 to 2 7/8
67 to 70
2 3/4 to 3
71 to 74
2 3/4 to 3 1/8
75+
2 7/8 to 3 1/4
Height (in.)
57 to 58
59 to 62
63 to 66
67 to 70
71+
Elbow B. (in.)**
2 1/4 to 2 1/2
2 1/4 to 2 1/2
2 3/8 to 2 5/8
2 3/8 to 2 5/8
2 1/2 to 2 3/4
*Height without shoes
**Measurement lower than those listed indicate a small
frame and higher measurements indicate a larger
frame.
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Determination of Body Frame
Ankle Girth
1. Pulling the tape as snug as possible, measure the girth of
right ankle at the smallest point, just above the boney
prominences.
2. Record the measure and compare with the standards in
table 14.4.
TABLE 14.4 Standards for Estimating Body Frame Size
from Ankle Girth (inches)
Gender
Small
Medium
Large
Male
Less than 8
8 to 9.25
More than 9.25
Female Less than 7.5
7.5 to 8.75 More than 8.75
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Body Composition
Several methods are available for measurement
of body composition.
• Bioeletrical Impedance Analysis (BIA)
• Air Displacement Plethysmography (BOD
POD)
• Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry (DXA)
• Underwater Weighing
• Skinfold Tests
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Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA)
Tiny electrical current sent through body.
Based on difference between the resistance of lean
tissue to an electrical current and the resistance of
fat tissue. Lean tissue contains mostly water (70%
or more); less resistance.
Early versions required electrodes be attached to
wrist and ankle sites.
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Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA)
Variety of BIA devices sold for commercial and home
use; stand barefooted on a bathroom scale like
instrument or hold handgrips while extending the
arms.
Standard error of measurement about 3.5%.
If used after a meal probably will underestimate
percent of body fat; if used after dehydration probably
will overestimate.
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Air Displacement Plethysmography
(BOD POD)
Base on same principle as underwater weighing,
but uses air instead of water.
Determines body volume by comparing initial
volume of empty chamber and the volume with
person inside.
After weight is determined, individual sits in
chamber for 3 to 5 minutes.
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Air Displacement Plethysmography
(BOD POD)
Some individuals prefer BOD POD to underwater
weighting because they fear immersion.
Expensive; some research found standard error of
less than 2%. See figure 14.1.
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Duel-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry
(DXA)
Provides estimate of bone mineral, fat, and lean
soft-tissue mass.
Individual lies supine on table while detector
probes pass slowly across body.
Two distinct low-energy x-ray beams penetrate
bone and soft tissue areas.
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Duel-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry
(DXA)
Takes approximately 12 minutes.
Computer software produces an image and
estimates of bone mineral content, fat tissue,
and lean soft-tissue.
Expensive; degree of agreement with
underwater weighting.
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Underwater Weighing
Popular laboratory method for estimating
percent body fat
Standard error of estimate ±0.8 to ±1.2%
Considered very valid method
Also called hydrostatic weighing
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Underwater Weighing
See figure 14.2.
Objective: to determine body volume, which is then
used to determine body density.
Based on the Archimedean principle of water
displacement and the determination of body
density; the weight a body losses underwater
equals the weight of the water it displaces.
Weight of water displaced = weight of body in air –
weight of body under water.
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Underwater Weighing
Weight of water displaced divided by density of
water equals the volume of the water.
The volume of the water equals the volume of
the body submerged (for individuals, referred to
as body volume).
The density of the water, determined with the
appropriate formula, is a function of its
temperature.
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Underwater Weighing
Before determining body density, residual lung
volume must be determined.
With body volume, water density, and residual
lung volume determined, body density can be
determined (mathematical equation).
After body density is calculated, another equation
is used to estimated the percentage of body fat.
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Underwater Weighing
Lean tissue has greater density than fat tissue.
The higher the body density of an individual, the
lower the percentage of body fat.
Costly; some individuals fear total immersion and
not acceptable method for individuals with certain
medical conditions.
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Skinfold Tests
Measurement of subcutaneous body fat with
skinfold calipers; involves pinching a fold away
from the underlying muscle and applying the
caliper to the fold.
All measurements are taken on the right side of
the body.
Should not be taken immediately after exercise
because the shift of body fluid to the skin will
increase the skinfold size.
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Skinfold Tests
Directions for skinfold testing:
1. Grasp the skinfold firmly between the thumb
and index finger about one-half inch from the
site at which the caliper is to be applied. Do
not include muscle or fascia in the fold.
2. While continuing to hold the fold, apply the
caliper to the fold above or below the finger
and slowly release the caliper grip for that full
tension is exerted on the fold. Measurement is
read to the nearest 0.5 millimeter about 1 to
2 seconds (no longer) after the grip is released.
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Skinfold Tests
3. Take a minimum of two measurements at each
site; if they vary by more than 1 millimeter,
take a third measurement. Specific test
instructions sometimes differ in this step. For
example, one test may use the median score of
three measurements, while another test may
require that two consecutive measurements
agree within 0.5 millimeters. Take
measurements in rotational order (circuits).
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Skinfold Measurement Sites
May be marked with a grease pencil. See figures
14.3-14.10.
1. Chest: a diagonal fold half of the distance
between the anterior axillary line and nipple for
males; one third of the distance from the
anterior axillary line to the nipple for females.
2. Axilla: a vertical fold on the midaxillary line at
the level of the xiphoid process of the sternum.
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Skinfold Measurement Sites
3. Triceps: a vertical fold over the triceps
muscle, halfway between the acromion
and olecranon processes (arm should be
extended and relaxed).
4. Subscapula: a diagonal fold just inferior to
and in line with inferior angle of the
scapula.
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Skinfold Measurement Sites
5. Abdominal: a vertical fold approximately onehalf to one inch to the right of the naval.
6. Suprailium: a slightly diagonal fold on the crest
of the ilium on the anterior axillary line.
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Skinfold Measurement Sites
7. Thigh: a vertical fold on the anterior thigh
midway between the hip and knee joints
(weight should be on left foot.)
8. Calf: a vertical fold on the inside of the calf;
right foot is placed flat on bench with knee
flexed to 900; vertical fold of skin is grasped
just above the largest part of calf girth and fold
of skin is measured at the largest part of the
girth.
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Skinfold Tests
Have a standard error of 3. 5 to 4.0%
Rarely performed outside of laboratory setting:
1. Expense of calipers
2. Lack of confidence in reliability of
measurements
Note: Always be aware of the standard error of
estimate for the measurement technique you
use.
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Skinfold Measurement
Reliability of skinfold measurements increased
when testers are trained.
Major requirement for a skinfold caliper is that it
exert a constant force of 10 gm/mm2 at the
skinfold site.
Testers must be willing to practice.
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Estimating Percent Body Fat
Many regression equations available for
predicting hydrostatically measured body density
from skinfold measurements.
Population specific equation - developed from
homogeneous samples; their application is limited
to a similar sample (e.g., age and gender).
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14-44
Estimating Percent Body Fat
Generalized equation - can be used with
samples varying in age and body fatness;
developed based on large heterogeneous
samples using regression models that account
for age and the nonlinear relationship
between skinfold fat and body density.
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Estimating Percent Body Fat
Microcomputer programs available to determine
body density and percent fat after skinfold
measurements have been completed.
Also, computer-generated tables that provide
percent body fat estimates have been developed.
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Estimating Percent Body Fat
See tables 14.5 through 14.8
Pollack found that two different sums of
three skinfolds for males and females
highly correlated with the sum of seven of
the skinfolds previously described.
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14-47
Estimating Percent Body Fat
Male Skinfold Sites
1
chest
abdomen
thigh
2
triceps
chest
subscapular
Female Skinfold Sites
1
triceps
suprailium
thigh
2
triceps
abdomen
suprailium
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Optimal Percent Body Fat and
Desirable Body Weight
Though skinfolds are related to body fatness in
children, the absolute amount of body fat cannot
be accurately determined.
The relation of skinfold fat to body fatness differs
by gender and also changes as children mature.
A given skinfold thickness does not correspond to
the same body fat content for seven-year-olds as it
does for seventeen-year-olds.
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Optimal Percent Body Fat and
Desirable Body Weight
What is desirable percent fat for children and
adults?
Risks associated with too much fat and too little
fat.
Different optimal limits of percent body fat have
been reported. Difficult to compare standards
because studies do not always group age ranges in
the same way.
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Optimal Percent Body Fat and
Desirable Body Weight
FITTNESSGRAM
Optimal range of body fatness for males and
females, ages 5 to 25, = 10 to 20% and 15 to 25%,
respectively. For children above age of 12, males
with less than 8% and females with less than 13%
fat are considered very lean.
YMCA Fitness Test
“Good” standard for percent fat for males, ages 26
to 35, are 11 to 13% for males and 18 to 20% for
females.
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Optimal Percent Body Fat and
Desirable Body Weight
Ross and Jackson (1990)
For the age group 30 to 39, the optimal range for
percent fat is 12 to 22% for males and 16 to 26%
for females.
Lohman (1982)
Satisfactory fat content for men is 10 to 22%
and for women 20 to 32%.
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Optimal Percent Body Fat and
Desirable Body Weight
Average percent body fat for highly trained male
endurance athletes is 4 to 10%; for highly trained female
endurance athletes, it is 13 to 18%.
Recommended minimal percent fat for male athletes is 3
to 7%; for females athletes, it is 10 to 18%.
When testing for body fatness, use standards provided
with test. If you do not use a standardized test, table 14.9
provides optimal percent body fat standards for various
adult ages.
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Sample Calculation of Desired Weight
Given: Body Weight = 200 pounds; % fat = 24%
Calculation of fat weight (FW)
FW = body weight x (% fat  100)
= 200 x (24%  100)
= 200 x .24
FW = 48 pounds
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Sample Calculation of Desirable Weight
Calculation of lean body weight (LBW)
LBW = body weight - FW
= 200 - 48
LBW = 152 pounds
Calculation of desirable body weight (DBW)
DBW =
LBW
=
152
1.00 - (desired % fat  100)
1.00 - (19%  100)
DBW =
152
=
1.00 - (.19)
152 = 187.7 pounds
.81
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Sample Calculation of Desirable Weight
As measurement errors may occur, when
estimating body density it is best to determine
desirable body weight ranges and percent body fat.
Males = 15 to 18% fat
Females = 22 to 26% fat
Values above these percentages indicate
overfatness.
Obese
Males = excess of 25% fat
Females = excess of 30% fat
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Cooper Method for Determining Ideal Weight
Ideal Weight for Average Build
Men: (4 x height in inches) - 128 = weight with
roughly 15 to 19% body fat
Female: (3.5 x height in inches - 108 = weight
with roughly 18 to 22% body fat
Large-bone individuals should add 10% to the
calculated figure; small-boned individuals should
subtract 10%.
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Body Mass Index (BMI)
Provides an indication of relationship of weight
to height.
Used world-wide in health studies.
Standard error large for children and elderly
because their muscle and bone weights in
relationship to their heights can change rapidly.
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Body Mass Index (BMI)
Has been found to correlate with health risks and
can be used as a screening tool.
BMI = weight in kilograms
(height in meters)2
May also use:
BMI = 704(weight in pounds)
(height in inches)2
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Body Mass Index (BMI)
In general, for adults BMI of 20 to 25 is
associated with the lowest risk of health
problems.
Adults with a BMI greater than 30 are considered
obese; anyone with a BMI greater than 40 is
considered morbidly obese and in need of medical
attention.
Table 14.10 indicates classification of overweight
and disease risk associated with BMI for adults.
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Body Mass Index (BMI)
For children and adolescents (aged 2-19),
BMI plotted on Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention chart.
Children and adolescents with BMI at the 85th
percentile but less than 95th percentile (same
age and sex) are considered overweight.
Obesity is defined as a BMI at or above 95th
percentile.
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Fat Distribution
Body shape as well as percent body fat is important to
health.
Excess body fat concentrated in the abdominal area may
be a greater health risk than fat found around the hips
and thighs.
Broken-down abdominal fat goes straight to the liver,
which may lead to dangerous elevations in blood fat and
insulin levels.
Table 14.10 shows risks associated with waist
circumference and BMI.
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Fat Distribution
A favorable waist-to-hip ratio may decrease the
risk of diseases associated with excess weight.
To determine the waist-to-hip ratio:
1. Measure around the waist where it is the
smallest; stand relaxed and do not pull in the
stomach.
2. Measure the hips where they are the largest.
3. Divide the waist measurement by the hips
measurement to obtain waist-to-hip ratio.
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Fat Distribution
Should be aware that different procedures
may be described for measurement of waist
circumference.
Table 14.11 includes waist-to-hip ratios that
indicate moderate health risks.
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