APES LAB Review
Brian Kaestner
Saint Mary’s Hall
The Dynamics of Plate
Tectonics: Earthquakes and
Volcanic Activity
Features of the Crust
Oceanic crust
(lithosphere)
Abyssal Oceanic
floor
ridge
Abyssal
floor
Abyssal plain
Abyssal
hills
Trench
Folded mountain belt
Craton
Volcanoes
Continental
shelf
Continental
slope
Continental crust
(lithosphere)
Mantle (lithosphere)
Mantle (asthenosphere)
Mantle
(lithosphere)
Continental
rise
Abyssal plain
Reykjanes
Ridge
EURASIAN PLATE
JUAN DE
FUCA PLATE
CHINA
SUBPLATE
Transform
fault
PHILIPINE
PLATE
PACIFIC
PLATE
MidIndian
Ocean
Ridge
Transform
fault
INDIAN-AUSTRLIAN PLATE
Southeast Indian
Ocean Ridge
NORTH
AMERICAN
PLATE
COCOS
PLATE
East Pacific
Rise
MidAtlantic
Ocean
Ridge
EURASIAN
PLATE
ANATOLIAN
PLATE
CARIBBEAN
PLATE
ARABIAN
PLATE
AFRICAN
PLATE
SOUTH
AMERICAN
PLATE
Carlsberg
Ridge
AFRICAN
PLATE
Transform
fault
Southwest Indian
Ocean Ridge
ANTARCTIC PLATE
Convergent
plate boundaries
Plate motion
at convergent
plate boundaries
Divergent ( ) and
transform fault (
boundaries
)
Plate motion
at divergent
plate boundaries
Internal Earth
Processes
Lithosphere
Plate tectonics
Asthenosphere
Oceanic ridge at a divergent
plate boundary
Trench Volcanic island arc
Divergent boundary
Convergent boundary
Subduction zone
Transform fault
Lithosphere
Rising
magma
Subduction
zone
Asthenosphere
Trench and volcanic island arc at
a convergent plate boundary
Fracture zone
Transform
fault
Lithosphere
Asthenosphere
Transform fault connecting two
divergent plate boundaries
The Rock Cycle and Soil
Formation
The Rock Cycle
Transport
Deposition
Erosion
Sedimentary Rock
Shale, Sandstone,
Limestone
Heat,
Pressure
Weathering
External Processes
Internal Processes
Metamorphic Rock
Igneous Rock
Heat,
Slate, Quartzite,
Granite, Pumice,
Pressure
Marble
Basalt
Magma
(Molten Rock)
Soils: Formation
Soil horizons Soil profile
Humus
Immature soil
O horizon
Leaf litter
A horizon
Topsoil
Regolith
Bedrock
B horizon
Subsoil
C horizon
Young soil
Parent
material
Mature soil
Mosaic
of closely
packed
pebbles,
boulders
Alkaline,
dark,
and rich
in humus
Weak humusmineral mixture
Dry, brown to
reddish-brown
with variable
accumulations
of clay, calcium
carbonate, and
soluble salts
Desert Soil
(hot, dry climate)
Clay,
calcium
compounds
Grassland Soil
(semiarid climate)
Forest litter
leaf mold
Acidic
lightcolored
humus
Humus-mineral
mixture
Light-colored
and acidic
Light, grayishbrown, silt loam
Iron and
aluminum
compounds
mixed with
clay
Tropical Rain Forest Soil
(humid, tropical climate)
Acid litter
and humus
Humus and
iron and
aluminum
compounds
Dark brown
Firm clay
Deciduous Forest Soil
(humid, mild climate)
Coniferous Forest Soil
(humid, cold climate)
Environmental Influences on
Population Distribution
Population Dispersion
Clumped
(elephants)
Uniform
(creosote bush)
Random
(dandelions)
Factors Affecting Population Size
POPULATION SIZE
Growth factors
(biotic potential)
Abiotic
Favorable light
Favorable temperature
Favorable chemical environment
(optimal level of critical nutrients)
Biotic
High reproductive rate
Generalized niche
Adequate food supply
Suitable habitat
Ability to compete for resources
Ability to hide from or defend
against predators
Ability to resist diseases and parasites
Ability to migrate and live in other
habitats
Ability to adapt to environmental
change
Decrease factors
(environmental resistance)
Abiotic
Too much or too little light
Temperature too high or too low
Unfavorable chemical environment
(too much or too little of critical
nutrients)
Biotic
Low reproductive rate
Specialized niche
Inadequate food supply
Unsuitable or destroyed habitat
Too many competitors
Insufficient ability to hide from or defend
against predators
Inability to resist diseases and parasites
Inability to migrate and live in other
habitats
Inability to adapt to environmental
change
Reproductive Patterns and Survival
 Asexual reproduction  r-selected species
 Sexual reproduction  K-selected species
K-Selected Species
elephant
r-Selected Species
saguaro
Fewer, larger offspring
High parental care and protection of offspring
Later reproductive age
Most offspring survive to reproductive age
Larger adults
Adapted to stable climate and environmental
conditions
Lower population growth rate (r)
Population size fairly stable and usually close
to carrying capacity (K)
Specialist niche
High ability to compete
Late successional species
cockroach
dandelion
Many small offspring
Little or no parental care and protection of
offspring
Early reproductive age
Most offspring die before reaching
reproductive age
Small adults
Adapted to unstable climate and environmental
conditions
High population growth rate (r)
Population size fluctuates wildly above and below
carrying capacity (K)
Generalist niche
Low ability to compete
Early successional species
Population Studies
Human Population
Demographics
DT = 70/pgr
DT = doubling time
pgr = population growth rate (%)
Factors Affecting Human Population Size
Population change equation
Population
Change
=
(Births + Immigration) – (Deaths + Emigration)
Zero population growth (ZPG)
Crude birth rate (BR)
Crude death rate (DR)
The Demographic Transition
Stage 2
Transindustrial
Stage 3
Industrial
Stage 4
Postindustrial
High
80
70
Relative population size
Birth rate and death rate
(number per 1,000 per year)
Stage 1
Preindustrial
60
50
Birth rate
40
30
Death rate
20
10
0
Total population
Low
Increasing Growth Very high Decreasing
Low
Zero
growth rate
growth rate
growth rate growth rate growth rate growth rate
Time
Low
Negative
growth rate
Population Age Structure
Male
Female
Rapid Growth
Guatemala
Nigeria
Saudi Arabia
Ages 0-14
Slow Growth
United States
Australia
Canada
Ages 15-44
Zero Growth
Spain
Austria
Greece
Negative Growth
Germany
Bulgaria
Sweden
Ages 45-85+
Fig. 11.16a, p. 247
Soil Analysis
Soil Properties
 Porosity/permeability
Water
High permeability
Water
 Infiltration
Low permeability
100%clay
0
80
clay
20
60
Increasing
percentage clay
40
silty
clay
sandy
clay
40
60
clay
loam
sandy clay
loam
20
silty clay
loam
loam
silty
loam
sandy
loam
0
sand
100%sand
Increasing
percentage silt
loamy
sand
80
80
silt
60
40
Increasing percentage sand
20
100%silt
 Texture
Energy Consumption
The Importance of Improving Energy Efficiency
Energy Inputs
System
 Net useful energy
Outputs
9%
7%
 Life cycle cost
84%
Least Efficient
 Incandescent lights
 Internal combustion
engine
 Nuclear power plants
U.S.
economy
and
lifestyles
7%
5%
4%
Nonrenewable fossil
fuels
Nonrenewable nuclear
Hydropower, geothermal,
wind, solar
Biomass
41%
43%
Useful energy
Petrochemicals
Unavoidable energy
waste
Unnecessary energy
waste
Ways to Improve Energy Efficiency
Insulation
Elimination of air leaks
Cogeneration
Efficient electric motors
High-efficiency lighting
Increasing fuel economy
Air Pollution
Outdoor Air Pollution
 Primary pollutants
 Secondary pollutants
Primary Pollutants
CO
SO2
CO2
NO
Secondary Pollutants
NO2
Most hydrocarbons
Most suspended
particles
SO3
HNO3
H2O2
–
H2SO4
O3
PANs
2–
salts
Most NO3 and SO4
Natural
Sources
Mobile
Stationary
Temperature Inversions
Subsidence inversion
Radiation inversion
Warmer air
Increasing altitude
Inversion layer
Cool layer
Mountain
Mountain
Valley
Decreasing temperature
Water Quality Testing
DO
BOD
Temp
Phosphates
Nitrates
Turbidity
Types and Sources of Water Pollution
Point sources
Nonpoint sources
Biological oxygen
demand
Water quality
Water
Quality
Do (ppm) at 20˚C
Good
8-9
Slightly
polluted
6.7-8
Moderately
polluted
Heavily
polluted
Gravely
polluted
4.5-6.7
Below 4.5
Below 4
Water/Wastewater Treatment
Technological Approach: Sewage Treatment
Mechanical and biological treatment
Secondary
Primary
Bar screen
Grit
chamber
Settling tank
Aeration tank
Settling tank
Chlorine
disinfection tank
To river, lake,
or ocean
Raw sewage
from sewers
Sludge
(kills bacteria)
Activated sludge
Air pump
Sludge digester
Sludge drying bed
Disposed of in landfill or
ocean or applied to cropland,
pasture, or rangeland
Technological Approach: Advanced Sewage
Treatment
Removes specific pollutants
Effluent from
Secondary
treatment
Alum
flocculation
plus sediments
Desalination
Activated (electrodialysis
Nitrate
carbon or reverse osmosis) removal
98% of
suspended solids
90% of
phosphates
To rivers, lakes,
streams, oceans,
reservoirs, or industries
98% of
dissolved
organics
Recycled to land
for irrigation
and fertilization
Specialized
compound
removal
(DDT, etc.)
Most of
dissolved salts
Solid Waste Management
1st Priority
2nd Priority
Primary Pollution
and Waste Prevention
Secondary Pollution
and Waste Prevention
• Change industrial
process to eliminate
use of harmful
chemicals
• Purchase different
products
• Use less of a harmful
product
• Reduce packaging and
materials in products
• Make products that
last longer and are
recyclable, reusable or
easy to repair
• Reduce products
• Repair products
• Recycle
• Compost
• Buy reusable and
recyclable products
Last Priority
Waste Management
• Treat waste to reduce
toxicity
• Incinerate waste
• Bury waste in
landfill
• Release waste into
environment for
dispersal or dilution
When landfill is full,
layers of soil and clay
seal in trash
Electricity
generator
Methane storage
and compressor
building
Topsoil
Sand
building
Leachate
treatment system
Clay
Garbage
Methane gas
recovery
Pipe collect explosive
methane gas used as fuel
to generate electricity
Leachate
storage tanks
Compacted
solid waste
Groundwater
monitoring
well
Leachate
monitoring
well
Leachate pipes
Garbage
Leachate pumped up
to storage tanks for
safe disposal
Sand
Synthetic liner
Sand
Clay
Subsoil
Groundwater
Clay and plastic lining
to prevent leaks; pipes
collect leachate from
bottom of landfill
The Greenhouse Effect
The Natural Greenhouse Effect
Greenhouse effect Greenhouse gases
(a) Rays of sunlight penetrate
the lower atmosphere and
warm the earth's surface.
(b) The earth's surface absorbs much of (c) As concentrations of greenhouse
the incoming solar radiation and
gases rise, their molecules absorb
degrades it to longer-wavelength
and emit more infrared radiation,
infrared radiation (heat), which rises
which adds more heat to the
into the lower atmosphere. Some of
lower atmosphere.
this heat escapes into space and some
is absorbed by molecules of
greenhouse gases and emitted as
infrared radiation, which warms the
lower atmosphere.
360
340
320
300
280
Carbon dioxide
260
240
220
+2.5
200
0
180
–2.5
–5.0
Temperature
change
End of
last ice age
160
120
80
40
0
Thousands of years before present
–7.5
–10.0
Variation of temperature (˚C)
from current level
Concentration of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere (ppm)
380
Carbon dioxide
Methane
Nitrous oxide
Index (1900 = 100)
250
200
150
100
1990
2000
2025
2050
Year
2075
2100
Fig. 18.5, p. 451
Human Activities and Earth’s Climate
Increased use of fossil fuels
Deforestation
Global warming
Some Possible Effects of a
Warmer World
Agriculture
•
•
•
•
Shifts in food-growing
areas
Changes in crop yields
Increased irrigation
demands
Increased pests, crop
diseases, and weeds
in warmer areas
Water Resources
•
Changes in forest
composition and locations
•
Disappearance of some
forests
Increased drought
•
Increased fires from drying
Increased flooding
•
Loss of wildlife habitat and
species
•
Changes in water
supply
•
Decreased water quality
•
•
Biodiversity
•
Extinction of some
plant and animal
species
•
Loss of habitats
•
Disruption of aquatic
life
Forests
Sea Level and Coastal Areas
•
•
•
•
•
•
Weather Extremes
•
Prolonged heat
waves and droughts
•
Increased flooding
•
More intense
hurricanes,
typhoons,
tornadoes, and
violent storms
Rising sea levels
Flooding of low-lying
islands and coastal cities
Flooding of coastal
estuaries, wetlands, and
coral reefs
Beach erosion
Disruption of coastal
fisheries
Contamination of coastal
aquifiers with salt water
Human Health
Human Population
•
•
Increased deaths
•
•
More environmental
refugees
•
•
Increased migration
•
•
Increased deaths from heat
and disease
Disruption of food and water
supplies
Spread of tropical diseases
to temperate areas
Increased respiratory
disease
Increased water pollution
from coastal flooding
Solutions: Dealing with the Threat of Climate
Change
Prevention
Cut fossil fuel
use (especially
coal)
Shift from coal
to natural gas
Transfer energy
efficiency and
renewable energy
technologies
to developing
countries
Improve energy
efficiency
Shift to
renewable
energy resources
Reduce
deforestation
Use sustainable
agriculture
Slow population
growth
Cleanup
Remove CO2
from smokestack
and vehicle
emissions
Store (sequester
CO2 by planting
trees)
Sequester CO2
underground
Sequester CO2
in soil
Sequester CO2
in deep ocean
Acid Deposition
Regional Outdoor Air Pollution from Acid
Deposition
Acid deposition
Wind
Transformation to
sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
and nitric acid (HNO3)
Nitric oxide (NO)
Acid fog
Ocean
Windborne ammonia gas
and particles of cultivated soil
partially neutralize acids and
form dry sulfate and nitrate salts
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
and NO
Dry acid
deposition
(sulfur dioxide
gas and particles
of sulfate and
nitrate salts)
Wet acid deposition
(droplets of H2SO4 and
HNO3 dissolved in rain
and snow)
Farm
Lakes in
deep soil
high in limestone
are buffered
Lakes in shallow
soil low in
limestone
become
acidic
Acid Deposition and Humans
 Respiratory diseases
 Toxic metal leaching
 Decreased visibility
 Damage to structures, especially
containing limestone
 Decreased productivity and
profitability of fisheries, forests,
and farms
Acid Deposition and Aquatic Systems
 Fish declines
Water
boatman
Whirligig
 Undesirable
species
Yellow perch
Lake trout
Brown trout
Salamander
(embryonic)
Mayfly
Smallmouth
bass
Mussel
6.5
6.0
5.5
5.0
pH
4.5
4.0
3.5