AN EXAMINATION OF STRESS IN
EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS
A Thesis
Presented to the faculty of the Department of Graduate and
Professional Studies in Education
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS in
Child Development
(Applied Settings) by
Toni Michelle Brazil
FALL
2013

AN EXAMINATION OF STRESS IN
EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS
A Thesis by
Toni Michelle Brazil
Approved by:
_________________________, Committee Chair
Dr. Susan Gomez
_________________________, Second Reader
Dr. Sheri Hembree
_________________________
Date ii

Student: Toni Michelle Brazil
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University format manual, and that this thesis is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to be awarded for the thesis.
______________________________, Department Chair, __________________
Dr. Susan Heredia Date
Department of Graduate and Professional Studies in Education iii

Abstract of
AN EXAMINATION OF STRESS IN
EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS by
Toni Michelle Brazil
Purpose of the Study
Stress in teachers has been linked to many personal and physical effects.
Although stress has been studied extensively in elementary schools, there is little research on stress among early childhood educators. This study examined the sources and perceived effects of stress in preschool teachers, including any differences in teacher stress related to program type as well as possible relationships between stress and teachers’ level of education, years of experience, or class ratio.
Data Collection and Analysis
Thirty-six teachers from Head Start and private preschools completed a survey rating sources and effects of stress from “never” to “always” stressful. Descriptive and frequency analyses identified sources and effects which were most stressful or common.
A series of t-tests examined differences in stress between the two program types.
Correlational analyses sought to identify any associations between stress and teachers’ education level, years of experience, and numbers of students. iv

Results
Factors such as teacher/child ratio, lack of time, non-teaching duties, and assessment work were rated as rarely to sometimes stressful. Only one item, wages, was rated as sometimes to very often stressful. Physical and emotional exhaustion, burnout and considering leaving the profession occurred only rarely to sometimes. Most teachers felt confident in their teaching ability. There were no significant programmatic differences in sources or effects of stress. More experienced teachers reported lower incidences of emotional or physiological effects. Teachers with higher ratios were more likely to perceive non-teaching tasks as a source of stress and have more stressful relationships with administrators. Results suggest that preschool teachers face a range of stressors which create personal and professional impacts, though they seem to occur only rarely to sometimes. But even mild to moderate stresses can create negative impacts for teachers that deserve the attention of program administrators. Teacher stress is often related to factors of program quality such as workload or ratios. Therefore, eliminating teacher stress creates a better classroom environment for children and contributes to program quality.
_______________________________, Committee Chair
Dr. Susan Gomez
_______________
Date v

DEDICATION
I am honored to dedicate this thesis to my mom. She has always been there for me throughout this process and for my entire life. She is the most amazing, caring, and loving woman that I know and without her love and support I would have never been able to come as far as I have. She taught me how to love and respect children, and to appreciate them for whom they are. Thank you for everything mom, I love you! vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
With heartfelt gratitude, I would like to thank Dr. Susan Gomez. Without her, this thesis would not have been possible! I’m thankful for her tireless editing of papers, constant encouragement, and the overall time, love, and support that she displayed throughout this process. I am honored to have been able to work side by side with her on something that has so much meaning in my life.
I would also like to thank my professor at CSU, Stanislaus, Dr. Cheryl DeLancey, and my professor at Modesto Junior College, Debbie Laffranchini. Both played an intricate role in my academic career. Thank you to Debbie Laffranchini for encouraging me to continue my education. It is because of you that I headed off to the university in search of “just a B.A.” in Child Development. Thanks to you Dr. Cheryl DeLancey for putting the thought in my head that I could get my Master’s Degree in Child
Development. Thank you both for believing in me and encouraging me to go for it! vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Dedication ………………………………………………………………………………. vi
Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………... vii
List of Tables …………………………………………………………………………… xi
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………………. 1
Statement of the Problem ………………………………………………………... 1
Purpose of the Study …………………………………………………………….. 2
Significance of the Study ………………………………………………………... 3
Methods …………………………………………………………………………. 6
Definition of Terms ……………………………………………………………….8
Limitations ………………………………………………………………………..9
Organization of the Study ……………………………………………………… 10
2. LITERATURE REVIEW …………………………………………………………… 12
Theoretical Framework ………………………………………………………… 12
Defining Teacher Stress ………………………………………………………... 16
Factors that Create Stress in Teachers …………………………………………. 17
Professional Impacts of Stress …………………………………………………. 25
Emotional Impacts of Stress …………………………………………………… 30
Physiological Impacts of Stress ………………………………………………... 31 viii

Stress in Preschool Teachers ………………………………………………….. 32
Teacher Stress and Negative Outcomes for Children…………………………. 35
Preventing or Alleviating Teacher Stress ……………………………………… 36
Summary ………………………………………………………………………. 37
3. METHODS ………………………………………………………………………….. 39
Design and Research Questions ………………………………………………... 39
Participants and Settings ……………………………………………………….. 40
Data Collection and Instruments ……………………………………………….. 42
Procedures ……………………………………………………………………… 44
Data Analysis …………………………………………………………………... 45
4. RESULTS …………………………………………………………………………… 46
Descriptive Analyses …………………………………………………………... 46
Comparing Private Versus Public Teachers ………………………………….... 52
Teachers’ Demographic Factors Relating to Stress ……………………………. 55
Teachers’ Narrative Responses ………………………………………………… 56
5. DISCUSSION ……………………………………………………………………….. 61
Major Findings …………………………………………………………………. 61
Limitations ……………………………………………………………………... 69
Recommendations for Practice…………………………………………………. 71
Future Research ………………………………………………………………... 73
Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………... 74 ix

Appendix A. Early Childhood Teacher Stress Survey …………………………………. 77
Appendix B. Teacher Consent Form …………………………………………………... 84
References ……………………………………………………………………………… 86 x

Tables
LIST OF TABLES
Page
1.
Table 1 Mean Scores for Sources of Stress ……………………………………. 47
2.
Table 2 Mean Scores for Perceived Effects of Stress …………………………. 50
3.
Table 3 Mean Scores for Sources of Stress Composite Variables …………….. 53
4. Table 4 T-Test Comparison of Sources of Stress by Program Type …………... 53
5.
Table 5 Mean Scores for Effects of Stress Composite Variables……………… 54
6. Table 6 T-Test Comparison of Perceived Effects of Stress by Program Type …55
7. Table 7 Narrative Responses – Ways to Reduce Teachers’ Stress …………..... 58 xi

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Statement of the Problem
Teaching is often a high stress occupation (Grayson & Alvarez, 2008; Tsai, Fung,
& Chow, 2006). Factors such as excessive workloads, children’s challenging behaviors,
1 relationships with coworkers and parents, a lack of funding for materials and the physical demands are just some of the sources of stress for teachers (Klassen & Chiu, 2010; Tsai et al.).
Prolonged periods of stress can lead to a number of emotional or psychological problems for teachers, including higher levels of depression and anxiety (Shoemaker,
2000; Tsai et al., 2006). Stress can also lead to physical ailments such as exhaustion and weakness (Tsai et al.). Conditions as serious as cardiovascular disease have been linked to high levels of stress (Hall, Johnson, & Tsou, 1993). Teachers who are under stress are more likely to experience burnout, exhibit poor job performance and even leave the profession altogether (Caulfield & Kataoka-Yahior, 2001; Shoemaker). Increased stress has also been linked to a decrease in teachers’ sense of self-efficacy (Klassen & Chiu,
2010) and a higher rate of turnover (Grayson & Alvarez, 2007). Stress in teachers can eventually produce negative impacts for their students, including higher expulsion and suspension rates for young children (Gilliam & Shahar, 2006).

Stress in teachers has been studied extensively in elementary school settings as well as in the upper grades (Tsai et al., 2006). But research on stress among early
2 childhood educators is limited, particularly with regard to teachers serving low income families and children (Baumgartner, Carson, Apavaloaie, & Tsouloupas, 2009; Kelly &
Berthelsen, 1995). Larger class sizes, lack of monetary resources, longer hours, lower wages, and ever increasing pressures for meeting academic standards are some of the stressors that many early childhood teachers face (Kelly & Berthelsen). Understanding these stresses is complicated further by the diversity of program types seen at the early childhood level. Further research must be conducted in order to better understand the causes and effects of teacher stress, as well as to formulate a way to combat stress and prevent its negative outcomes for early childhood educators as well as the children they serve.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate the sources and effects of stress in early childhood educators serving children aged two to five years. Because there are different types of programs serving young children, a second important focus was to examine whether there were differences in stress among early childhood educators
(ECEs) related to program type (public vs. private). A final purpose was to examine whether teachers’ stress was related to characteristics such as the teachers’ level of

education, years of teaching experience or numbers of students. Specifically, the research
3 addressed the following questions:
1.
What are the self-reported sources of stress for ECE teachers?
2.
What are the self-reported personal and professional impacts of stress for ECE teachers?
3.
Are there differences between public and private ECE programs in the sources and impacts of ECE teacher stress?
4.
Are there relationships between ECE teachers’ stress and the teacher demographic factors of level of education, years of teaching experience, or number of students in their class?
Significance of the Study
Teaching has long been recognized as a stressful profession. The nature of teaching, the demands of the job, and the lack of resources needed to meet those demands can all add to that stress. In addition, budget cuts, accountability pressures, rising enrollments, more stringent curricular expectations and higher workloads have made teaching more stressful than ever (Klassen & Chiu, 2010).
Several characteristics of early childhood teaching today merit further examination as unique contributors to stress in ECE teachers. There are ever increasing academic demands placed upon early childhood educators because of legislation such as
No Child Left Behind. More than ever, early childhood educators must struggle with the

pressures of these academic demands competing with the need to preserve the traditional
4 whole child focus of early education (Stipek, 2006).
Most of the research on stress and teaching has focused on elementary teachers; fewer studies have examined stress in teachers serving young children. These studies have identified a number of factors that can lead to higher levels of stress. For example, working conditions are a major reported source of teacher stress (Baumgartner et al.,
2009; Kelly & Berthelsen, 1995). In an interview study of nine ECE providers,
Baumgartner et al. noted that noise, daily transitions, interactions with parents and working with unqualified staff or teachers were all conditions that created stress. In Kelly and Berthelsen’s interviews with eight preschool teachers, time pressures, meeting the needs of children, and engaging in tasks not related to teaching were all reported as causes of stress. In a survey of ECE professionals in supervisorial positions, low wages were cited as one of the main stressors of their job (Caulfield, & Kataoka-Yahiro, 2001).
Teacher to child ratios, long working hours and administrative issues have also been identified as sources of stress for early educators (Gilliam & Sahar, 2006; McGrath &
Huntington, 2007).
Regardless of its source, stress can lead to many emotional and physical consequences for teachers. In a health survey of preschool and kindergarten teachers, half of the respondents reported high levels of job-related stress and one-third of the teachers reported an increased rate of illness (McGrath & Huntington, 2007). Tsai et al. (2006) conducted a survey of kindergarten teachers in Hong Kong. In their study, teachers reported higher levels of exhaustion and weakness which they attributed to stress. In

addition, the teachers reported feelings of insecurity, vulnerability, depression and anxiety. In a separate survey of 90 Head Start teachers, over a third reported having symptoms of depression which they attributed to job related stress (Li Grining et al.,
2010).
Stress can also produce negative professional impacts for teachers, including burnout and turnover. Emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and a lack of a sense of personal accomplishment have all been linked to teacher burnout (Grayson & Alvarez,
2007). In Grayson and Alvarez’s study, emotional exhaustion was most predictive of burnout for teachers. Not surprisingly, teacher stress has been found to be negatively
5 correlated to job satisfaction (Klassen & Chiu, 2010).
Self-efficacy is another area that can be negatively affected by stress. Increases in workload and stress, especially when they occur together, can leave teachers with a diminished sense of self-efficacy (Klassen & Chiu, 2010) especially in relation to their perceived ability to handle classroom behavior. In a study conducted by Li Grining and colleagues (2010), thirty percent of respondents felt that, because of stress, they were less confident in their ability to manage children’s classroom behaviors. This effect was more pronounced among less experienced teachers.
Beyond its effects on teachers, stress can lead to negative impacts for students.
Gilliam and Shahar (2009) found higher student expulsion levels in classrooms with higher teacher-student ratios and higher levels of teacher reported stress. Other studies have found a higher incidence of behavior management problems and a lower rate of social interactions between teachers and students in Head Start classrooms with teachers

reporting high levels of stress (Li Grining et al., 2010). Turnover is another outcome of
6 teacher stress with negative effects for children, since teacher turnover has been linked to a lower quality of care for children (Caulfield & Kataoka-Yahiro, 2001).
The current research on teacher stress has focused primarily on those teaching elementary and high school students (Tsai et al., 2006). There are very few studies on teacher stress in early childhood educators. What is currently known from the minimal research is that stress is present in the ECE classroom, and there are a variety of unique factors which can create stress for ECE teachers (Kelly & Berthelsen, 1995). But the specific sources and impacts of stress for ECE teachers are still unclear. Further study with ECE teachers is necessary to better understand the unique features and impacts of stress in early childhood settings.
The intention of the current study was to provide a more complete picture of the unique sources and impacts of stress among ECE teachers. This understanding can be used to inform efforts to decrease or eliminate these stresses, and lessen the negative impacts of stress for ECE teachers and the children they serve.
Methods
In the current study, both quantitative and qualitative methods were employed to better understand teacher stress in the early childhood profession. The researcher collected survey data on the self-reported sources of stress and its perceived impacts on teachers.

Participants included 36 early childhood teachers working with children aged two to five,
7 employed in center based preschool programs in the Sacramento area. Of those 36 participants, 21 were from Head Start and the remaining 15 were from private centers.
Data related to teacher stress were collected by means of a three-part teacher selfreport survey (see Appendix A). The survey was created by the researcher, based on items from the Child Care Worker Job Stress Inven tory (CCW-JSI) (Curbow, Spratt,
Ungaretti, McDonnel, & Breckler, 2000), the Classroom Appraisal of Resources and
Demands , (CARD), preschool version, (Lambert, Abbott-Shim, & McCarthy, 2001), as well sources and effects of stress identified in the existing literature on teacher stress.
The first section of the survey consisted of demographic items related to the teacher’s age, gender, teaching experience, and education as well as items related to the students in each teacher’s class. The second section of the survey was comprised of a series of 5point Likert scale items related to possible sources of stress for the teachers. The third section included a similar set of Likert items related to the effects of stress. The final section of the survey consisted of two qualitative questions, asking participants to identify suggestions for how to make their jobs less stressful, and what effects if any that their job stress had on their students.
Descriptive and frequency analyses were computed to derive an overall summary of demographic data as well as teachers’ responses to the Likert items related to sources and outcomes of stress. Correlations were then computed to identify composite variables or subscales among the sources of stress items as well as among the impacts of stress items. Aggregate mean scores for these composite variables were compared using t-tests

8 to determine if there were significant differences between program types in teachers’ selfreported stressors or outcomes of stress. Finally, correlational analyses were conducted to test for possible associations between teachers’ reported sources and effects of stress and the teachers’ years of experience, education level, or number of students in the class.
Responses to the open-ended questions were examined using qualitative methods to identify common themes and patterns of responses among participants.
Definition of Terms
The following terms which are used in the report of this study will be defined as described below:
Early Childhood Educators
Specific for this study, Early Childhood Educators (ECE) were defined as teachers of young children aged two to five years old.
Stress
Job-related stress has been defined as work-related environmental conditions that have potential impacts on individuals’ psychological, social, and physiological wellbeing (Hurrell, Nelson, & Simmons, 1998). The sources that can cause stress in teachers typically include increased work load, lack of time, high ratios, lack of administrative support, etc.

Burnout
Burnout has been described as a state of emotional and physical exhaustion which
9 may develop in teachers who have been unsuccessful in coping effectively with stress over a long period (Guglielmi & Tatrow, 1998; Vandenberghe & Huberman, 1999).
Turnover
A teacher’s intent to leave the field, either for another teaching position, or for an entirely different position altogether is referred to as burnout (Shoemaker, 2000). Teacher turnover is widely viewed as an indicator of program quality.
Self-Efficacy
Klassen and Chiu (2011) define self-efficacy in terms of Bandura’s (1977) selfefficacy theory. In this theory, self-efficacy refers to, “. . . individuals’ beliefs about their capabilities to successfully carry out a particular course of action. Workplace selfefficacy can influence an individual’s occupational decision-making, career choice, career development, and career trajectory” (Bandura, p. 115).
Limitations
There are a number of limitations in the design and conduct of this study that must be considered in evaluating the results of the research. Although the study seeks to understand stressors for early childhood educators, the pool of participants only included

those teaching in preschools. Thus, the results cannot address the stressors of those teaching in small or large family child cares or other types of child care programs. In
10 addition, the participants were limited to teachers of children aged two to five years.
Therefore the study results do not include any data for infant and toddler teachers or family child care providers serving children of multiple ages. Finally, the sample size for the study was relatively small (36 respondents), and there were only two male respondents. This male teacher representation was not enough to draw any conclusions about teacher stress related to gender.
There were several limitations in the study related to the manner of data collection. Because the survey used to collect data was designed as a self-report instrument, participants may have given biased answers to the survey questions. For example, some teachers may have attempted to respond in a way that they believed was expected by the researcher. Other teachers may have felt uncomfortable with the topic matter (sources and effects of stress, relationships with parents and other staff, etc.) of some of the items. Since the researcher did not conduct any follow up interviews with the teachers or observations in their classrooms, it was not possible to further verify teachers’ responses beyond the information they provided in their survey answers.
Organization of the Study
Chapter One has provided an overview of this study which examined the sources and impacts of stress for early childhood education teachers. Chapter Two discusses the

literature associated with teacher stress, such as the factors that lead to it, the effects of
11 stress on teachers and students, and specifically the limited research on stress in early childhood education teachers. Chapter Three describes the methodology used to conduct the study. Chapter Four reports the results of the analyses. Finally, Chapter Five discusses the results as well as implications for future research. The study consent form and the
Early Childhood Teacher Stress Survey are included in the Appendices.

12
Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Teaching has been identified as an occupation of high stress (Grayson & Alvarez,
2008; Tsai, Fung, & Chow, 2006; Kelly & Berthelsen, 1995). Although studies have examined stress in teachers, most of the research has focused on those teaching older children. This study sought to examine the sources of stress for preschool teachers as well as the negative outcomes for teachers from that stress. The design of the study was based on an examination of the literature related to teaching as a high stress occupation as well as the impacts of stress on teachers and students.
Theoretical Framework
For most children, the preschool classroom provides an important environment for development during the preschool years. Both children and teachers interact and influence each other within this ecological context. The processes of development and interaction within ecological contexts have been described in the work of
Bronfenbrenner, whose bioecological model of development affords a framework for the present study. In addition, in order to understand stress in preschool teachers, the researcher examined theoretical perspectives on work related stress, in particular stress related to teaching.

Bioecological Model of Development
Brofenbrenner’s Bioecological Model of human development, describes how a child’s development occurs within a series of interrelated systems (Bronfenbrenner &
13
Morris, 2006), including the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem.
The model also highlights four factors which play a role in the child’s development. The factor of process is related to the interactions children have within their environment. The second and most influential factor affecting development is the person or persons in the environment, which typically includes parents, teachers, and friends in the microsystem.
The context factor refers to aspects of a child’s environment as well as how a child interacts within the environment. Bronfenbrenner posited that children’s development is shaped both directly and indirectly by the factors of processes, contexts and persons within the microsystem. In addition, the individual is directly affected by interactions in the mesosystem, which is comprised of the relationships between two or more microsystems (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006).
According to Bronfenbrenner and Morris (2006), early development is characterized by repeated interactions between the child and adults within the microsystem. These interactions, which Bronfenbrenner termed as proximal processes, play an important role in fostering the child’s development. Similarly, teachers represent critical persons in a child’s microsystem who participate in these proximal processes.
But job related stress can hinder a teacher’s ability to maintain a positive environment and interactions with their preschool students. This in turn can create negative effects for children. From a bioecological perspective, it is therefore important to understand the

sources and impacts of stress on preschool teachers, who play such an important role in
14 children’s development. In the present study, teachers were surveyed to identify their self-reported sources and effects of stress, including any effects on classroom environment and teacher student interaction.
Theoretical Models of Stress
Theory and research in the area of teacher stress dates back to the 1970s. Early studies such as Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1977) conceptualized teacher stress as a linear model of interaction between job-related factors and stress. In the ensuing decades the literature on teacher stress has expanded, in particular during and since the 1990s.
Curbow, Spratt, Ungaretti, McDonnell and Breckler (2000) presented an overview of the theoretical models in the research related to work related stress that evolved during this period of research.
The first model, known as the person-environment (P-E) model, was developed in the mid-1970s (Caplan, Cobb, French, Harrison & Pinneau, 1975). The P-E model is based on a theoretical definition of stress as a function of the goodness of fit between the person (in this case, the teacher) and factors in the environment such as job responsibilities, and relationships with staff. In this model, researchers might predict that the better the P-E fit, the lower the teacher’s level of stress.
A second model developed in the 1990s is known as the demand-control theory
(Karasek, Brisson, Kawakami, Houtman, Bongers & Amick, 1998). This theory defines stress as an interaction between demand factors (such as work responsibilities, numbers

of students) and control factors (for example, how much the teacher feels able to control
15 her situation). In this view, teacher stress is created by an interaction between the number and intensity of demands on teachers with the amount of control teachers feels they have over their situation.
In the reward-imbalance model developed by Vagg and Spielberger (1998), stress is examined in terms of the balance (or imbalance) between the effort a person invests in meeting the demands of the job and the rewards he or she receives from that effort. In this model, it might be predicted that stress levels would become elevated when teachers perceive that the rewards of teaching are not enough to justify the amount of effort required to do the job.
Finally, some researchers have used a transactional model to study job stress. This model attempts to describe how individuals draw upon professional and personal resources in order to cope with stressors in the work environment (Lazarus, 1991).
In more recent studies of teacher stress, an integrative approach has been used to study stress (Curbow et al., 2000). In this view, all of the existing theories share a common understanding of stress as involving three important factors: (a) elements in the work environment that can create stress, including both demands and rewards; (b) characteristics of the individual that can alleviate or intensify the stress; and (c) supports and resources available that may help to mediate the effects of job stress In this model, it is the interplay of these factors that would be predictive of teacher stress. For example, although an individual teacher may be experiencing stress-inducing working conditions,

16 resources available to provide additional support might serve to mitigate the impact of the stress.
In the current study, the researcher used this integrative model as a foundation for studying stress in preschool teachers. The design of the study included a focus on identifying factors in the work environment that created stress for teachers as well as describing personal and professional outcomes related to teachers’ stress. In addition, some items in the survey used to collect study data asked teachers to rate supports and resources which might alleviate work related stress.
Defining Teacher Stress
Stress is often conceptualized in terms of the conditions that create stress as well as the negative impacts of those stresses on the individual. Often, stress is created by a complex of factors and conditions occurring within an individual’s personal or professional life. For example, the workplace environment can be a major source of stress for many individuals, and a number of occupations are considered stressful. Zhai et al.
(2011) provided a definition of work related stress as, “. . . the work-related environmental conditions that have potential impacts on individuals’ psychological, social, and physiological well-being” (p. 442).
Teaching has been identified as an occupation of high stress (Grayson & Alvarez,
2008; Kelly & Berthelsen, 1995; Tsai, Fung, & Chow, 2006). Although studies have examined stress in teachers, most of the research has focused on those teaching older

children. To date there are very few studies examining stress in teachers working with
17 preschool aged children (Tsai, Fung, & Chow, 2006). Curbow and colleagues (2000) created the Child Care Worker Job Stress Inventory (CCWJSI) to examine job stress in family child care workers and child care center workers. The inventory identified the categories of job demands, job control, and job resources as possible sources of stress in child care workers.
Factors that Create Stress in Teachers
Based on Zhai et al.’s definition (2011) of work related stress, it can be posited that there are a variety of factors that can create, or add to, stress for teachers. Many of these factors are related directly to the demands or characteristics of the teaching context.
Studies have also indicated that other stressors may be related to characteristics of the teachers and/or students.
The Workload of Teaching
Research indicates that one source of stress for teachers is the amount of work involved in teaching today. In their study of practicing elementary, junior high, and high school teachers, Klassen and Chiu (2010) found that increases in workload for teachers were associated with increased overall stress. In this study, workload was measured using a six-point Likert type scale with questions addressing amount of work, extra responsibilities in class, discipline management in class, and class size.

18
Teachers’ workloads have also been affected by the shifting of some work assignments from administrators to teachers. Several studies have identified rising expectations for teachers to complete tasks or assignments that were previously reserved for administrators (McGrath & Huntington, 2007; Moriarty, Edmonds, Blatchford, &
Martin, 2001). Tsai, Fung and Chow (2006) surveyed kindergarten teachers in Hong
Kong and found that increased workload, lack of time in the day, larger class sizes and administrative paperwork were all indicators of increased teacher stress. Similarly, findings in McGrath and Huntington’s (2007) survey of early childhood and kindergarten teachers indicated that larger numbers of children and amount of administrative work were predictors of increased levels of teacher stress.
Time Pressures
Time pressures can also contribute to teachers’ stress levels. These pressures can include having to spend more time on paperwork, which in turn can lead to less time available to interact with children. In one study with 113 kindergarten teachers in Hong
Kong (Tsai, Fung, & Chow, 2006), researchers surveyed teachers about sources and effects of stress. Results indicated that time management issues created the most stress for the teachers. For example, daily and weekly schedules allowed teachers only a limited amount of time to prepare. Teachers’ time with children was also being compromised by time spent on additional paperwork requirements.
Another time related issue is the number of hours of work required for preschool teachers. McGrath and Huntington (2007) surveyed 168 early childhood teachers in New

19
Zealand about stress factors related to their work. Similar to the Tsai et al. study (2006), the New Zealand teachers in this study reported that their stress was related to spending more time on administrative tasks. However, in this sample, a teacher’s total number of hours of work was a stronger predictor of higher stress levels. In a related study, teachers’ stress levels were found to be associated with the number of hours they were working overtime without pay (Caulfield & Kataoka-Yahiro, 2001). It should be noted that Caulfield and Kataoka-Yahiro’s study was comprised of mainly those working in supervisorial or administrative positions.
Time pressures can lead to multiple physical, emotional and professional impacts for teachers, as noted in Manlove and Guzell’s 1997 study of 169 child care staff. In this study, teachers working longer hours reported increased levels of emotional exhaustion, stronger feelings about possibly leaving their jobs and higher actual turnover.
Class Size
Student enrollment, or class size, has also been identified as a source of work related stress for teachers. In their survey study of 113 female kindergarten teachers, Tsai et al (2006) found that larger class sizes were a predictor of teacher stress. Similarly, in a study in New Zealand, McGrath and Huntington (2007) studied kindergarten and early childhood workers in order to identify teachers’ self-reported effects of stress on their physical and emotional health. Kindergarten teachers in the study were found to have increases in stress as their class sizes increased. Ratios for kindergarten teachers in the study averaged one teacher for every fifteen children or more, while the range for early

childhood educators varied from 1:2 to 1:15 children. Along with increasing stress for
20 teachers, larger class sizes have been found to be associated with higher rates of student expulsion, particularly in preschool classes (Gilliam & Shahar, 2006).
Standards and Standardized Testing
For many elementary school teachers, the increased emphasis on standards based teaching along with a similar emphasis on standardized test scores has made teaching a more stressful profession. The trend towards a more academic, standards based curriculum has now moved down into the preschool curriculum. By setting standards earlier on for children to reach, many educators believe children will be more likely to be successful once they enter grade school (Stipek, 2006). However, for many early childhood educators, teaching to the standards of academics rather than preserving the traditional early childhood developmental curriculum is not only potentially harmful for the child but also stressful for the teachers (Stipek, 2006).
Salary and Wage Issues
The low pay for the work that preschool teachers perform is perhaps the most obvious source of teacher stress in early childhood education. The historically low wages in the field are commonly thought of as a major cause of teacher stress. Caulfield and
Kataoka-Yahiro (2001) surveyed 134 child care professionals in Hawaii working in supervisorial and administrative positions serving children aged infant to nine years old.

In this sample, the respondents reported low wages as the strongest factor creating job
21 stress.
Besides creating job stress for teachers, low wages lead to other negative effects for early childhood program. Previous studies demonstrate that higher wages are associated with higher quality of care for children as well as a higher level of staff retention; conversely, lower wages lead to a higher rate of staff turnover (Whitebook &
Sakai, 2003). Although many policy makers in the field have called for preschool teachers with education and expertise to be paid at a rate equivalent to that of elementary teachers (Stipek, 2006), this is still not the case. Therefore, low wages continue to be a major source of stress for early childhood educators.
Program Types and Characteristics
Unlike elementary school, the early childhood field is characterized by a variety of programs that provide care and education to children from birth to age five. Preschool programs vary widely in their funding, curriculum, program quality, and requirements for teacher education. These differences may also contribute to differences in teachers’ job related stress.
The primary difference between publicly funded and private pay programs has to do with the income eligibility criteria for child enrollment. Programs receiving federal or state funds are intended to serve families with lower incomes, while the cost of private pay programs generally limits enrollment to families with incomes in the middle or higher range of SES who can afford the fees. This difference in student and family SES

by program type may be a factor in the job stresses of preschool teachers (Zhai et al,
22
2011). Studies have indicated that teachers may face higher levels of stress related to resources and children’s behavior, for example, in programs that enroll high numbers of children from low SES communities.
The differences in funding between public and private pay programs often associated with other differences related to program type. One important difference is related to teacher education requirements. In general, publicly funded programs have higher educational requirements for teachers than private pay centers (Fuligni & Howes,
2009). In one study of 103 child care providers, teachers in public programs were found to have the highest levels of overall education (B.A. and Graduate degrees) when compared to privately funded centers and family based child care. This difference is often attributable to the fact that programs receiving state or federal funding are often expected to hire teachers with higher levels of education as a condition of funding
(Fuligni & Howes).
Another major difference often seen is the gap in teacher wages between public and private programs. This difference is also often a result of the funding available to public programs. Studies have noted that lower wages for teachers are associated with higher levels of teacher stress (Caulfield & Kataoka-Yahiro, 2001). Lower wages are also a leading cause of teacher turnover, which in turn results in poorer quality of care for children (Whitebook & Sakai, 2003).
These differences between public and private programs in the areas of student
SES, funding, teacher education and teacher salary suggest the possibility of differences

23 in teacher stress related to program type. In order to explore possible associations related to program differences, the present study included an analysis of differences in teacher stress by program type, comparing publicly funded versus private pay programs.
Factors Related to Students and Families
Family involvement, or lack thereof, has been linked to stress in teachers.
Grayson and Alvarez’s (2008) research examined the relationship between school climate and elementary teachers’ emotional wellbeing, with a specific focus on teacher burnout and emotional exhaustion. In this study, school climate was defined as including relationships with students, parents, and staff. The 320 teachers completed two surveys, one related to school climate and one related to teacher satisfaction. Findings indicated that there higher levels of exhaustion and burnout in teachers were associated with reports of poor teacher-parent relationships and lower levels of family involvement.
Other research demonstrates that students themselves can be a source of teacher stress. Children’s behavior problems in the classroom can lead to an increase in stress for teachers. For example, Klassen and Chiu (2010) conducted a survey study examining the relationship between elementary, junior and high school t teacher stress and self-efficacy and student behavior problems. Results indicated that teachers who reported higher levels of stress also reported that they were less confident in their ability to handle behavior problems such as student disruptions. In addition, teachers who reported a higher incidence of behavior problems with their students also reported a lower sense of self-efficacy in the area of classroom management.

24
The age and grade level of the children may also play a role in teacher stress.
Klassen and Chiu (2011) identified an association between teacher stress and grade level taught. In this study of elementary through high school teachers, higher levels of teacher stress were related to higher grade levels, such that kindergarten teachers reported lower levels of stress than those teaching second and third grade, and so on.
Teacher Gender
Gender may also be a predictor of stress among teachers. In comparison to males, female elementary and high school teachers exhibit higher levels of work related stress.
In Klassen and Chiu’s (2010) study, the researchers examined the correlation between school climate (relationships with students and parents) and stress in teachers. In their sample, female teachers reported higher levels of job-related stress in relation to both workload and classroom stressors such as children’s behavior than did their male counterparts. In a similar study, female teachers reported higher levels of job-related emotional exhaustion than men (Grayson & Alvarez, 2008).
In summary, studies of teacher stress have identified a variety of work related factors that can increase stress, though most of the research has focused on school aged settings and little is still know about the work related stresses for early childhood educators. In the current study the researcher sought to grain a better understating of the sources of stress for teachers in private and public preschool settings by surveying teachers about their perceived sources of stress. The survey instrument used in the study

was based in part on review of the literature and included specific items related to the
25 possible sources of teacher stress noted in the discussion above.
Professional Impacts of Stress
Research has identified a variety of factors which can cause stress for educators.
However, as noted by Zhai et al. (2011), understanding teacher stress also involves identifying the possible negative effects of the stress. Current studies indicate that stress can lead to many negative impacts for teachers, both personally and professionally.
Job Satisfaction
Recent studies have found a negative correlation between teacher stress and job satisfaction, such that as stress increases, job satisfaction decreases (Klassen & Chiu,
2010). In this study, researchers collected data via questionnaires from over 1,400 teachers teaching elementary grades to high school. Results indicated that teachers’ job satisfaction was associated with teachers’ self-efficacy. Teachers who reported lower levels of job satisfaction also reported lower levels of self-efficacy related to their classroom management and instructional skills. Loss of job satisfaction may be a particularly worrisome effect of stress for preschool teachers, since studies have identified a negative association between job satisfaction and expulsion rates of preschoolers (Gilliam & Shahar, 2006).

26
Burnout and Turnover
Researchers studying teacher stress have established a relationship between stress, burnout and job turnover. According to Klassen and Chiu (2011), many teachers enter the classroom with a high enthusiasm for teaching, but the job stress associated with teaching may cause them to become disillusioned and consider a career or job change. In their study, Klassen and Chiu examined teacher burnout and turnover in currently practicing elementary and secondary teachers (434 participants) as well as in student teachers (379 participants) earning their degrees. Surveys distributed to both groups indicated that teachers currently in the classroom were more likely to report intentions to quit as well as a lack of commitment to the profession than those in the preservice category. Those in the preservice category were found to have less stress overall and a higher level of commitment to teaching, as they were still in the process of obtaining their teaching degree.
There is very little research on turnover and burnout in the early childhood education field (Manlove & Guzell, 1997), but the few existing studies indicate that stress can lead to staff turnover. According to Shoemaker (2000), teachers leaving their classroom disheartened and exhausted at the end of the day are at risk for burnout and may leave their position. Preventing teacher burnout and turnover is an important priority in the early childhood field since studies have established that high quality preschool and child care programs are characterized by higher levels of teacher education, higher wages for staff and a decreased rate of teacher turnover (Whitebook &
Sakai, 2003). Thus, understanding and ultimately preventing teacher stress may be an

important means of improving quality of care in early childhood programs.In a study of
27 teacher turnover in early childhood settings, Whitebook and Sakai (2003) surveyed 149 teachers and 71 directors. In this study, teacher turnover was somewhat related to the teacher’s position. Among the ECE professionals in this sample ranging from aides to directors, the lowest levels of turnover were among those higher up in management.
Whitebook and Sakai describe this movement as “position turnover.” While it may seem advantageous for teachers and for the profession to have preschool teachers move up the professional ladder, it may be that changing positions is simply another form of turnover.
In other words, ECE teachers may react to job stress by seeking avenues within the profession for moving up and out of the classroom (Whitebook & Sakai, 2003).
Staff Relationships
Another possible source of dissatisfaction in the ECE work place is interrelationships among staff and colleagues. Research indicates that issues related to staff relations can lead to higher levels of teacher stress and turnover. For example, in
Whitebook and Sakai’s study of early childhood teachers and directors (2003), the researchers conducted a six year longitudinal study assessing turnover in child care centers. Findings from the research identified staff relations as an important predictor of turnover. Early childhood educators working with less qualified staff were more likely to consider leaving their position. In contrast, when teachers were surrounded with more highly qualified staff, turnover was less likely. This finding is noteworthy since research shows that thirty percent of the individuals serving children in Head Start programs do

not hold an Associate’s degree and typically have less than three years of experience
28 working with children (Li Grining et.al., 2010).
Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy is another area that can be negatively affected by the stresses of the classroom. When teachers feel that they are constantly interrupted and have difficulty managing classroom time and instruction, their sense of personal accomplishment, or self-efficacy, is decreased (Grayson & Alvarez, 2008). As previously stated, the study of
K-12 teachers, conducted by Klassen and Chiu found that as stress increased, teacher self-efficacy decreased (2010). This decline in self-efficacy was related to workload stress as well as classroom management stress. Klassen and Chiu (2011) also noted that the relationship between teacher stress and self-efficacy may be mediated by the age or grade level of the students. In their research, teacher self-efficacy increased as the children’s age decreased, with younger grade teachers reporting higher levels of selfefficacy related to managing their classroom environment and student behaviors. These studies, however, involved elementary to high school age children, and not preschoolers.
Classroom Management
Changes in teachers’ sense of self efficacy as a result of stress are perhaps most evident in the areas of classroom and behavior management. Studies indicate that in the early years of their careers, teachers’ sense of competence in relation to their classroom management skills is positively related to the number of years of teaching experience.

However, after the age of 23, although classroom experience is still increasing, selfefficacy related to classroom management decreases (Klassen & Chiu, 2010; 2011). In a
29 separate study, Li Grining et. al. (2010) examined stress in ninety Head Start teachers.
The researchers used the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) (Pianta, La
Paro, & Hamre, 2008) and the Early Childhood Environmental Rating Scale – Revised,
(ECERS-R) (Harms, Clifford, & Cryer, 1998) to assess classroom interactions between teachers and students. Teachers who reported higher levels of stress scored lower on measures of teachers’ social interactions with children and classroom behavior management skills. Overall, almost thirty percent of the teachers reported lower levels of confidence in their ability to manage children’s behaviors (Li Grining, et. al.).
Some studies have found that teachers’ stress and associated lack of confidence in their ability to manage classroom behavior can cycle into higher levels of behavior problems among children, even to the point of student expulsion. Gilliam and Shahar
(2006) found that student expulsion rates increased fourfold when teacher job stress was present. Study findings also identified class size as another contributing factor related to both teacher stress and student expulsion rates. As the teacher-child ratio increased, so did teacher stress, and in turn so did the expulsion rates of the preschoolers. This positive correlation of teacher-student ratio to expulsion rate was found for both private and nonprofit centers.
It appears from the research that teacher stress can lead to a variety of negative impacts on teachers’ ability to carry out the duties of teaching and may ultimately lead a teacher to leave the profession. In the current study, the researcher sought to determine

30 the professional impacts of stress in preschool teachers by including survey items related to professional effects of stress previously identified in the literature. However, the effects of stress are not limited to work-related consequences. Some of the most negative impacts of stress can be seen in the emotional and physiological toll that stress can take on teachers.
Emotional Impacts of Stress
Prolonged periods of stress can lead to a number of emotional or psychological problems for teachers including higher levels of depression and anxiety (Shoemaker,
2000). In one study, depression in preschool teachers was predicted by the teachers’ reported levels of job stress (Gilliam & Shahar, 2006). In Li Grinig et al.’s study of Head
Start teachers (2010), one-third of the teachers reported they had at least one symptom of depression.
Tsai et al.’s 2006 study of Korean kindergarten teachers identified a number of work related stressors such as teacher student ratio or lack of time. The researchers also reported that teachers suffered a range of emotional effects from these stressors. For example, teachers in the study reported symptoms such as depression, anxiety and insecurity which they attributed to job-related stress (Tsai et al.).
Other research has identified emotional exhaustion as a commonly reported effect of job-related stress in teachers. Grayson and Alvarez (2008) surveyed 380 teachers using instruments that measured school climate and teacher satisfaction. Results in the

study indicated that emotional exhaustion was a primary effect of stress. Significantly,
31 beyond the primary emotional effect of exhaustion, the researchers identified a relationship between emotional exhaustion and burnout. For the teachers in Grayson and
Alvarez’s study, emotional exhaustion was identified as the leading contributor to job burnout for the K-12 teachers.
Physiological Impacts of Stress
Work related stress is not only a cause of negative professional and emotional outcomes for teachers. It is also a possible cause of physical ailments. Symptoms such as fatigue, exhaustion, and weakness have all been linked with teacher stress (Tsai et al.,
2006). Findings from Tsai et al.’s survey of 113 kindergarten teachers in Hong Kong identified fatigue as the most commonly self-reported physiological symptom associated with teacher stress. In a separate survey of preschool and kindergarten teachers, half of the respondents reported high levels of job-related stress; one-third of the teachers also reported an increased rate of physical illness, such as colds, the flu, and other contagious illnesses (McGrath & Huntington, 2007). Even more serious illnesses such as cardiovascular disease have been linked to high levels of work related stress (Hall,
Johnson, & Tsou, 1993). Physiological symptoms related to teacher stress are often associated with stress impacts in other areas. For example, teachers who report fatigue as a physical effect of stress also report a higher level of stress-related emotional symptoms
(Tsai et al.).

32
It is evident from the literature that job-related stress can take a personal toll on teachers, with both emotional and physiological impacts on teacher’s mental and physical health and wellbeing. Since there has been little research in this domain specific to preschool teachers, the current study was designed to include an examination of physiological and emotional impacts by including related items in the data collection and analysis.
Stress in Preschool Teachers
The previous discussion has focused on the body of research related to teacher stress, which mostly includes studies conducted with elementary teachers. This section addresses more specifically the limited body of research on stress in preschool teachers.
Despite the fact that teacher stress has been a well-researched topic, the focus in the literature has primarily been on those teaching children in elementary and high school settings (Grayson & Alvarez, 2008; Kelly & Berthelsen, 1995; Tsai et al., 2006).
In one of the few studies of preschool teachers, researchers identified a number of stressors based on an examination of the teachers’ daily journals (Kelly & Berthelsen,
1995). Time pressures, meeting children’s needs and completing non-teaching tasks were all noted as sources of stress in the teacher journals. Other areas of stress reported by the teachers included sacrificing their own personal needs, communicating with parents, difficulty in balancing early childhood practices with organizational expectations, and managing work related relationships. In addition, the challenges of

supporting children with special needs, providing one on one attention and direction and
33 behavior management also created stress for the preschool teachers.
According to Kelly and Berthelsen (1995), a major theme throughout the journals was the teachers’ struggles to teach to the whole child, their physical, social, and cognitive needs, in the face of the many obstacles they encountered. The challenge of meeting those needs in the context of the many other daily tasks and pressures was a primary cause of the teachers’ stress. A second major cause of stress that Kelly and
Berthelsen (1995) identified was the growing time teachers spent on non-teaching tasks.
These tasks included things such as additional paper work, secretarial duties such as phone answering, cleaning of the classroom, material ordering and receiving, and writing reports. These numerous tasks which interrupt the day and are not related directly to teaching created additional stress for the preschool teachers.
Two more recent studies have identified stressors in preschool teachers that are similar to those found in the research on elementary teachers. The first study employed a small sample size of ten child care providers (Baumgartner, Carson, Apavaloaie &
Tsouloupas, 2009). Providers in this study reported that working conditions, interactions with parents and children, and personal life factors were all sources of stress.
Interestingly, noise was another factor identified as a cause of stress. One source of stress reported by the child care providers that has not been seen in the research with elementary school teachers was the lack of help they received from other staff.
Specifically, the providers felt that they did not receive adequate help from other staff because in many instances their support staff was unqualified and untrained.

According to Baumgartner et al. (2009), the child care providers also cited other
34 sources of stress not related to the direct care of the children, such as the lack of education among the child care providers as well as the providers’ own home responsibilities and children to care for. It should be noted that this study was lacking a demographic description of the providers surveyed. This lack of information makes it impossible to determine whether factors such as the education level of the providers or the type of program where they worked (home daycare vs. center based) were related in some way to the stresses they reported.
In the second major recent study of stress in preschool teachers (Li Grining et al.,
2010), researchers examined teacher stress in relation to a number of environmental factors such as classroom and behavior management, social interaction and program quality. The research involved 90 teachers in 18 Head Start programs. Teacher stress was measured through self-report of personal factors (education and experience) and work related stressors (job demands, resources, and control). Results indicated that Head
Start teachers with higher levels of stress had lower quality scores for social interaction within the classroom. Not surprisingly, these same teachers struggled with managing children’s behaviors.
Although the research literature on teacher stress has primarily focused on elementary and high school teachers, these recent studies provide a preliminary indication that preschool teachers also experience job stress and its related impacts. Since there are a diversity of program types in the early childhood field, studies of stress in preschool teachers must account for this diversity in their designs. The current study was aimed at

expanding this limited research base by examining stress in preschool teachers recruited
35 from both public and private preschool setting, in order to expand our understanding of the sources and effects of stress for those teaching children aged two to five in center based programs.
Teacher Stress and Negative Outcomes for Children
Although the main focus of this study was on the sources and outcomes of stress for preschool teachers, it is also important to note that children too can be negatively affected by teacher stress. Researchers have identified associations between a number of teacher stress outcomes such as burnout, turnover, or lower job satisfaction, and negative consequences to children (Curbow et al., 2000; Whitebook & Sakai, 2003; Zhai et. al.,
2011). For example, when teachers are feeling burned out, tired, or physically unwell they are more likely to engage in negative teacher-student interactions (Curbow) and be less effective with classroom management (Zhai et al.). In Li Grining et al.’s study
(2010), teachers reporting high levels of stress struggled with behavior management in the classroom and exhibited a decrease in observed levels of social interaction in the classroom.
Among preschool teachers, teacher turnover and burnout are often a result of higher preschool enrollments and student-teacher ratios. However, studies show that a related result is that teacher burnout and turnover can cause an increase in children’s behavior problems, even to the point of student expulsion (Gilliam & Sahar, 2006).

36
Teacher turnover is also a factor that has been linked directly to lower quality of care for children (Caulfield & Kataoka-Yahiro, 2001).
While the literature related to job stress in teaching has focused more attention on the causes and effects of stress for teachers themselves, these studies indicate that negative stress effects for teachers can lead to negative outcomes for children. While an examination of teacher stress effects on preschool children was beyond the scope of this study, further research on the relationship between teacher stress and negative impacts for preschool children is needed.
Preventing or Alleviating Teacher Stress
Given the demands of the profession, it may be impossible to remove stress from the lives of teachers. However, a few researchers have developed interventions designed to better understand and alleviate teachers’ stress. In one such study, Zhai, Raver, and
Li-Grining (2011) examined the efficacy of an intervention to alleviate teacher stress.
The researchers worked with classrooms in the Chicago School Readiness Program
(CSRP) to help teachers learn how to manage job related stress. Data collection included measures of teacher stressors such as job control and job demands. The four part intervention was carried out with the Head Start teachers, the children and the families in the program.
The first component of the CSRP intervention was a 30 hour workshop for teachers that provided training and strategies for behavior management. At the same time,

teachers were taught to use stress reduction techniques such as taking breaks. Teachers
37 also participated in a stress reduction workshop. Strategies for promoting mental health were also provided for the families as well as one to one mental health services for the children. At the end of the intervention, teachers reported an increased feeling of job control as well as more positive feelings about their own teaching performance. However, there were no significant changes in the teachers’ perceptions of the demands of their jobs (Zhai et al., 2011).
Previous studies have identified several factors which may create stress for teachers and also provided some understanding of the negative outcomes for teachers that result from this stress. The few existing studies in preschool settings offer only a beginning understanding of the unique job stresses related specifically to preschool teachers. The current study was designed to further this understanding of teacher stress and its occurrence among preschool teachers.
Summary
Teaching is a demanding profession that requires that teachers be able to recognize and cope with the many demands and pressures of the job that can create stress.
Researchers have developed several theories to describe how stress occurs in the teaching environment, and what factors help teachers to cope with that stress. Much of the literature related to teacher stress has been published in the last two decades and has focused primarily on teachers in elementary and high school settings. Teacher stress in

38 the early childhood setting is an issue that requires further study since the early childhood classroom is a unique and important environment for teaching as well as for children’s development. Workload, time, salary, and children’s behavior are all factors which are related to increased teacher stress. Professional, emotional, and physiological effects can be seen in teachers when stress plays a role in their job and their life. The current study sought to create a better understanding of the stressors present for early childhood educators as well as the personal and professional consequences it may have for teachers.

39
Chapter 3
METHODS
Using survey methodology and open-ended questions, the current study examined the sources and effects of stress in early childhood educators working with children aged two to five years, as well as differences in stress between teachers in private and Head
Start programs. The following chapter describes the design and methods employed in the study.
Design and Research Questions
The researcher used a quantitative survey design to examine perceived sources and effects of stress for early childhood educators teaching in private and Head Start centers. The survey sought to gather information to answer the following research questions and hypotheses:
1.
What are the self-reported sources of stress for ECE teachers? Based upon the review of the literature, it was expected that ECE teachers would self-report many of the same sources of stress identified in the previous literature on teacher stress, including for example, low salaries, high student-teacher ratios, or lack of parental support.
2.
What are the self-reported personal and professional impacts of stress for ECE teachers? Based upon the review of the literature, it was expected that ECE

40 teachers would self-report many of the same negative impacts identified in the previous literature on teacher stress, including for example, burnout, exhaustion, leaving the profession or depression.
3.
Are there differences in the sources and outcomes of ECE teacher stress related to the type of program (i.e., public vs. private) in which the teacher is working? Based upon the review of the literature highlighting characteristics of public versus private preschool programs, it was hypothesized that there would be differences in teacher stress based on program type, with teachers in private programs exhibiting higher levels of stress as well as more negative impacts.
4.
Are there relationships between ECE teachers’ stress and demographic factors such as level of education, years of teaching experience, or number of students in their class? Based upon the literature reviewed, it was hypothesized that there would be a negative relationship between teacher stress and teachers’ level of education and teachers’ years of experience, and that there would be a positive relationship between teacher stress and number of students enrolled.
Participants and Settings
Participants and Recruitment
Participant recruitment was initiated by compiling a list of possible Head
Start and private care centers in Sacramento, California. A set of 31 sites was generated

41 at random from this list (17 Head Start and 14 private). Once the initial list was compiled, the researcher contacted the director for each center to secure their consent to participate.
Of the 31 sites contacted, directors from 8 Head Starts and 8 private centers agreed to allow the researcher to survey teachers at their site. A total of 113 surveys were distributed, 58 to private and 55 to Head Start centers. Of the 113 initially distributed,
36 total surveys were returned, yielding a 32 percent return rate. The rate of return from the Head Start teachers was slightly higher at 38 percent than that among the private center teachers (26 percent). The final pool of 36 participants included 21 Head Start and
15 private center teachers from 16 total centers, 8 Head Start and 8 private.
The Head Start teachers were recruited from Head Start centers operated by the
Sacramento Employment and Training Agency (SETA), which is the organization responsible for managing many of the Head Start programs in Sacramento. Two of the teachers were male; the remaining 34 teachers were female. The mean age of respondents was 39 years, with a range from 22 to 59 years. The mean years of teaching experience for the sample was 11.41 years, with a range from 2 to 33 years. The average number of years the teachers had been working at their current site was 5.79, with a range from 1 to 15.
All of the respondents had at least some post-secondary education. A little over one-third (36%) had completed some college level ECE units. Another 14 teachers (39%) possessed an AA degree. One quarter of the teachers had completed a B.A. (n=8) or a
Master’s degree (n=1).

Classroom Settings
The number of children enrolled in the 36 classes ranged from 7 to 24, with a
42 mean of 15. The average ratio of teachers to children was 1:9, with a range from a low of
1:3 to a high of 1:14.
The survey asked teachers to report the income levels (SES) of the children in their classes. Fifty-eight percent of the 36 teachers (n=21) described their students’ SES as lower income; this is not surprising since these 21 teachers were all teaching in Head
Start programs that only enroll low income students. Among the remaining 15 teachers,
7 teachers (19%) described their students’ SES as middle or high income. Another seven teachers (19%) described their class’s SES as a mix of lower or middle SES students.
Data Collection and Instruments
The participating preschool teachers completed a survey wherein they were asked to rate the frequency of factors that were sources of stress as well as any negative effects of those stressors. The survey used in this study, the Early Childhood Teacher Stress
Survey , included items adapted from two published instruments that measure stress in the teaching workplace. The survey also included some items related to other sources and effects of stress identified in the existing literature.
Some of the survey items were drawn from the Child Worker Job Stress Inventory
(CCW-JSI, Curbow, Spratt, Ungaretti, McDonnel, & Breckler, 2000). This instrument analyzes job demands, control, and resources for ECE workers in family based child care

and child care centers through a self-report questionnaire using a 5-point Likert system
43 for scoring. The second instrument, the Classroom Appraisal of Resources and Demands
(CARD, preschool version, Lambert, Abbott-Shim, & McCarthy, 2001), assesses job stress by measuring teachers’ perceptions of job resources and demands. As with the
CCW-JSI, resources and demands are measured using a 5-point Likert scale of teacher self-report items.
The researcher selected a subset of questions from both instruments in order to create the Early Childhood Teacher Stress Survey . The researcher also created additional questions based on the review of the literature. Survey items were organized into two sets of questions: one set which asked teachers to rate the frequency of possible sources of stress and one set where teachers rated the frequency of possible effects of stress. The initial draft of the survey was pilot tested with ten preschool teachers not participating in the study. Pilot participants were asked to complete the survey, as well as identify any areas that were confusing or needed more clarification. All subjects completed the survey and there was no feedback indicating confusion or the need for clarification for any questions.
The final version of the survey used in the study was comprised of four sections.
The first section included a series of demographic items about the teachers and their classrooms, including teachers’ age, years of teaching experience, educational background, ages of the children taught, income level of children in the classroom, and teacher/student ratios in the classroom.

The second section of the survey included 13 questions which each identified a possible source of stress for preschool teachers. Participants were asked to rate how
44 stressful each item was for them, using a 5 point scale as follows: 1 = never stressful; 2 = rarely stressful; 3 = sometimes stressful; 4 = very often stressful; and 5 = always stressful. An example of one of these items is: “working relationships with fellow coworkers.”
The third section of the survey identified possible effects of stress for preschool teachers. Participants were asked to rate how often they experienced each type of effect using a 5 point scale as follows: 1 = never; 2 = rarely; 3 = sometimes; 4 = very often; and
5 = always. An example of one of these items is: “feeling emotionally exhausted at the end of the day.”
Finally, respondents were given two open ended questions to answer. The first question asked teachers what they thought could be done to reduce job stress, and the second question asked what effects, if any, they felt their stress had on the students in their classroom.
Procedures
Following approval by the CSUS Institutional Review Board, survey packets were delivered by hand to each participating center for distribution to the teachers. Each packet included a cover letter (Appendix B) two copies of the consent form (Appendix
C), a self-addressed stamped envelope, and the survey (Appendix A). Centers received

45 one survey packet for each classroom serving children aged two to five. These were to be distributed to the head or lead teacher. Teachers were asked to complete the survey and consent forms and return to the researcher using the self–addressed envelope. To increase the rate of return, the researcher placed a follow up call two weeks after distribution to the center directors asking them to remind teachers to return their surveys.
Data Analysis
Descriptive and frequency analyses were computed to derive a summary of the demographic data. Teachers’ responses to the Likert items related to sources and effects of stress were also summarized. Additional correlational analyses were conducted to address associations between study variables and t-tests were conducted to evaluate differences between type of center in stress and sources of stress. Responses to the openended questions were examined using qualitative methods to identify common themes and patterns of responses among participants. Once the data were organized by question, the researcher conducted an initial review and coding of the responses for each question.
During this review, the researcher analyzed the responses for each question using content analysis methods to identify relevant words or phrases in the responses (Crabtree &
Miller, 1992). These words or phrases were used to establish an initial set of categorical themes and corresponding numerical codes for each question.

46
Chapter 4
RESULTS
This chapter reports the results of the data analyses in this study of early childhood educators’ work-related stress. The following sections report findings related to these research questions:
1.
What were the self-reported sources of stress for ECE teachers?
2.
What were the self-reported personal and professional impacts of stress for
ECE teachers?
3.
Were there differences between public and private programs in the sources and effects of ECE teacher stress?
4.
Were there relationships between ECE teachers’ stress and demographic factors such as level of education, years of teaching experience, or number of students in their class?
Descriptive Analyses
The first two research questions were addressed through descriptive analyses of items on the sources of stress and effects of stress portions of the survey. The results of these descriptive analyses are presented in the next sections.

47
Sources of Stress
The first set of 13 survey items asked teachers to rate how often they experienced various types of work-related stress. See Table 1 for mean and standard deviation scores for these items. The teachers rated each item on a Likert scale with five possible choices:
“never stressful” (1), “rarely stressful” (2), “sometimes stressful” (3), “very often stressful” (4), and “always stressful” (5).
Table 1
Mean Scores for Sources of Stress
Item # Sources of Teacher Stress Mean
S1 teacher/child ratio
S2 children's disruptive behaviors
S3 enough daily time for each child
S4 working with English language learners
2.86
3.22
2.69
2.39
S5 children w/ disability or developmental delay 2.78
S6 relationships with co-workers 2.53
S7 lack of parental support
S8 interactions with parents
2.69
2.22
S9 non-teaching tasks
S10 collecting portfolios or assessments
S11 relationship with director
S12 amount of money teacher is paid
S13 having the supplies needed
2.64
3.22
2.00
3.64
2.81
Std.
Deviation
1.02
0.72
0.86
1.02
0.93
1.06
1.01
0.68
1.13
1.05
0.89
1.27
1.01

48
The mean scores for the thirteen sources of stress questions ranged from a low of
2.0 (rarely stressful) to a high of 3.64 (sometimes to very often stressful). The overall average of the item mean scores was 2.75, indicating that overall, teachers rated these work-related sources of stress as somewhere between rarely and sometimes stressful.
There were no items rated as “never stressful” or “always stressful."
On the low end of the mean scale, there were four items which fell in the “rarely stressful” category, with means of 2.0-2.5. These included items related to working with
English language learners and those items pertaining to relationships with co-workers, parents and directors.
About half of the items (6 of 13) fell into the 2.6-3.0 mean score range, indicating a rating of “rarely” to “sometimes” stressful. These items related to issues such as teacher/child ratio, lack of time to work with children, lack of parental support, lack of supplies and the pressures of non-teaching duties.
Two items fell into the 3.0-3.2 mean range, indicating a rating of “sometimes” stressful. These were related to classroom demands such as dealing with disruptive behaviors and the demands of assessment work. Only one item was scored in the
“sometimes” to “very often” range with a mean of 3.64. This item was related to the amount of money teachers were paid.
Perceived Effects of Stress
The second set of 15 items asked teachers to rate the personal and professional effects of stress. Table 2 presents these mean scores. For each item, respondents were

asked to rate how frequently they felt each possible effect using five possible choices:
49
“never” (1), “rarely” (2), “sometimes” (3), “very often” (4), and “always” (5).
Overall, the mean scores for the effects items were slightly higher than the mean score for the source items. Of the fifteen questions on effects of stress, the mean average was 2.89, approaching “sometimes” stressful, with a range from 2.0 (“rarely” stressful) to
4.14 (“very often” stressful). There were no items with a mean score in the “never” or
“always” range.
On the low end, six items fell into the “rarely” range, with mean ratings of 2.0 to
2.44. These items related to both personal and professional impacts. For example, the teachers reported that they rarely felt depressed, anxious, angry or frustrated, common emotional effects of stress. Similarly, teachers in this sample reported professional impacts such as decline in quality of teaching, feeling less able to do their jobs and considering leaving their current jobs as effects in the “rarely” occurring category.
Six of the fifteen effects items were rated by the teachers in the “rarely to sometimes” range, with mean scores from 2.61 to 3.47. Again these items included both personal and professional effects such as: physical and emotional exhaustion, burnout, having more work than they felt they could do, and even considering leaving the profession.

Table 2
Mean Scores for Perceived Effects of Stress
Item
# Effects of Teacher Stress
E1 depression/anxiety
E2 anger/frustration
E3 physical exhaustion
E4 emotional exhaustion
E5 being prone to illness
E6 adverse effects on family relationships
E7 burnt out from teaching
E8 quality of teaching declined
E9 considering leaving the profession
E10 considering leaving my current position
E11 feeling less able to handle job duties
E12 I have more work than I have time to do
E13 feeling my work is important/meaningful 4.14
E14 confident in my ability as a teacher 4.08
E15 able to handle behaviors effectively 3.78
2.61
2.11
2.81
2.44
2.67
2.36
2.00
3.47
Mean
2.31
2.44
3.31
2.89
Std.
Deviation
0.86
0.70
0.88
0.95
1.18
1.04
0.92
0.94
1.01
1.15
0.76
0.91
1.10
1.08
0.87
The three effects items which produced mean ratings closer to the “very often”
50 score range were all related to positive aspects of teacher efficacy. As a group, teachers felt that the work they were doing was significant, (mean of 4.14) and that they felt confident in their ability as a teacher (mean of 4.48). They also felt confident in their ability to handle problem behaviors (mean of 3.78).

Composite Scores
Correlations were computed to identify possible inter-item associations in the
51 sources of stress and in the effects of stress scales. These correlations were used to develop composite variables of related stress and effects items. The results of this analysis yielded three internally consistent composite variables for sources of stress: parents (Cronbach’s alpha = .804) , administrative issues (α = .734) , and time (α = .799).
In addition, single items were used to represent stress from coworkers, class ratio, and classroom behaviors . The parent variable included factors such as lack of support and quality of interactions with parents. The administrative factor included issues related to access to supplies, teacher salaries and interactions with administrators. The time variable encompassed stressors such as having enough time to address the needs of each child, losing classroom time to paperwork tasks and the time requirements of assessment.
For stress effects, five composite variables were identified: emotional
(Cronbach’s alpha = .705) , physiological (α = .595); burnout (α = .615), job change (α =
.543) and self-efficacy (α = .860). Emotional effects included feelings of depression, anger or anxiety. Physiological effects referred to feeling physically exhausted or becoming sick more often. Teachers who reported feeling burned also reported feeling less able to handle their teaching duties and not being able to do their work in the time available each day. In the job change category, teachers reported whether they were considering leaving their current position or leaving the field of early education entirely.
The self-efficacy variable included teachers’ feelings of self-confidence, being valued for the work they do and feeling able to handle classroom behaviors.

52
For sources of stress and effects of stress subscales, composites were created by taking the mean of scale items. These composite scores were used in subsequent analyses of study questions.
Comparing Private versus Public Teachers
Sources of Stress
Using the composite variables, sources of stress were compared as a function of type of ECE setting (private vs. Head Start). Table 3 reports means and standard deviations for these composite variables by program type. In order to determine if there were differences in sources and effects of stress related to program type, the rese a rcher conducted t-test analyses using the means for the composite variables. Results of the ttest analyses on the six composite stressor variables yielded no significant differences in sources of stress related to program type (see Table 4).

Table 3
Mean Scores for Sources of Stress Composite Variables
Variable Program N Mean
Parents Head Start
Private
Administrative Head Start
Private
Time Head Start
Private
Coworkers Head Start
Private
Class Ratio Head Start
Private
21
15
21
15
21
15
21
15
21
15
Table 4
T-Test Comparison of Sources of Stress by Program Type
2.48
2.43
2.65
3.04
2.89
2.55
2.76
2.20
2.95
2.73
Variable
Parents
Administrative
Time
Coworkers
Class Ratio
Child Behaviors t
0.159
-1.365
1.363
1.611
0.631
-0.776 df
34
34
34
34
34
34
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.875
0.181
0.182
0.12
0.532
0.443
Std. Dev.
0.798
0.798
0.969
0.653
0.773
0.678
1.091
0.941
1.071
0.961
53

Perceived Effects of Stress
Composite scores for effects of stress were computed by program type. Table 5
54 presents the means and standard deviations for these scores. Results of the t-test analyses on the five composite stress effects variables yielded no significant differences by program type (see Table 6).
Table 5
Mean Scores for Effects of Stress Composite Variables
Variable
Emotional
Physiological
Burnout
Job Change
Self-Efficacy
Program
Head Start
Private
Head Start
Private
Head Start
Private
Head Start
Private
Head Start
Private
N
15
21
15
21
21
15
21
15
21
15
Mean
2.44
2.43
2.93
3.00
2.63
2.75
2.33
2.77
3.97
4.04
Std. Dev.
0.637
0.691
0.952
0.732
0.660
0.526
1.004
0.678
0.802
1.053

55
Table 6
T-Test Comparison of Perceived Effects of Stress by Program Type
Variable
Emotional
Physiological
Burnout
Job Change
Self-Efficacy t
0.315
0.446
-0.781
-0.880
-0.333 df
14
14
14
14
14
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.758
0.662
-0.448
0.39
0.744
Teachers’ Demographic Factors Relating to Stress
The researcher computed correlational analyses to determine if teachers’ sources and effects of stress were associated with demographic factors such as teachers’ education, years of teaching experience, years teaching at the current site, the number of children enrolled and classroom ratio.
There were a few significant associations identified between teachers’ demographic factors and sources of teacher stress. Teachers with more years of teaching experience were less likely to perceive their low wages as a source of stress ( r = -.429, p
= .01). As the numbers of children enrolled in the program increased, so did the teachers’ perception of non-teaching tasks as a source of stress ( r = .468, p = .005). Higher enrollment numbers were also positively associated with more stressful relationships with

56 administrators ( r = .371, p = .028) as well as with higher levels of stress related to providing care for children with disabilities ( r = .354, p = .034).
Correlations between teacher demographic variables and reported effects of stress yielded a greater number of significant findings. Teachers with more years of teaching experience were less like to report emotional or physiological effects such as physical exhaustion ( r = -.414, p = .013), emotional exhaustion ( r = -.448, p = .007) or physical ailments such as colds and flu ( r = -.472, p = .004). Similarly, teachers with more years at their current position were also less likely to report effects such as physical exhaustion
( r = .341, p = .045).
Teachers with higher levels of education were less likely to feel unable to handle their job responsibilities ( r = -.405, p = .014). They were also more likely to perceive their work as important and meaningful ( r = .354, p = .034).
Teachers’ Narrative Responses
The primary research questions in this study did not address what methods teachers used to alleviate or prevent job related stress, nor did the study examine any effects of teacher stress on students. However, the last part of the survey did present teachers with two exploratory questions that allowed teachers to provide open ended responses. The first question asked teachers to identify what things could be done to reduce their job stress. The second question asked teachers if they believed their stress had any effects on the students in their class.

57
Responses to the open-ended questions were examined using qualitative methods to identify common themes and patterns of responses among participants. Once the data were organized by question, the researcher conducted an initial review and coding of the responses for each question. During this review, the researcher analyzed the responses for each question using content analysis methods to identify relevant words or phrases in the responses (Crabtree & Miller, 1992). These words or phrases were used to establish an initial set of categorical themes and corresponding numerical codes for each question
In order to establish the reliability of the coding categories, an independent rater reviewed and separately coded the data set. Next, the two raters reviewed the coding and categories together to finalize the coding scheme. Cases of discrepancies between the two coders were reviewed and discussed until 100% inter-rater agreement was reached.
Once coding reliability was established, the researcher examined the coding categories to identify broader themes in the categories as well as categories which could be collapsed or combined. Finally, the researcher determined by count the frequency of responses for each category.
Teacher Suggestions for Reducing Job Stress
Teachers reported a number of suggestions for ways to reduce their levels of stress. These are listed in Table 7.

58
Table 7
Narrative Responses - Ways to Reduce Teachers’ Stress
No. of
Responses
Percent Responses time ratio reduce non-teaching duties money staff relations admin support resources parents more and better trained staff
12
10
9
8
6
5
5
5
5
17.9
14.9
13.4
11.9
9.0
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5 other 2 3.0
Total responses 67
___________________________________________________________________
In their responses to this question, teachers indicated that having more time to complete work as well as a lower teacher to student ratio were the most important things that could be done to reduce their stress. One participant stated, “Having time to do all my paper work, having extra support in the classroom … and the ratio or number of students in the classroom.” Another participant commented, “Ratio of 1 to 12 needs to change. It’s very frustrating when you’re unable to watch all children and attend to their needs…” Participants also requested improvements in their monetary compensation, suggesting that teachers receive, “More pay for the hard work that we do,” and eliminating or reducing non-teaching tasks, in particular those related to assessment. One

59 teacher noted she was doing “too much documentation,” while another teacher requested to, “Have more time to do paper work to get it done on time.”
Other suggestions from the teachers included improving administrative support, building better relationships with staff and parents, and increased resources for the classroom. Several teachers noted the importance of good relationships between teachers and staff, such as in this statement, “Better communication that is positive between teachers and administration, especially regarding children with behavioral issues.”
Another teacher commented on the quality of the teacher-administrator relationship as a way to minimize stress: “I think directors and managers need to take more time talking with teachers about their concerns, and truly listening to where the teachers are coming from without being judgmental.” Other teachers expressed frustrations about relationships with parents: “It seems to typically be the parents that cause the most stress.
Not cooperating, not knowing, not understanding or not wanting to know why their child behaves the way he/she does.” There were several suggestions about ways to improve relationships among staff, including, “. . . having training when new hires start would be beneficial as well as a teacher who provides continued training.” None of these categories, however, accounted for more nine percent of the responses reported.
Perceived Effects of Teacher Stress on Children
Teachers were also asked about whether and how they believed their stress affected the children. Interestingly, only 13 of the 36 teachers reported that they felt that

their stress had some effect on the children, while one third (n=13) said that it did not.
60
The other third (n=10) of respondents did not provide a response to this question.
Of the thirteen teachers who reported some effects of stress on their students, nine teachers indicated that their stress had a direct effect on the children. These direct effects included children themselves feeling stressed, behavioral changes in the classroom and the belief that the children sensed the teacher’s stress. One respondent stated, “When I’m stressed the children feel it. They feel stressed themselves.” Another teacher commented,
“If the teachers are stressed the children . . . feed off it and have more behavior issues.”
Five of the teachers described indirect effects of their stress in children, including things such as less time to spend with the children, changes in the tone of the classroom and a lack of consistency in the classroom due to the teacher’s overall stress. One teacher reported that the indirect effects were, “Inconstancy in mood/responses/teaching style, less positive attention then deserved and needed. . . .”
An interesting finding was that 36 percent of the teachers reported that they believed their stress had no effect upon their students. For example, one teacher shared that, “. . . they (the children) would never know I was stressed.” Another teacher described the effects of her stress on her students as, “Not much. I can keep most of my stress/frustration out of the class.”

61
Chapter 5
DISCUSSION
Teaching children has been identified as a stressful career (Grayson & Alvarez,
2008; Tsai et al., 2006). There has been considerable research on stress in educators in the elementary and high school grades, but the research on the sources and effects of stress in early childhood educators is lacking. In the current study, the researcher sought to examine the self-reported sources of stress for early childhood teachers, along with the personal and professional impacts of stress. The researcher aimed to determine whether there were differences in the sources and effects of stress related to program type, either private or Head Start classrooms. Finally, the researcher sought to identify any correlations between stress and teachers’ education level, years of teaching experience, and number of students in the classroom. This chapter provides a discussion of the major findings of the study, along with recommendations for practice and future research.
Major Findings
Sources of Stress
The survey used in this study asked teachers to rank the intensity of 13 different possible stressors on a scale from never stressful to always stressful. All 13 items were ranked at a mean score between rarely and often stressful, and none of the items were ranked as always or never stressful. This suggests that the preschool teachers in this

sample were experiencing some levels of stress, but nothing that was consistently high.
62
The highest mean score for any items in the stressors group was related to the amount of money teachers earned. This finding confirms results in other studies that show salary is an area of stress for teachers, particularly those teaching at the preschool level (Caulfield
& Kataoka-Yahiro, 2001). Along with money, other sources of stress with higher mean scores included children’s disruptive behaviors, and having to complete extra paperwork.
This too aligns with past research for both elementary and preschool teachers that has identified disruptive behaviors in the classroom (Klassen & Chiu, 2010) and workload
(McGrath & Huntington, 2007) as sources of stress. Teacher/child ratio, which is often an issue in the early childhood field, was only ranked as sometimes stressful among this sample of teachers. It is also somewhat surprising that factors such as relationships with coworkers, parents and directors were also rated as only rarely stressful. Overall, the mean scores for sources of stress suggest that these preschool teachers experienced mild to moderate levels of stress from a range of sources, but that none of them were experiencing high levels of stress related to any one factor.
Perceived Personal and Professional Impacts of Stress on Teachers
A similar pattern of responses emerged from the teachers’ mean scores for the stress effects items. All of the mean rankings for stress effects fell in the rarely to sometimes stressful range, with none of the mean scores in the always or never ranges.
This suggests that teachers were experiencing mild to moderate effects from the stressors.
Interestingly, teachers reported feeling depressed, anxious, angry, or a desire to leave

their jobs only rarely or sometimes. This finding contradicts results in past studies with
63 preschool and kindergarten teachers that identified more intense levels of stress related to factors such as turnover (Manlove & Guzell, 1997), depression (Gilliam & Shahar, 2006) and exhaustion (Tsai et al., 2006). In this study, the effects items receiving the highest ranking (in the very often range) were statements related to teacher efficacy. For these two items, teachers reported that they often felt that the job they were doing was significant, felt confident in their ability as a teacher as well as their ability to handle problem behaviors in the classroom. This is contrary to past research which has shown that stress can negatively affect teacher self-efficacy (Klassen & Chiu, 2010). Overall, the mean scores for effects of stress suggest that the preschool teachers experienced mild to moderate effects from stress in some personal and professional ways, but that none of them were experiencing severe effects of stress related to any one factor. This is perhaps not surprising since teachers’ scores for the sources of stress items reflected a similar mild to moderate pattern.
It is unclear why the teachers in this sample reported only mild to moderate levels of stress in response to the survey items, as compared to findings in some of the previous research. Since many of the prior studies involved elementary school teachers, it is possible that differences in sources and effects of stress are related to differences in characteristics of teaching preschool as opposed to elementary school. Because studies to date have not compared teacher stress across grade or age levels, there is no clear understanding of what stressors are unique to, or more impactful, in preschool settings as opposed to elementary school classrooms. It is also possible that characteristics of the

64 local programs included in this study may play a role in how teachers perceive and experience job stress. Perhaps the center directors are aware of the dangers of stress and are already taking preventative measures to keep staff morale positive. For example, the
Sacramento SETA Head Start organization provides inservice training for their staff on a monthly basis, and this support could be mitigating the impacts of stress. In future, studies of teacher stress might include examination of programmatic supports and their relationship to teacher stress. This question was beyond the scope of the current study.
Differences Related to Program Type
Early childhood education is a field characterized by variations across programs in factors such as funding, program structure, teacher education requirements and teacher to student ratio. For example, state and federally funded programs often require higher levels of education for classroom teachers and are more likely to maintain lower teacherstudent ratios. In addition, because of admission requirements tied to family income, publicly funded programs enroll much higher numbers of low SES students than do private pay centers.
Given these variations, it might be expected that there would be differences in
ECE teachers’ sources and effects of stress related to program type. In this study, the researcher examined this difference using composite variables created for both the sources and effects scales. T-tests did not, however, identify any statistically significant differences in comparing teachers from Head Start programs to those in private centers, for either sources or effects of stress. The absence of significant differences between the

program types may have been due to the similarity in teacher to student ratios between
65 the participating programs. Because of the regulations that accompany federal funding, it is often the case that programs like Head Start maintain lower student to teacher ratios than is seen in private programs who must only meet the lower ratio standard of licensing. This was not the case in this sample, with the private programs having a mean enrollment of 13 students and the Head Start classrooms having a mean enrollment of 16.
Since enrollment and ratio are some of the strongest predictors of teacher stress, the absence of a difference in enrollment between these two types of programs may account for the lack of difference in teacher stress related to program type.
Other factors may also be contributing to the lack of difference in the sources and effects of stress between the two programs. The small sample size in the study may have resulted in a lack of variance among the programs that did not allow for identification of programmatic differences. This seems particularly likely in the case of the Head Start programs participating in the present study, which are all managed by one overseeing agency (SETA Head Start).
Demographic Factors Related to Stress
In order to examine whether teacher characteristics might play a role in stress, the researcher conducted correlation analyses between teachers’ scores for stressors and effects items and the demographic factors of teacher education, experience, class ratio and numbers of children. This analysis yielded a few signification associations. One interesting finding was that teachers with more years of experience were less likely to see

66 their low salary as a source of stress. Although low wages has been identified as a source of stress for educators in other research (Caulfield & Kataoka-Yahiro, 2001), for this population, the longer teachers taught, the less stressed out they were about the money they made. Since the survey did not ask teachers to report their actual salaries, it is possible that increased years of teaching means increased salary, and therefore, participants with longer tenure may have less job stress related to their salary. It is also plausible to posit that teachers who are unhappy with their salaries change jobs and that long time service as a preschool teacher is an indicator that the teacher is comfortable with, or at least accepting of, her salary. It remains unclear from this data set how years of experience might mitigate teachers’ feelings about being paid lower wages, but future studies might investigate this further.
In their survey responses, teachers rated class ratio as a stressor in the rarely to sometimes range of frequency. However, the correlational analyses suggest that class ratio may be associated with other possible stressors. For example, teachers with higher class ratios also reported higher frequency of stress from non-teaching tasks as well as in their relationships with administrators. This finding suggests that while higher class ratios themselves may not be considered by teachers as always stressful, ratios may influence how teachers perceive other possible sources of stress. Future research may examine how these stressors interact with each other.
There were several demographic variables which were found to be significantly related to effects of stress. For instance, teachers with more years of teaching experience were less likely to suffer stress effects such as emotional and physical exhaustion or

67 physical illnesses such as colds and flu. This result conflicts with past research which has linked teacher stress with physical illness (Tsai et al., 2006). Perhaps over time, early childhood teachers build up immunity to certain illnesses and therefore do not experience the same physiological effects of stress as elementary teachers. The mild to moderate emotional effects reported by the teachers may also be related to teachers’ years of experience. In this sample, 28 of the 36 teachers had five or more years of teaching experience. It may be that experienced teachers have achieved a level of competency and self-efficacy related to their job performance that buffers them from the emotional effects of stress. This is suggested by the finding that teachers in this study reported a strong sense of self efficacy in response to the related survey items. In this sample, teachers’ sense of self-efficacy, reported as feeling their job was important and that they felt able to handle their responsibilities, increased as years of teaching increased. These findings suggest that perhaps as early childhood teachers gain experience, they learn to adjust to the personal and professional demands of their job. Future studies which might include interviews with teachers might help to illuminate this interesting possibility.
Because there is wide variation in education requirements in early education programs as well as a similar variation in education levels of early childhood teachers, it might be expected that teachers’ level of education would be a key factor in predicting stress levels and effects. Findings in this study identified two significant relationships related to education. First, teachers with higher levels of education were more likely to feel able to handle their job responsibilities. Second, teachers with higher levels of education were more likely to perceive their work as important and meaningful. These

68 results suggest that higher education levels may provide teachers with the knowledge and experience necessary to maintain a higher sense of self-efficacy as well as commitment to their jobs in the face of stress.
Teacher’s Narrative Responses
The focus of this study was limited to identifying sources and negative outcomes of stress for ECE teachers. The research did not include examination of possible strategies for alleviating teacher stress, nor did the study collect data related to effects of teacher stress on children. Since these are two important issues in understanding ECE teacher stress, the researcher included two open ended questions which provided some exploratory information on these two issues through narrative responses from the teachers.
Although the stresses of teachers in this study appeared to be in the mild to moderate range, their narrative responses presented several interesting suggestions for reducing the sources and effects of job stress. While time and ratio were factors rated in the survey at the rarely to sometimes level of frequency as a source of stress, in their open ended comments some teachers requested more time to complete their work and lower student to teacher ratios. Several teachers also reported that they would like to reduce the amount of time they are now spending on non-teaching duties, in particular, those related to assessment, which now takes up a significant amount of teacher time. Low wages, which is often perceived as the factor which causes early childhood teachers the most stress, was mentioned in the narrative comments, but only by a quarter of the teachers.

These comments suggest that, even when teachers are rating sources of stress as occurring only rarely or sometimes, there may still be a need for programs to respond to
69 these chronic mid-level stresses. Identifying which factors may need the most attention might best be accomplished by seeking the kind of input provided by teachers in these narrative responses.
Although all of the teachers reported some levels of stress and some effects from that stress, it is interesting that only one-third of the teachers felt that their stress had any effect on their students, and one-third felt it had no effect. Among teachers who reported some effect on students, these were characterized as either direct, such as changes in children’s behavior, or indirect, such as changes in the tone of the classroom or less time to spend with children. These effects on children, similar to those reported by teachers, appear to be in the mild to moderate range. This suggests that this group of teachers seems able to manage their stress levels fairly well for themselves and for their students.
Limitations
There were some limitations that must be considered in interpreting the results of this study of teacher stress. Participation in the study was limited to preschool teachers in
Head Start or private programs teaching children aged 2 to 5 years. This sample therefore does not allow an understanding of the dynamics of stress in small or large family child care homes, or in any other types of child care programs, including those

70 serving infants and toddlers. The sample size of 36 teachers is small, and not likely representative of a diverse population of preschool teachers.
Since the data in this study was collected through self-report surveys, respondents could have responded in a way they thought the researcher would have liked. It is also possible that the nature of the questions regarding sources and effects of stress could have made respondents uncomfortable, which possibly could have shaped their answers to the survey questions. Because the researcher did not conduct individual interviews with the teachers or observations in teachers’ classrooms, it is not possible to further elucidate or verify teachers’ feelings and behaviors about stress through these other sources of data.
Since the teachers’ ratings of both sources and effects of stress were collected via selfreport questions, it was not possible to obtain an independent assessment of any actual effects of stress.
The instrument used in this study to measure stress was adapted by the researcher from several well-known instruments in the field. While the alpha coefficients for most of the subscales used in the current study were adequate, there were some scales that were low in internal consistency. It is possible however that the survey items may have been worded in a confusing way, or that the survey may have omitted important items related to sources and effects of stress for preschool teachers. Furthermore, the content of the survey focused exclusively on sources and effects of stress. Obtaining answers to other important questions about teacher stress, including questions such as how teachers attempt to alleviate stress, were beyond the scope of this research.

Early childhood education is a field with a wide range of program types exhibiting a diversity of characteristics. One focus of this research was to examine whether there were differences in teacher stress related to program type, specifically public versus private programs. Although there was no significant programmatic
71 difference found with this sample, this may have been due to features of these specific programs. For example, the teachers in public programs did report that their student body was primarily comprised of low SES students. However, the teachers in the private programs reported a range of SES for their students, including low, middle and high SES.
Thus it is possible that there was not enough difference related to this characteristic to result in a significant difference in stress by program type.
The existing research on teacher stress has up to now focused primarily on teachers working in elementary school settings. While this study may contribute to an understanding of stress for early childhood teachers, it is hoped that future studies may expand upon this understanding using designs that address the limits of the present research.
Recommendations for Practice
Findings in this study suggest several opportunities for action from preschool programs and administrators. While responses indicate that preschool teachers are not under extreme stress, all of the teachers reported causes and effects of stress in the mild to moderate range. This suggests that program administrators should dialogue with

72 teachers in their programs to identify specific sources and effects of stress for their staff.
In addition, teachers should be given an opportunity to suggest possible remedies to alleviate stress.
Given the responses provided in this data, time and class ratios, along with salaries, are factors which should deserve attention from administrators. Class ratio is a stressor of particular interest since it appears to be related to higher levels of stress in other categories. Thus, efforts to reduce student-teacher ratio may also be effective in reducing other types of stress.
Several teachers noted the increasing time spent even in preschool programs on non-teaching tasks, in particular paperwork and assessment. While programs may not be able to eliminate these tasks altogether, efforts can be made to provide teachers with additional time or other support so that they can maintain their teaching duties while attending to these additional tasks.
Although there were no differences in stress related to program type, the variation in programs serving young children suggests that individual programs assess their own characteristics, contexts, and staff to determine what specific stressors are most problematic and similarly, assess what specific solutions are best suited to their needs. At the same time, since all teachers reported some levels and effects of stress, it can be concluded that all programs would benefit from conversations and possible specific staff education regarding teacher stress.

Future Research
Although the literature on teacher stress dates back several decades, very little of the research has focused on stress in early childhood educators. This study provided
73 some information on sources and effects of stress for preschool teachers. Further study is needed to fully understand teacher stress in the preschool setting, as well as the long term impacts of that stress on teachers and students. Since preschool services for children encompass a range of ages and program types, future research should include studies with teachers working in small and large family child care programs as well as those teaching younger children or in multi-age classrooms.
Since all of the Head Start teachers in this study were recruited from sites managed by SETA Head Start, it would be useful to survey teachers from a wider sample of Head Start programs. Although most preschool teachers are female, a broader understanding of male teacher stress in the early childhood education field needs to be studied in order to establish if there is a difference between the two genders when it comes to stress in the classroom.
Findings in this study focused on teachers’ ratings of sources and effects of stress, as well as any correlations between teacher demographics and stress. Although analyses did identify some associations, the nature of those relationships remains unclear. Further research might consider a fuller examination of how teacher characteristics might interact with stress factors. In addition, it would be useful to study instances where one stressor
(or set of stressors) decreases the impact of another stressor. In contrast, there may be

there stressors which increase the impact of other stressors. In this study, teachers with
74 greater years of experience were less likely to be stressed about their wage or about their class ratios. The nature of the data in this study did not permit a full understanding of how or why these demographic characteristics may mitigate stress. Future studies might include more in depth interviews with teachers.
Since the primary focus of this study was on teachers’ perceptions of their jobrelated stress, there was very little information gathered about whether and how teacher stress impacts their students. Further study is needed to examine this question, including possible classroom observation.
Conclusions
The demands of teaching may mean that this is a profession that will always entail some levels of stress. For those teaching young children, researchers have yet to fully understand the sources and effects of stress in this unique environment. Results in this study suggest that preschool teachers face a range of stressors which create both personal and professional impacts. It is encouraging that, in this study, those stresses and effects appear to be mild to moderate, and seem to have minimal impact on students. Despite these results, teachers’ narrative comments suggest that even mild to moderate stresses can create negative impacts for teachers that deserve the attention of program administrators. Furthermore, sources of stress for teachers are often related to factors which help determine program quality. For example, besides causing teacher stress,

75 higher class ratios lower program quality. Beyond causing exhaustion, teacher stress can lead to turnover, another factor that impacts quality. In short, preventing or alleviating teacher stress not only helps teachers carry out their jobs more effectively. Ultimately, eliminating teacher stress creates a better classroom environment for children and contributes to program quality.

Appendices
76

Appendix A
Early Childhood Teacher Stress Survey
77

78

PART I.
PERSONAL INFORMATION
Please provide the following information about your students, your background and your education and experience.
1.
Your age: ______
2.
Gender: _____ Male _____ Female
3.
Number of years you have spent teaching children ages 2-5: ________
4.
Number of years you have been teaching at your CURRENT center: ________
5.
In what type of child care setting do you currently work? (circle one): a. Head Start preschool b. Private preschool or child care center c. Other (please specify): ________________________
6.
Circle the highest level of education you have completed: a.
No college level Early Childhood Education or Child Development units b.
Some college level Early Childhood or Child Development units but no degree c.
AA Degree in Early Childhood Education d.
BA Degree in Early Childhood Education or Child Development e.
MA Degree or higher in Early Childhood Education or Child Development f.
Other (please specify): ________________________________
7.
Circle the age children you usually work with: a.
2 years old b.
3 year olds c.
4 year olds d.
2-3 year old combination class e.
3-4 year old combination class f.
4-5 year old combination class g.
Other (please specify): _____________________
8.
What is the teacher/child ratio in your class:
______ teacher(s) _______ children.
9. How many children are enrolled in your classroom? __________
79

80
10. What is the typical socioeconomic status of the children in your class (circle one): a. mostly lower income b. mostly middle income c. mostly high income d. mix of lower and middle income e. mix of middle and high income f. other (please specify): _________________________
PART II.
SOURCES OF STRESS
Directions:
Please carefully read each of the items below and circle only ONE answer from the choices provided to you for each question.
Please rate how stressful each item is for YOU as an Early Childhood Teacher.
The ratio, or number of teachers to the number of students in the classroom.
Children’s inappropriate/disruptive behaviors in the classroom.
Providing each child enough time throughout the day.
Providing care/education for children who speak
English as their second language.
Providing care/education for children with a physical disability or developmental delay.
Working relationships with fellow coworkers.
Never
Stressful
1
1
1
1
1
1
Rarely
Stressful
2
2
2
2
2
2
Sometimes
Stressful
3
3
3
3
3
3
Very
Often
Stressful
4
4
4
4
4
4
Always
Stressful
5
5
5
5
5
5

81
Lack of parental support.
Interactions with the parents.
Engaging in non-teaching tasks (cleaning, misc paperwork, etc.).
Collecting or maintaining children’s portfolios and assessments.
My relationship with my director or administrator.
The amount of money I am paid for the work that I do.
Getting/having available the supplies I need.
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
Part III: Effects of Stress
Directions:
Please carefully read each of the items below and circle only ONE answer from the choices provided to you for each question.
Please rate how frequently YOU as an Early Childhood Teacher feel the following effects of teacher stress:
Depression and or anxiety.
Frustration and or anger.
Feeling physically exhausted at the end of the day.
Feeling emotionally exhausted at the end of the day.
Never
1
1
1
1
Rarely Sometimes
2 3
2
2
3
3
2 3
Very
Often
4
4
4
4
Always
5
5
5
5

Being prone to illness such as colds or the flu, more than other people you know.
Relationships with immediate family members in the home.
Feeling burnt out from teaching.
Feeling the quality of my teaching has declined due to stress.
Considering leaving the early childhood education profession for a completely different profession.
Considering leaving my current early childhood education position for a different early childhood position.
Feeling less able to handle my job responsibilities.
Feeling I have more work to do during the day than I have time.
Feeling that the work that I do is important and meaningful.
Feeling confident in my ability as a teacher.
Feeling that I am able to handle behaviors in the classroom effectively.
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
82
4 5
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3

83
Please write your answers to the following questions:
What things do YOU as an Early Childhood Teacher believe could be done to reduce job stress for Early Childhood Educators?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
What effects, if any, does YOUR stress as an Early Childhood Teacher have on the students in your class?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Thank you for your time and participation!

Appendix B
Teacher Consent Form
84

Consent to Participate in Research
You are being asked to participate in research which will be conducted by Toni Brazil, a
85 graduate student in Child Development at California State University, Sacramento. The study will investigate factors related to stress for early childhood education teachers.
You will be asked to complete a questionnaire related to stressors in your work environment. This questionnaire may require up to 15 minutes of your time to complete.
Some of the items in the questionnaire may seem personal, and you don’t have to answer any questions that you don’t want to.
There are no direct benefits to your participation in this questionnaire. However, your participation may help us to better understand the stresses of early childhood teaching and inform efforts to reduce teacher stress.
Your responses on the questionnaires will be anonymous. Consent forms and questionnaires will be stored in a secure location, and destroyed upon completion of the researcher’s thesis. Data reported in the final thesis report will be summarized and no identifying information will be included.
If you have any questions about this research, you may contact Toni Brazil at
(916) 317-9145 or by e-mail at tb793@saclink.csus.edu. Your participation in this research is entirely voluntary. Your signature below indicates that you have read this page and agree to participate in the research.
*Please return this consent form in your packet with the completed survey*
________________________________ ___________________
Signature of the Participant Date

86
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