Effects of Nutrition on
Livestock Production:
• Production/ Health Breeding Reproduction
Management Genetics
• Product
Behavior
Composition
• Bio- Protein Mineral Vitamin Toxic
Energetics Metabolism Metabolism Metabolism Compounds

cbse-notes.blogspot.com

• Many times we forget that Water is an Essential Nutrient.
• We also sometimes forget that
the world.
• Nutrient required in

vwmin.org

webberenergyblog.wordpress.com

• 30 days without Food
• 3 days without Water
• 3 minutes without Air

• Drinking Water
• Water Associated With the Diet(feed)
• Metabolic Water

Problems With Water
Regarding Livestock
Production
• Quantity Problems
• Distribution Problems
• Quality Problems
• Contamination Problems
• Competition Problems
• Conservation Problems
• Economic Problems
• Political Problems

buffonescience9.wikispaces.com

• Ideal Dispersing Medium
Excellent Solvent and Ionizing Agent
• High Specific Heat Absorb Much
Heat Without Much of a Temperature
Change.
• High Latent Heat of Vaporization
Evaporative Cooling, Temperature
Regulation.

• Medium to support most biochemical reactions of the body
• Participates in Hydrolysis Reactions (digestion)
• Cushioning
• Lubrication
• Transport and Distribution
• Dilution Detoxification and Excretion
• Temperature Regulation
• Conduction Sound(hearing), Light(sight)
• The Most Important Essential Nutrient!

• Species: Cattle versus Horses versus Sheep
• Climate
• Body Tissue Gain
• Pregnancy
• Lactation
• Physical Exertion
• Health Issues
• Composition of the Diet

• 3.0 lbs. Water per lb. DM Intake
• Example: 1200 lb. Beef Cow; Dry Matter Intake,
2% of Body Weight; Consuming Hay.
• Approximately how much water will the cow require per day?
• 1200 x .02 (2%) = 24 lbs. DM/day
• 24 lbs. DM x 3.0 lbs. Water/ lb. DM = 72 lbs. water
• 72 lbs. Water x 8.3 lbs. Water/ Gallon = 8.7
Gallons of Water/cow/day.

Species
Body
Weight, lbs.
Beef cows, dry 1200
Beef cows, lactating 1200
Beef yearlings
Beef feedlot
Dairy cows
Horses
800
900
1400
1100
Sheep and Goats
Swine
Turkeys
Chickens
150
300
25
5
DM intake
% body weight
4.0
3.5
4.5
5.0
2.0
2.5
2.5
3.0
3.5
2.0
Water:DM
Ratio
2.5
3.0
2.5
2.5
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
2.8
+1.0
+1.5
+1.0
+1.0
+1.0
+1.0
+1.0
+1.0
+1.0
+1.0
Hot weather adjustment lactation
+.50
+.50
---
--adjustment medium
---
+1.0
---
---
+1.5
+1.0
lactation
+1.0
+1.0
---
--adjustment high
---
+1.5
---
---
+2.0
+1.5

• Example Calculations:
• 1200 lb. Beef Cows, Medium Milk Production, Temperate
Climate.
• 1200 x .02 (2.5%) = 30 lbs. DM Intake/cow/day
• 30 lbs. DM x 4.0 lbs. water(3.0 +1.0)/lb. DM Intake = 120 lbs. water/cow/day.
• 120 lbs. water ÷ 8.3 lbs./gallon = 14.5 gallons/cow/day
• Of course this does not include drinking water for her calf.
• Nor does it consider water she may obtain from her diet.

Estimating Water
Requirements:
• In the example of the Lactating Beef Cow above, if she was consuming Dry Feed like Hay, she would probably require about 14.5 gallons of Drinking Water/day.
• However if she was Grazing Succulent Pasture Forage that contained 25% Dry Matter and 75% Water, much of her water requirement would come from the Pasture
Forage.
• 30 lbs. DM/day ÷ .25(25% DM) = 120 lbs. Pasture Forage
• 120 lbs. Pasture Forage – 30 lbs. DM = 90 lbs. of Water from the Pasture Forage or (90 ÷ 8.3) 10.8 gallons of
Water from the Diet.
• 14.5 – 10.8 = 3.7 gallons of Drinking Water/day

• Example Calculation:
• 1500 lb. lactating dairy cow, high production, hot weather
• 1500 x .035 = 52.5 lbs. DM/cow/day
• 52.5 lbs. DM x 6.0 (3.0+1.0+2.0) = 315 lbs. water/day
• 315 lbs. water ÷ 8.3 lbs/gallon = 37.9 gallons water/cow/day.

• Example Calculation:
• 1000, 20 lb. Turkeys, Temperate Climate
• 20.0 lbs. x .045 (4.5%) = .9 lbs. DM/bird/day
• .9 lbs. DM x 2.5 lbs. Water/lb. DM = 2.25 lbs.
Water/bird/day
• 2.25 lbs. Water ÷ 8.3 lbs./gallon = .27 gallons/bird/day
• .27 gallons/bird/day x 1000 birds = 271 gallons/day

• Poor Water Quality Reduced Water
Intake Reduced Water Intake
Reduced Performance and Increased Health
Problems.

• Soil, Debris, Fecal, Urine Contamination
• Contamination with Dissolved Solids (Salts)
Sulfate Salts are most detrimental.
• These factors have a Negative Impact on
Palatability of the Water.
• Contamination with Nitrates, Flourine, and
Heavy Metal Salts may not affect palatability but are extremely Toxic.
• Poultry farm animals most susceptible to water quality.
• Ruminants farm animals least susceptible to water quality.

• Water containing 1000 mg salts/liter safe for all farm animals.
• Water containing 1000-5000 mg salts/liter safe for most farm animals. May cause temporary watery feces in poultry.
• Water containing 5000-7000 mg salts/liter safe for all farm animals except poultry.
• Water containing > 7000 mg salts/liter not safe for poultry or swine and should be avoided in lactating farm animals as well as rapidly growing animals.
• Cattle can tolerate levels as high as 15000-
17000 mg salts/liter but production will suffer.

• The following are the effects of supplying high-quality well water to cow-calf pairs previously drinking water from High-Sulfur Surface
Item
Calf weaning wt, lbs
Calf weaning % drinking highsulfur
Surface water
450
83 drinking highquality
Well water
487
91

Analyzing Feeds for Water
(Moisture) Content:
• Although there are chemical tests for the water (moisture) content of animal feeds, the most common method is simply to Evaporate the Water from the Feed Sample in an Oven and compare the Weight of the Sample before and after drying.
• For Air-Dried Feed Samples such as Hays or Grains, Oven
Temperature is 100˚C for 24 hours.
• For High-Moisture Feed Samples such as Haylages and
Silages, Oven Temperature is 60˚C for 72 hours. directindustry.com
richardjonesfurniture.com

Water/Dry Matter
Calculations:
• If it’s not Water, it’s Dry Matter!
Feed sample
Alfalfa Hay
Initial Sample
Weight, grams
Final Sample
Weight, grams
% Dry Matter % Moisture
(water)
Alfalfa Silage
2.14
10.67
1.96
3.46
91.59
32.44
8.41
67.56
Alfalfa Haylage 10.13
5.19
51.23
48.77
Alfalfa Fresh 10.92
2.56
23.44
76.56
• Alfalfa Hay: (1.96 ÷ 2.14) X 100 = 91.59% Dry Matter
100 – 91.59 = 8.41% Water
• Alfalfa Haylage:(5.19 ÷ 10.13) X 100 = 51.23% Dry Matter
100 – 51.23 = 48.77% Water

• Most Abundant Organic Molecules on earth.
• Major function in most farm animals is an
Energy Source (metabolic fuel).
• Energy Storage (glycogen)
• Component of Mucous (mucopolysaccharides)
• Component of Cartilage (chondroitin)
• Component of Nucleic Acids (RNA, DNA)
• Component of Cell Membrane Receptors
• Protection (mannan oligosaccharide)
• Carbon Donors in Biosynthetic Pathways

• Over half of the Sunlight that hits this planet each day and is used for Biosynthetic Purposes is used for the Synthesis of Carbohydrates.
• Besides their function in the physiology and anatomy of animals, Carbohydrates serve many other useful functions: Cotton, Wood.

• Carbohydrates are composed of Carbon,
Hydrogen, and Oxygen.
askiitians.com

Carbohydrate Classification and Terminology
•
• Nonfiberous Fiberous
• Utilized by animals and Utilized only microorganisms: microorganisms: Neutral Detergent Fiber
Sugars Cellulose
Starches Hemicellulose farmwest.com
extension.umn.edu

•
Low-Fiber Feeds High-Fiber Feeds

•
Neutral Detergent Solubles Neutral Detergent Fiber
Sugars (NDF)
Starches Cellulose
Soluble Fiber Hemicellulose
Lignin dairylandlabs.net

Routine Analysis of Feeds for
Carbohydrates:
Acid Detergent Extraction
Acid Detergent Solubles Acid Detergent Fiber
Sugars (ADF)
Starches Cellulose
Soluble Fiber Lignin
Hemicellulose dairylandlabs.net

joe.org
Effect of Forage Maturity and
NDF Levels on Available
Energy

Estimating Forage Energy From
NDF Levels:

Using NDF and ADF to
Estimate Forage Intake and
Energy
• Relative Feed Value (RFV)
• Dry Matter Intake =120 ÷ NDF, %DM
• Dry Matter Digestibility =
88.9 – (.779 x ADF, %DM)
• Example:
Hay
Tall Fescue 1
Tall Fescue 2
NDF, %DM
64.00
73.00
ADF, %DM
31.00
42.00

Calculating Relative Forage
Value (RFV)
• Tall Fescue Hay 1:
DM Intake = 120 ÷ 64.00 = 1.88%
This means 1.88% of body weight
DM Digestibility =
88.9 – (.779 x 31.00) = 64.75%
• RFV = (
DM Intake x DM Digestibility) ÷ 1.29
• RFV = (1.88 x 64.75) ÷ 1.29 = 94.4

Calculating Relative Feed
Value (RFV)
• Tall Fescue Hay 2:
DM Intake = 120 ÷ 73.00 = 1.64%
DM Digestibility =
88.9 – (.779 x 42.00) = 56.18%
• RFV = (1.64 x 56.18) ÷ 1.29 = 71.4

Relative Forage Value, What
Does It Mean?
• Full Bloom Alfalfa Hay is considered to have a RFV of 100.
• Both of the Tall Fescue Hays are of low feed value (94.4, 71.4)
• Tall Fescue Hay 1 is of higher feed value than Tall Fescue Hay 2.
• RFV should be used to compare forages within species, not between species, i.e., legume versus grasses

Other Energy Equations I Have
Found Useful:
• For Legumes:
• %TDNm=86.2 – (.513 x NDF,%DM)
• %TDNm=84.2 – (.598 x ADF,%DM)
• For Grasses:
• %TDNm=105.2 – (.667 x NDF,%DM)
• %TDNm=97.6 – (.974 x ADF,%DM)
• It is important to use different equations for legumes and grasses

Hay
Alfalfa
Grass
NDF, %DM
47.00
67.00
ADF, %DM
36.00
40.00
Alfalfa:
TDNm = 86.2 – (.513 x 47.00) = 62.09%
Grass:
TDNm = 105.2 – (.667 x 67.00) = 60.51%
Calculate the TDNm of Alafalfa using the Grass Equation: myhorseuniversity.com
TDNm = 105.2 – (.667 x 47.00) = 73.85% See the Problem!
The NDF and ADF of Legumes and Grasses are not Equivalant

Relative Forage Quality (RFQ):
• Like the RFV Index, the RFQ Index is based on values Relative to 100.
• RFQ uses separate equations for legume and grass forages.
• RFQ requires more extensive laboratory analysis than RFV: Crude Protein, Crude Fat, Total Ash, and an In Vitro Digestion of NDF in addition to
ADF and NDF.
• Most studies show that RFQ more accurately indexes grass and legume forages compared to the RFV system.

Crude Carbohydrate Analysis of Forages
100 – (crude protein + crude fat + ash + NDF) = Soluble Carbohydrates
12% 3% 5% 70% 10% ourses.ecampus.oregonstate.edu
sugars soluble fiber starches pectin
β-glucans
NDF (70%) – ADF (50%) = 20% Hemicellulose
ADF (50%) – AD Lignin (7%) = 43% Cellulose
If ADF contains Crude Protein it is an indication that the forage has been
Heat Damaged. Crude Protein associated with ADF is considered
Unavailable Protein. This test is called the Acid Detergent Insoluble
Nitrogen (ADIN). It tells how much of the total protein is available.

More Precise Analysis of
Carbohydrate Content of Feeds
• Chromatography:

• Although the major component of animal tissues is Water
(70 to 90%), on a dry weight basis most tissues are composed of Protein.
• High-Quality Proteins are the Major Products of Animal
Agriculture: Meat, Dairy Products, Eggs, Wool, Leather.
• Physiological Reactions and Processes within the body of animals are Controlled by Enzymes and Hormones.
Enzymes and many Proteins are Proteins: Digestive
Enzymes, Insulin.
• The Antibodies of humeral immunity that Protect animals from diseases are Proteins.
• Blood Proteins provided major contributions to Body Fluid and pH Balance.

• Body Proteins are important in Transporting some substance throughout the body: Hemoglobin (oxygen),
Ceruloplasmin (copper).
• Body Proteins can be used as an Energy Source.
• The Body Proteins of Muscle are arranged so they can contact and thus function in Locomotion.
• Cellular Membrane Proteins Move Substances Into and
Out of Cells and Trigger Communication Responses in cells.
• Hair is composed of Protein and serves as Insulation and for Protection.

Protein Classification and
Terminology:
• Proteins are composed of Carbon, Oxygen,
Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Sulfur.
• Proteins are constructed of Amino Acids chemically bonded together in various sequences:

Protein Classification and
Terminology:

boundless.com
Protein Classification and
Terminology:

boundless.com
Protein Classification and
Terminology:

Protein Classification and
Terminology:
• Genetic Code determines Amino Acid
Sequence determines Protein Structure determines Protein Function. shutterstock.com
alevelnotes.com

• Devised in 1800s by Swedish Chemist Johan Kjeldahl.
• Assumed most Nitrogen in feeds was associated with
Proteins, this is called Kjeldahl Nitrogen.
• Assumes most Proteins are 16% Nitrogen.
• Total Nitrogen content of a feed sample was determined by acid digestion.
• Total (Kjeldahl) Nitrogen x 6.25 (100 ÷ 16)=Crude Protein
• Rapid, Repeatable, Inexpensive.
• Had to use hazardous chemicals(concentrated sulfuric acid)
• Revealed no information on Amino Acid Profiles of Protein
• Still in wide use today for Buying/Selling feed commodities and for Predicting Animal Performance

velp.com
shionogi-ac.co.jp

Feed
Alfalfa Hay, vegetative
Alfalfa Hay, mid-bloom
Alfalfa Hay, mature
Grass Hay, vegetative
Grass Hay, mid-bloom
Grass Hay, mature
Wheat Straw
Corn Grain
Barley Grain
Soybean Meal
Cottonseed Meal
Corn Distillers Dried Grains
% Kjeldahl Nitrogen
3.68
2.88
2.08
2.88
1.92
1.28
.64
1.44
1.92
7.84
7.36
4.80
Crude Protein, % of DM
23.0
18.0
13.0
18.0
12.0
8.0
4.0
9.0
12.0
49.0
46.0
30.0

Heat Damaged Crude Protein:
• The Heating of Feeds will Damage the Crude Protein and render a portion Unavailable.
• Heating can be the result of Processing Heat (Drying) or from Internally Produced Heat due to Microbial Growth when feeds are stored at too high a Moisture Content with Oxygen Present (> 15% Moisture).
• The Amount of Crude Protein Damage depends on
Temperature and the Amount of Time spent at temperature.
• The Heating promotes a Permanent Reaction between
Amino Acids (Lysine) and Free Sugars in the feed, forming a substance that reacts similar to Lignin, sometimes the reaction is called Lignification, but is also known as the Maillard Reaction.
• Since feeds generally turn Brown in Color it is sometimes called the Browning Reactions.

Heat Damaged Crude Protein:
• As you might suspect, since Heat Damage of Feed Proteins produces a substance similar to Lignin, both the Neutral
Detergent Fiber (NDF) and Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF) of
Heat Damaged Feeds are Increased.
• Normally the Crude Protein Content of NDF and ADF is
Extremely Low. However if there has been Heat Damage
to the Crude Protein of a Feed, the Crude Protein
Content of NDF and ADF can be Substantial.
• If heat damage is suspected in a feed, a Crude Protein
Analysis is conducted on either the NDF or ADF, which is termed Neutral Detergent Insoluble Nitrogen (NDIN) or Acid Detergent Insoluble Nitrogen (ADIN).
• Both NDIN and ADIN is considered to be unavailable to
Farm Animal to meet their crude protein requirements and is thus called Unavailable Crude Protein.

Heat Damaged Crude Protein:
• Example of the Effect of Heat Damage on the Available
Crude Protein Content of Alfalfa Hay:
Hay
Alfalfa 1
Alfalfa 2
Total Crude
Protein, % of DM
21.22
NDF, % of
DM
45.00
21.04
49.81
NDIN, % of
NDF
.12
NDF-Crude
Protein, % of NDF
.75
Available
Crude
Protein, %
20.99
1.03
6.43
17.83
• Sample Calculations:
•
•
21.22 - (.45 X .75) = 20.99
21.04 – (.4981 X 6.43) = 17.83
• It’s also important to note that not only is the Availability of
Crude Protein reduced in Hay 2, but due to the increase in
NDF Content, Available Energy is also Reduced.

thebeefsite.com
blackburnarch.com
Heat Damaged Crude Protein: depi.vic.gov.au
wmufradio.com

• Protein Digestibility
• How Well the Amino Acid Profiles of the Protein
Supply the Amino Acid Requirements of the Animal
• Biological Value (BV).
• N Intake – (fecal N-urinary N)
N Intake – fecal N X 100
• Percent of the Absorbed Nitrogen that is Retained

Determining the Amino Acid
Profile of Proteins:
• Chromatography: bbs.biogo.net

• In Ruminant Animals Dietary Protein First Encounter the
Microorganisms Housed in the Rumen.
• Dietary Protein
Degraded by Microorganisms Not Affected by Microorganisms
Escape or Bypass Protein
Reassembled into Microbial
Protein Small Intestine
Digested, Amino Acids
Absorbed

• Rumen Degradable Protein (RDP) also term Degradable
Intake Protein (DIP)
• Rumen Undegradable Protein (RUP) also termed
Undegradable Intake Protein (UIP)
• Animal Feeds vary in the amount of protein that is RDP/DIP and RUP/UIP depending on Species, Maturity,
Harvesting Method, and Storage.
myhorseuniversity.com
colostate.edu
agresearchmag.ars.us

Ruminant Protein Utilization:
Feed
Alfalfa Hay, early
Alfalfa Hay, mid
Alfalfa Silage
Fescue Hay, early
Fescue Hay, mid
Fescue Hay, late
Corn Grain
Barley Grain
Oat Grain
Soybean Meal
Corn distillers dried grains
Cottonseed Meal
Crude Protein, %DM RDP/DIP, % of CP RUP/UIP, % of CP
21.70
17.00
17.00
15.00
10.20
9.10
9.80
13.20
13.60
49.90
29.50
46.10
86.00
82.00
91.00
82.00
71.00
67.00
43.04
66.93
83.00
80.00
27.19
57.00
14.00
18.00
9.00
18.00
29.00
33.00
56.96
33.07
17.00
20.00
72.81
43.00

Ruminant Protein Utilization:
Dietary Crude Protein
True Protein NonProtein Nitrogen(NPN)
Urea
RUP RDP
Microbial Protein
Small Intestine
• The ability of Ruminant Animals to Convert
NonProtein Nitrogen to Microbial Protein is an
Advantage

Ruminant Protein Utilization: courses.ecampus.oregonstate.edu

• Dense Energy Reserve (Fat Stores). What do you think you would weigh if your body energy storage was in the form of carbohydrate instead of fat?
• Many Hormones are lipids (steroids)
• Many Vitamins are lipids (vitamin A,D,E,K)
• Subcutaneous Fat layers Insulate animals against cold weather.
• Internal Fat Cushions and Protects internal organs.
• The Lipid Content of most Animal Produced Foods is often associated with High Palatability.
• Lipids are the primary Structural Constituent of all cellular membranes.
• Lipid serve as Chemo-Electrical Insulators in neural tissues.

uic.edu
Examples of Structural
Function of Lipids:

•
Lipid Classification and
Terminology:
Fatty Acids Glycerides
• Saturated Unsaturated Neutral Phospo-
Glycerides Glycerides
Nonglyceride Lipids Complex Lipids
Waxes Sphingolipids Steroids Lipoproteins Glycolipids

Lipid Classification and
Terminology:
• Fatty Acids are composed of Carbon, Oxygen, and
Hydrogen.
• The Carbon:Oxygen Ratio is much higher Fatty Acids compared to Carbohydrates.
commons.wikimedia.org
slideshare.net

Lipid Classification and
Terminology:
• Volatile Fatty Acids, products of Microbial Fermentation including fermentation in the Rumen and Cecum/Colon of farm animals.
vivo.colostate.edu
• These fatty acids are the main Energy Source of ruminant farm animals and a major energy source for animals like horses and rabbits consuming forage-based diets. greatbigcanvas,com

Lipid Classification and
Terminology:
• Saturated Fatty Acids, Unsaturated Fatty Acids,
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids: chemistry.stackexchange.com
• The more points of unsaturation the lower the melting point, the more liquid it is at room temperature.
• Compared to Fatty Acids of Animal Origin, those of Plant
Origin are Much Higher in Polyunsaturated Fatty
Acids.

Lipid Classification and
Terminology:
• Trans versus Cis Fatty Acids. Have you heard the term
Trans Fats on the news?
chemistry.stackexchange.com
• Doesn’t look like much of a difference but Trans Fatty
Acids have been shown to have Negative Health
Implications for human.
• Main source is Partially Hydrogenated Vegetable Oils.

google.com
Lipid Classification and
Terminology:

Lipid Classification and
Terminology:
• Have You ever heard the term Omega-3 Fatty Acids?
• You’ve probably heard that they are Good for You, that they are High in Fish Oil, and that we are trying to increase their content in Animal Agriculture Products like Eggs, Milk, and Meat.
chemistry.stackexchange.com

google.com
Lipid Classification and
Terminology:

Lipid Classification and
Terminology:
• Have you ever heard of Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA)?
• CLA is a Fatty Acid that exhibits a number of Health
Benefits like Anti-Tumor Effects, Increasing Protein
Deposition, and Decreasing Fat Deposition.
• Meat and Milk produced by Ruminant Animals Grazing
Pastures without Grain Supplementation is High in CLA. modernherbalmedicine.com

Lipid Classification and
Terminology:
• Have you ever heard the term Prostaglandins.
• Those of you that have been involved with Estrus
Synchronization in Farm Animals have probably heard of
Lutalyse, which is Prostaglandin F2α. There are many
Prostaglandins that have many different functions in farm animals.
• Prostaglandins are 20-carbon Fatty Acids.
commons.wikimedia.com
valleyvet.com
chegg.com

Lipid Classification and
Terminology:
• Essential Fatty Acids: must be in the Diet because they
Cannot Be Synthesized in the Body.
• This is a problem that is often overlooked in People and
Animal on Low-Fat Diets.
• Most farm animals can synthesize Oleic Acid but not
Linoleic or Linoleic Acid, which are Essential and must be provided in the diet.
• This is especially important in NonRuminant Animals.
Linoleic Acid
Linolenic Acid omega3sealoil.homestead.com
library.med.utah.edu

Lipid Classification and
Terminology:
• Essential Fatty Acid Deficiencies are generally exhibited as
Dermatitis but there can be many other problems: sweatandbutterjournal.com

Lipid Classification and
Terminology:
• What is the difference between Fatty Acids, Fats, and
Oils?
• Shorter Fatty Acids like Acetate, Propionate, and Butyrate will diffuse into the air at room temperature and are thus called Volatile Fatty Acids. Butyrate smells pretty bad.
• Fats and Oils are termed Glycerides.
• Fats are Solid at Room Temperature
• Oils are Liquid at Room Temperature
• Fats contain a high proportion of Saturated Fatty Acids
• Oils contain a high proportion of Unsaturated Fatty
Acids.
• Fats are usually associated with Animal Products.
• Oils are usually associated with Plant Products.

Lipid Classification and
Terminology:

Lipid Classification and
Terminology:
• As the size (length) of Fatty Acids Increases, the Melting
Point Increases.
• As the degree of Unsaturation Increases, the Melting
Point Decreases.
google.com

Lipid Classification and
Terminology:
• The Unsaturated and Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in the diet of animals are Partially Saturated by one of two methods:
Animal’s Own Metabolism Ruminal Environment

Lipid Classification and
Terminology:
• Changes in Fatty Acid Profiles in the Rumen.
Fatty Acid % of fatty acids in feed
% of fatty acids in digesta
C14:0 .9
1.6
C14:1
C15:0
C16:0
C16:1
C17:0
C18:0
C18:1
C18:2
C18:3
.8
.8
33.9
1.2
0
3.8
3.0
24.0
31.0
0
2.3
30.0
0
2.4
41.4
7.0
3.9
6.0

Lipid Classification and
Terminology:
• Changes in Fatty Acid Profiles in the Rumen:
Fatty Acid
C14:0 Branched Chain
C15:0 Branched Chain
C16:0 Branched Chain
% of fatty acids in feed % of fatty acids in digesta
0
0
0
.6
2.5
1.0
• The Rumen Environment Increased Saturated Fatty
Acids compared to the Diet.
• The Rumen Environment Increased Odd-Carbon Fatty
Acids (C15, C17) compared to diet.
• The Rumen Environment Increased Branched Chain
Fatty Acids compared to the diet.

Lipid Classification and
Terminology:
• What is the significance of these Ruminal Alterations in
Fatty Acid Profiles?
• Ruminant Tissues and Products exhibit Higher
Concentrations of Saturated Fatty Acids compared to other animals.
• Odd Carbon Fatty Acids are the only fatty acids that
Yield Glucose when oxidized, badly needed by carbohydrate starved ruminants.
• Branched Chain Fatty Acids improve the Integrity of
Cellular Membranes.
• Both Odd Carbon and Branched Chain Fatty Acid help give
Ruminant Tissues and Products Their Distinctive Flavors.

•
Glycerides:
• Monoglycerides:
• Diglycerides:
• Triglycerides:
Lipid Classification and
Terminology:
Fats or Oils?
user.rcn.com
indiana.edu

Lipid Classification and
Terminology, Fats and Oils
• Why do we Add Fats and Oils to the Diets of Farm
Animals?
Item Grass Hay
NEm, Mcal/lb. DM .52
NEg, Mcal/lb. DM .16
NEm:NEg Ratio 3.25
Ground Corn
.98
.65
1.51
Fat/Oil Blend
2.85
2.30
1.24
• Adding Fats and Oils to Animal Diets also Reduces
Dustiness of Highly Processed Feeds.
• What would be a problem regarding adding Fat versus
Oils to Animal Diets?

Lipid Classification and
Terminology, Fats and Oils:
Problems associated with adding High
Levels of Fats and Oils to Animal Diets
• Too high a level of Unsaturated Oils to the diet of swine can result in a problem called Soft Pork.
• Can you imagine the problems Humans would have if their
Adipose Tissue was totally Unsaturated?
• Adding high levels of Oils to High-Forage Diets fed to ruminants will reduce Fiber Utilization.
• High levels of Trans Fatty Acids in the diet of Dairy Cows will Markedly Reduce Milk Butterfat.
• Although adding Moderate Levels of Fats/Oils to animal diets can Improve Palatability, adding High Levels can
Reduce Palatability.

Lipid Classification and
Terminology:
• For many years Trans-Fats have had negative connotations for human health.
• High Trans-Fat consumption by humans has been linked to
Increased Atherosclerosis Plaques in the circulatory system.
• The Major Source of Trans-Fats in human diets is
Partially Hydrogenated Vegetable Oils.
• Chemical Hydrogenation of vegetable oils functions to
Increase the Melting Point of the oils so they are Solid
at Room Temperature for human foods.
• Recently (June, 2015) the Food and Drug Administration
Rescinded the GRAS (generally recognized as safe) status of Partially Hydrogenated Vegetable Oils added to Human
Foods but does not apply to Animal Feeds.

nutritionnibbles.com
doctorstrizhak.com
Lipid Classification and
Terminology:

Lipid Classification and
Terminology:
• Human Food Manufacturers will have until June 2018 to completely eliminate Partially Hydrogenated Vegetable Oils from Foods.
• This will allow the industry to increase the production of
High-Oleic Soybean Oil.
• Oleic Acid has a Higher Melting Point than
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and would thus have better application in human food production.
• In addition Oleic Acid may have Beneficial Effects on human health.
soyconnection.com
joshmitteldorf.scienceblog.com

• In NonRuminant Farm Animals like Swine and Poultry, feeding High Levels of Polyunsaturated Oils can affect the Fats in Their Tissues: nationalhogfarmer.com
thepigsite.com

Lipid Classification and
Terminology, Phospholipids:
• One of the main functions of Phospholipids is as
Components of Cellular Membranes: fa.wikipedia.org
chemistry.tutorvista.com

Lipid Classification and
Terminology, Steroids:
Most Steroids have Regulatory Functions in the bodies of farm animals.
google.com
estrellamountain.edu

• Waxes are mainly associated with Forages and Grains and serve Protective Functions.
• Most farm animals have difficulty digesting waxes so they are usually considered Non-Nutritive Fats.
• Of course animals do synthesize some types of wax.
whalesongs.org
ehow.com
uwplatt.edu

Lipid Classification and
Terminology, Lipoproteins:
• Lipoproteins are complex chemical structures in plants and animals usually functioning for Transport of Lipids in aqueous solutions like Blood and Lymph.
• Lipoprotein in the Blood of Humans is used to Gauge
Health Status.
biochema-medica.com

• The lipids in seeds are mainly Triglycerides, the majority of lipids in the Leaves and Stems of Plants are
Glycolipids:

Routine Analysis of Feeds for
Lipid Content:
• Ether Extract or Crude Fat
• Lipids are Not Soluble in Water but Are Soluble in
Ether.
• The Difference in Weight of a sample of feed Before and
After Extraction with Ether is termed Ether Extract or
Crude Fat.
aliexpress.com

Routine Analysis of Feeds for
Lipid Content:
• As the term implies, this is a Crude Analysis. It reveals nothing regarding Non-Nutritive Lipids or the Fatty
Acid Profiles of lipids in the feed.

More Precise Analysis of Feeds for Lipid Characteristics:
• Chromatography

catalog.flatworldknowledge.com

• Structural Function: Bones and Joints
• Repair and Maintenance of Tissues
• Energy Production and Transfer
• Acid-Base Balance
• Neuro-Muscular Function: ion balance and exchange
• Hormone and Enzyme Regulation
• Constituents of Hormones and Enzymes
• Constituents of Some Proteins and Lipids
• Toxin Elimination

• Calcium:

• 99% of body calcium is in the Bones and Teeth
• 65% of Bone is Mineral, 35% is Organic Tissue
• 1% of body calcium is in Soft Tissues, Mainly Blood
Free ionic calcium
Associated with anions, i.e., carbonates
Bound to proteins
• Activator of many Enzymes, i.e., Lipase
• Required for Blood Clotting Mechanism
• Required for Vasodilation and Vasoconstiction
• Required for the Secretion of some Hormones, i.e.,
Insulin
• Required for Mitosis
• Required for Muscle Cell Contraction/Relaxation

The Calcium Associated with
Bone:
• Calcium (and Phosphorus) of Bone is in the form of a molecule called Hydroxyapatite.
• The Hydroxyapatite is Deposited on the Organic Matrix of bone called Osteoid, which is composed of Glucoproteins.
• We sometimes forget that bone is Living Tissue composed of specialized cells: Osteocytes, Osteoblasts,
Osteoclasts, and others.
• These cells are under strict Hormonal Control. slideshare.net
slideshare.net

Hormones.gr
Hormonal Control of Bone
Cells is Quite Complex!

Functions of Calcium in Farm
Animals:
• Concentration of Calcium in the Blood is tightly controlled at 9.0 to 10.5 mg/dL
• Calcium is the Most Abundant Mineral in the body.
garrettmclaughlin.com
electrolyte
Sodium
Potassium
Calcium
Magnesium extracellular, meq/liter
5
2
142
5
Intracellular, meq/liter
10
160
--
26

Regulation of Calcium
Metabolism:
• Calcium-Phosphorus-Vitamin D (ergocalciferol) myfamilyhealth.com

Sources of Calcium for Farm
Animals:
Feed
Corn grain
Grass Hay
Alfalfa Hay
Wheat Middlings
Dried Whey
Soybean Meal
Meat and Bone Meal 10.0
Corn Distillers Dried Grains .20
Ground Limestone 34.0
Dicalcium Phosphate 22.0
Calcium, % of DM
.05
.50
1.50
.16
.80
.32

Calcium Deficiency:
• Insufficient Dietary Calcium
• Improper Dietary Calcium : Phosphorus Ratio
• Insufficient Vitamin D or Sunshine
Item
Diet 1
Diet 2
Diet 3
Diet 4
Diet 5
Requirement
Calcium, % DM
.60
1.50
.25
.60
1.25
.40
Phosphorus, % DM
.25
.25
.50
.60
.45
.25
Ca : P
2.40
6.0
.50
1.00
2.80
1.60

• Rickets
• Osteoporosis
• Osteomalacia
Calcium Deficiency: pinstopin.com
pinstopin.com webmed.com

Calcium Deficiency, Milk
Fever, Periparturient Paresis:
• Usually occurs in High-Producing Dairy Cows
• Due to animals physiology not being able to respond to
Low Blood Calcium.
• Often associated with Too High Calcium and Potassium
Intake Prior to Calving.
• Also often associated with an Improper Dietary Cation-
Anion Difference (DCAD).
• A Negative DCAD is recommended for Close-Up Dairy
Cows.

Calcium Deficiency, Milk
Fever, Periparturient Paresis:
• The Equation Above is the most Accurate. However it is complicated by the various Valence States of the Minerals
• A Simplified Equation is often used in the field:
• (%K ÷ .039)+(%Na ÷ .023)–(%Cl ÷ .0355)+(%S ÷ .016)=
DCAD meq/100g DM
K, % of DM
1.25
Na, % of DM
0.10
Cl, % of DM
0.25
S, % of DM
0.18
DCAD
24.3
0.65
0.05
0.30
0.30
-8.4
• It is suggested that Lactating Cow Diet have a DCAD of
+25 to +30 meq/100g DM.
• Close-Up Cow Diets should have a DCAD of -8 to -12 meq/100g DM.

Calcium Deficiency, Milk Fever

Calcium Deficiency,
Antagonists:
• Oxalates bind Calcium, interferes with its Absorption: pinterest.com
Halogeton Alfalfa greatplainslab.com
horsedvm.com
standleeforage.com

Calcium Deficiency,
Antagonisms:
• Very High Levels of Other Minerals in the diet can Interfere with Calcium Metabolism.
• Very High Levels of Calcium in the Diet can interfere with the Metabolism of Other
Minerals.
lifezone.com

Analyzing Feeds for Calcium
Content:
• Flame Emission Spectrophotometry: etslab.com
• Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry: resumehi.net

Analyzing Feeds for Calcium
Content:
• Inductively Coupled Plasma Elemental Analysis loringlabs.net

Macro-Minerals in Animal
Nutrition:
• Phosphorus: knowledgedoor.com
apimages.com

Functions of Phosphorus in
Farm Animals:
• 80% of the Phosphorus in the Body is in the Bones and
Teeth.
jn.nutrition.org
journals.prous.com

Functions of Phosphorus in
Farm Animals:
• Phosphorus is a Component of Many Important
Compounds in the Body.
• Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP): chemwiki.ucdavis.edu

Functions of Phosphorus in
Farm Animals:
• A Component of Important Compounds in the Body
• Phospholipids of Cellular Membranes: uic.com

Functions of Phosphorus in
Farm Animals:
• A Component of Important Compounds in the Body
• Ribonucleic and Deoxyribonucleic Acids: iIbbiologyhelp.com
genomebc.com

Regulation of Phosphorus
Metabolism:
• Calcium and Phosphorus Metabolism are Closely Linked:

Sources of Phosphorus for
Farm Animals:
Feed
Corn Grain
Grass Hay
Alfalfa Hay
Wheat Middlings
Calcium, % of DM
.05
.50
1.50
.16
Dried Whey
Soybean Meal
.80
.32
Meat and Bone Meal 10.0
Corn Distillers Dried Grains .20
Ground Limestone
Dicalcium Phosphate
34.0
22.0
Phosphorus, % of DM
.30
.20
.26
1.02
.70
.70
5.50
.75
.02
18.65

Phosphorus Problems and
Deficiency:
• Phosphorus Deficiency has Major Impacts on Animal
Growth.
• Two groups of equivalent calf were fed similar diets except one diet was Deficient in Phosphorus:
Item
Beginning Weight, lbs.
Average Daily Gain, lbs./day
Days on Feed
Final Weight, lbs.
Feed:Gain, lbs.
Phosphorus Deficient
435
1.72
204
787
12.85
Phosphorus Adequate
437
2.35
163
821
9.65

Phosphorus Problems and
Deficiencies:
• Inadequate Dietary Phosphorus
• Excessive Dietary Calcium
• Inadequate Vitamin D
• Rickets
• Osteomalacia
• Osteoporosis faculty.fortlewis.com
dsm.com
vetnext.com

Phosphorus Problems and
Deficiencies:
• Phosphorus Deficiency will Result in Behavioral Anomaly
Called Pica or a Depraved Appetite. puyallup.wsu.edu
onpasture.com
takinstock.asas.org

Phosphorus Problems and
Deficiency:
• Phosphorus Deficiency has Major Impacts on
Reproduction.
Item
Calf Birth Weight, lbs.
Phosphorus Deficient
Cows
82.1
New Born Calf Death Rate,
%
Cow Milk Production, lbs./day
Calf Weaning Weight, lbs.
3.72
8.7
453
Calf Weaning Percentage 76.7
Phosphorus Adequate
Cows
84.0
1.25
12.4
501
84.2

Phosphorus Problems and
Deficiency:
• Phytate:
• Most of the Phosphorus in Plant Material (forages and grains) is associated with a compound called Phytate or
Phytic Acid.
ip-6.net
• The Phosphorus associated with Phytate is of Limited
Availability to Non-Ruminant Animals like swine, poultry, and horses.

Phosphorus Problems and
Deficiency:
• Phytate: healyourselfathome.com
• Note that Phytate will also interfere with the utilization of other Minerals like Calcium, Magnesium, Iron, Zinc, and
Copper.
• In Ruminant Animals like cattle, sheep, and goats the
Microorganisms in the Rumen produce an enzyme called
Phytase that will Free these minerals from the Phytate
Molecule and increase their availability.

• Phytate:
Phosphorus Problems and
Deficiency: nicole-sweet-nicole.blogspot.com
• Beside the Phytase produced by the Microorganisms in
the Rumen, there are now many Commercial Phytases that can be added to the diet of Non-Ruminant farm animals to improve the availability of Phosphorus and Other
Minerals.

Phosphorus Problems and
Deficiency:
• Phytase:
• Many Phytases are now Commercially Available and are
Routinely added to the diet of Non-Ruminant Farm Animals like Poultry, Swine, and Horses.
• The use of Dietary Phytases results in Less Inorganic
Minerals Supplements like Dicalcium Phosphate having to be added to the diet.
• Since Phosphorus is considered an Agricultural Pollutant, the use Phytases reduces the excretion of Phosphorus by animals and thus Reduces Phosphorus Pollution.

Phosphorus Problems and
Deficiency:
• Antagonisms: lifezone.com
• Note that High Diet Phosphorus can interfere with the utilization of Calcium, Iron, Zinc, Magnesium,
Manganese.
• High Diet Copper can interfere with the utilization of
Phosphorus.

Phosphorus Problems and
Deficiency:
• A Phosphorus Deficiency can be precipitated by a Very
High Diet Calcium Level and a Diet Phosphorus Level
Right on the Requirement.
Item
Diet 1
Diet 2
Diet 3
Diet 4
Diet 5
Requirement
Calcium, % DM
.60
1.50
.25
.60
1.25
.40
Phosphorus, % DM
.25
.25
.50
.60
.45
.25
Ca : P
2.40
6.0
.50
1.00
2.80
1.60

Phosphorus Problems:
• Nutritional Secondary
• Interesting term, kind of roles off your tongue. Sometimes called Miller’s Disease because the horses of grain miller owners often were affected because they were fed the byproducts of the mill such as bran, which was very High in Phosphorus but Low in Calcium.
• Hyperparathroidism can also be caused be certain Kidney
Diseases or problems with Hormones such as Vitamin
D, Fibroblast Growth Factor-23, Thyrocalcitonin.
• Demineralized Bone Tissue is often Invaded by Fibroblast
Cells causing Softening and Enlarging of Bone Tissue:
Osteodystrophy fibrosa cystica.

Phosphorus Problems:
• A diet Very High in Phosphorus and either Deficient or Just
Adequate in Calcium Reduced Calcium Absorption
• Chronic Low Blood Calcium Hyperactive Parathyroid
• Chronic High Parathyroid Hormone
• Chronic Bone Demineralization Osteoporosis
• Infiltration of Porous Bone by Fibroblast Cells
• Enlargement and Softening of Bone Tissues, often facial bones in farm animals Osteodystrophy fibrosa
Cystica, common names: Miller’s Disease or Big Head
• I have also heard of NSHP in horse grazing certain Tropical
Grasses that are High in Oxalates, which tights up calcium and reduces its absorption.

Phosphorus Problems: cram.com
veterinaria.org
Rubber Jaw in Dogs people.upei.ca
scielo.br

Analyzing Feeds for
Phosphorus Content:
• Flame Emission Spectrophotometry: etslab.com
• Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry: resumehi.net

Analyzing Feeds for
Phosphorus Content:
• Inductively Coupled Plasma Elemental Analysis loringlabs.net

Macro-Minerals in Animal
Nutrition:
• Magnesium: brainthud.com
telegram.ee

Functions of Magnesium in
Farm Animals:
• 3rd most abundant mineral in the bodies of most farm animals (behind calcium and phosphorus).
• About ½ Body Magnesium is Present in the Bones.
• Magnesium is an Intracellular Cation with highest concentrations in soft tissues in the Liver and Muscle.
• Magnesium is required for normal Bone Development.
• Magnesium ions must be present for many Enzymes to function properly.
• The main energy currency of the body of farm animals is
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP). The transfer of Energy to and from this important molecule Require the
Presence of Magnesium Ions.
• There are over 300 metabolic reactions in the body of farm animals that require the presence of Magnesium.

classes.midlandstech.edu
Functions of Magnesium in
Farm Animals:

mineralsinc.com
westonaprice.org
Functions of Magnesium in
Farm Animals: wholefoodsmagazine.com
employees.csbsju.edu

Magnesium Regulation in the
Body of Farm Animals:
• Magnesium Regulation in the body of Farm Animals is not well understood.

Feed
Corn Grain
Grass Hay
Alfalfa Hay
Wheat middlings
Dried Whey
Soybean Meal
Meat and Bone Meal
Corn distillers dried grain
Ground Limestone
Dicalcium Phosphate
Magnesium Oxide
Dynamate
Sources of Magnesium for Farm
Animals:
Calcium, % of DM
.05
.50
1.50
.16
.80
.32
10.0
.20
34.0
22.0
--
--
Phosphorus, % of DM Magnesium, % of DM
.30
.20
.26
1.02
.70
.70
5.50
.75
.02
18.65
--
--
.12
.17
.30
.38
.23
.31
.27
.65
2.06
.59
56.20
11.00

Magnesium Problems and
Deficiency:
• In farm animals Swine and Cattle are most often affected.
• In Magnesium Deficient Swine a common outward sign is Hyperemia of the Ears and other Extremities.
• Hyperirritability and Aggressive Behavior is common in most Magnesium Deficient animals.
• Long-term Magnesium can result in Calcification of Soft
Tissues Such as Kidneys.
• Muscle Tetany is usually observed just before Death.
• Lactating Beef Cows grazing lush grass pasture in the spring can succumb to Grass Tetany from low blood
Magnesium. Lactating Ewes are also Suseptible.
• Weaning and Yearling cattle grazing winter wheat crops in the fall and winter can succumb to Wheat Pasture
Poisoning from low blood Magnesium.

farmersjournal.ie
Magnesium Problems and
Deficiency: imagefriend.com
cargill.com

pda.org.uk
moffittfarm.com.au
mclagri.com
smartlic.com
cleanlinefarmservices.ie
raglandmills.com

Magnesium Problems and
Deficiency:
• Antagonisms: mosesorganic.com

Magnesium Problems and
Deficiency:
• From the Mineral Wheel it can be seen that Dietary
Magnesium can Interact with 4 other Minerals in the Diet:
• High Levels of Dietary Manganese can reduce the utilization of Dietary Magnesium.
• High Levels of Dietary Potassium can reduce the utilization of Dietary Magnesium.
• High Levels of Dietary Calcium can reduce the utilization of Dietary Magnesium. High Levels of Dietary Magnesium can interfere with the utilization of Dietary Calcium.
• High Levels of Dietary Phosphorus can reduce the utilization of Dietary Magnesium. High Levels of Dietary
Magnesium can interfere with utilization of Dietary
Phosphorus.

Magnesium Oxide
Supplementation of Dairy
Cows
• Supplementing Lactating Dairy Cows with 2 oz. of
Magnesium Oxide helps maintain Higher Milk Butterfat
Content by either buffering the acidity of rumen fermentation or increasing the uptake of fatty acids by mammary tissues. paleospirit.com
alibaba.com

Analyzing Feeds for
Magnesium Content:
• Flame Emission Spectrophotometry: etslab.com
• Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry: resumehi.net

• Sulfur:
Macro-Minerals in Animal
Nutrition:

Macro-Minerals in Animal
Nutrition:
• Sulfur:
• Sulfur is a Component of many Important Compounds in the body of Farm Animals.
• Sulfur Containing Amino Acids: Methionine, Cysteine, and Cystine.
• Sulfur is a Component of the B-Vitamins Biotin and
Thiamin
• Sulfur is a Component of Chondroitin Sulfate, which is a building block of Cartilage and the Organic Matrix of
Bone.
• Sulfur is a Component of Heparin a major Anticoagulant in the Blood.
• Sulfur is a Component of Important Enzymes:
Glutathione, Coenzyme A.

drsircus.com
Functions of Sulfur in Farm
Animals:
• Sulfur has some function as Extracellular
Electrolyte
• Sulfur is important in some Detoxification
Reactions in the body.
goatbiology.com
glutathionine.net

Functions of Sulfur in Farm
Animals: heparinscience.com
holisticvanity.ca
slideshare.net

classroom.sdmesa.edu
Coenzyme A
Functions of Sulfur in Farm
Animals: tabiochemistrystar.wordpress.com

Functions of Sulfur in Farm
Animals:
• Feathers, Wool, and Hair are relatively high in Sulfur. slideshare.net

Sulfur Regulation in the Body of Farm Animals:
• Sulfur Regulation, like that of Magnesium, is not well understood and is controlled by Passive Processes of absorption and excretion.
• Total Body Sulfur Balance is Tied to Sulfur-Containing
Compounds in the body: sulfur-containing amino acids, etc.

Sulfur Regulation in the Body of Farm Animals: mdpi.com
openi.nlm.nih.gov

Feed or Source
Alfalfa Hay, midbloom
Grass Hay, midbloom
Corn Silage
Corn Grain
Barley Grain
Wheat Middlings
Soybean Hulls
Soybean Meal
Cottonseed Meal
Corn Distillers Dried Grains
Calcium Sulfate
Sodium Sulfate
Dynamate
Sulfur Sources for Farm
Animals:
.11
.41
.42
.70
18.62
9.95
22.00
Sulfur, % of DM
.27
.18
.13
.14
.16
.20
harmonyorganics.net

Sulfur Problems and
Deficiency:
• Sulfur Deficiency can be manifest in several ways in farm animals:
• Poor Growth is of course one manifestation
• Since sulfur is a major component of Feathers, Hair, and
Wool poor feather, hair, and wool growth is a sign of Sulfur
Deficiency. takingstock.asas.org

Sulfur Problems and
Deficiency:
• Ammoniating Low-Quality Forages such as straw and stalks Increases Available Energy and Crude Protein of the forage.
• Increased Crude Protein is from Non-Protein Nitrogen
(NPN).
• Sulfur Supplementation is very important in ruminant diets high in NPN for microbial synthesis of sulfur amino acids.
• Senior Research Project of former student:
Diet
Control
Negative Control
Positive Control
Alfalfa Hay, %
100
20
19.75
Ammon. Straw,% Calcium sulfate% Fleece weight lbs
--
80
79.75
--
--
.5
9.4
7.6
9.1

Sulfur Problems and
Deficiency:
• Too Much Sulfur can also be a problem.
• With the advent of the Ethanol for Fuel Age, there is an abundance of Corn Distillers Dried Grains available for
Animal Feeds, with a relatively low price.
Feed Sulfur, % of DM
Soybean Meal .41
Corn Distillers Dried Grains .70
• Very High Sulfur Intake from the Diet and/or Water can result in a high incidence of Polioencephalomalacia in Ruminant Animals, mainly cattle.
• Apparently in some way Sulfur Interferes with Thiamin
(B-Vitamin) Metabolism.
• Nerve Tissues such as the Brain are very sensitive Thiamin
Deficiency.

Sulfur Problems and
Deficiency:
• Some have hypothesized that the formation of Hydrogen
Sulfide in the Rumen is the cause of
Poleoencephalomalacia, but most animals respond to
Thiamin Injections. flockandherd.net.au

dsm.com
Sulfur Problems and
Deficiency:

Sulfur Problems and
Deficiency:
• Mineral Antagonisms:

Sulfur Problems and
Deficiency:
• From the Mineral Interaction Wheel above it can be seen that Dietary Sulfur will react with 7 other dietary minerals: Lead, Selenium, Calcium, Copper,
Molybdenum, Zinc, and Silicon.
• Most Important of these Interactions is that High Dietary
Sulfur can Interfere with the utilization of Copper,
Molybdenum, and Selenium.
• The following data were collected from cow-calf pairs grazing pastures irrigated with High-Sulfate Water:
Item
Calf Weaning Weight, lbs.
Calf Weaning
Percentage, %
High-Sulfate Drinking
Water
450
83
High-Sulfate Drinking
Water + Copper
470
88
Quality Drinking Water from a Well.
487
91

Analyzing Feeds for Sulfur
Content:
• Flame Emission Spectrophotometry: etslab.com
• Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry: resumehi.net

Macro-Minerals in Animal
Nutrition:
• Sodium, Potassium, Chlorine:
• Although there are several minerals considered to
Electrolytes, these are the Main Electrolytes.
• Electrolytes help maintain Osmotic Balance, Charge
Balance, and Acid-Base Balance. healthequations.com
apsubiology.org

knowledgedoor.com
Sodium Functions: fotolia.com

Sodium Functions:
• Major Extracellular Cation
• Most living things are equipped with a Sodium-Potassium
Pump that maintains a High Concentration of Sodium
Outside Cells and High Concentration of Potassium
Inside Cells.
iws.collin.edu
• Note that this ion pump Requires Energy.
• Much of the energy required to Maintain Life is associated with this pump.

Sodium Functions:
• It is by means of the Sodium-Potassium Pump that Nerve
Impulses are Generated.
slideshare.net
biologymad.com
biologymad.com
biologymad.com

Sodium Function:
• Sodium Ions must be present for the Absorption of Some
Nutrients.
• Note the importance of Potassium in this system.

Regulation of Sodium in the
Body of Farm Animals:
• Regulation of Sodium in the body is Mainly Through
Kidney Function precisionnutrition.com
studyblue.com

Sources of Sodium for Farm
Animals:
• Unlike most other minerals, Farm Animals have been equipped with a Specific Appetite/Craving for Sodium.
• Ruminant Farm Animals will Travel Many Miles to obtain
Sodium (Salt).
• Animals deficient in Sodium can Recognize/Distinguish
Feeds High in Sodium.
• In some areas Water can be an Important Source of
Sodium.

Feed
Alfalfa Hay
Grass Hay
Corn Grain
Barley Grain
Soybean Meal
Cottonseed Meal
Corn Distillers Dried Grains
Salt
Sodium Bicarbonate
Sources of Sodium for Farm
Animals:
Sodium, % of DM
.12
.05
.01
.03
.04
.07
.24
39.34
27.00
angusbeefbulletin.com

Sodium Problems and
Deficiency:
• The Specific Craving for Sodium is Intensified by Sodium
Deficiency.
• Don’t place you hand into a pen of sodium deficient hogs!
• Young Rapidly Growing Animals fed Cereal Grain-
Based Diets without access to supplement sodium.
• Animals in Heavy Lactation without access to supplemental sodium.
• Animals with Heavy Sweat Losses such Hard Work and/or Hot Climates without access to supplemental sodium.
• In Sodium Deficient Animals, Daily Gain is reduced by
half and Feed Efficiency is reduced. Sodium deficient hogs requiring 174 lbs. more feed per 100 lbs. of gain compared to sodium adequate hogs.

rancherruth.blogspot.com
Sodium Problems and
Deficiency:

Sodium Problems and
Deficiency:
• In Poultry Egg Production can be Reduced by 80% with
Sodium Deficiency and Hatchability of Eggs is greatly impaired.
• The Sodium Craving in Ruminants can result in Aggressive
Behavior. I have had sodium deficient beef cows follow me and my sweaty horse for miles and I didn’t dare stop. My
Grandpa called them Salt Starved.
• Even a Slight Sodium Deficiency in Dairy Cows can Reduce
Milk Production by 50%.
• Tropical Grass Species are usually much Lower in
Sodium than Temperate Species.
• Feeds High in Potassium Relative to Sodium Content will
Increase Sodium Requirement and Aggravate a
Deficiency.

Sodium Problems and
Deficiency:
• Animals consuming Succulent Forages such as fresh pasture forages or silages will usually
Require More Sodium (Salt) than those consuming Dried Forages of the same quality.
• Certain Disease Conditions such as Kidney or
Adrenal Gland Failure can result in Excessive
Sodium Loss.
• Excessive Vomiting and/or Diarrhea will also result in Excessive Sodium Loss.
nadis.org.uk

Sodium Problems and
Deficiency:

Limiting Intake of Cattle
Supplements Using Salt:
• Supplementing Cattle with Grain or Protein
Supplements on large expanses of Rangelands can be problematic.
• Salt can be used to Limit the Intake of Self-Fed
Supplements.
Desired Intake of Supplement,
% of Body Weight
.10
.25
.50
.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
Salt Needed in Supplement to
Limit Intake, % of Mix
40%
28%
17%
12%
9%
7%
6%

Limiting Intake of Cattle
Supplements Using Salt
• Example: You want supplement 1200 lb. beef cows with
1.25 lbs. of Soybean Meal/day 1.25 ÷ 1200 X 100 =
.104% of Body Weight 40% Salt.
• You would make a Mixture of 40% Plain White Mixing
Salt (not mineralized salt) and 60% Soybean Meal.
• Sometimes these mixtures are called Salt Meals.
• Coarsely Ground Salt works a bit better than finely ground salt.
• Feeder must give Protection from Wind and Rain. I have seen 4 tons of a salt meal similar to this Blow Away in one night.
• Salt Meals should be located within ½ mile of an Unlimited
Supply of Clean Drinking Water.
• Of course Salt Meals are not recommended on High-Salt
Soils.

Limiting Intake of Cattle
Supplements Using Salt theguardian.com
g.ndsu.edu
acres.nmsu.edu

Sodium (Salt) Toxicity
• I have witnessed Salt Toxicity only once when a salt meal supplement was being used Too Far From Drinking
Water.
• High Levels of Salt Intake can be Tolerated if Plenty of
Clean Drinking Water is Available.
• Signs of Salt Toxicity Include Loss of Appetite, Edema,
Nervousness, Blindness, Deafness, Paralysis, Death.

Analyzing Feeds for Sodium
Content:
• Flame Emission Spectrophotometry: etslab.com
• Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry: resumehi.net

Potassium Functions: knowledgedoor.com
evolutionnews.com

Potassium Functions:
• Potassium is a Major Intracellular Electrolyte Providing
75% of Cations.
Sodium is the Major Extracellular Electrolyte Providing
95% of the Extracellular Cations.
• Potassium Function in Exchange with Sodium in the
Sodium-Potassium Cellular Ion Pump System en.wikipedia.org

Potassium Functions:
• The Sodium-Potassium Pump function in Cellular
Absorption of Many Nutrients.
uspharmacist.com
zuniv.net

Potassium Functions:
• Potassium is Important in Nerve Impulse Transmission ibbiology.wikifoundry.com

Potassium Regulation in the
Body of Farm Animals:
• Like Sodium, Maintenance of Potassium Concentration in the Body is Complex and Controlled Mainly by
Processes in the Kidneys. en.wikibooks.org

Potassium Sources for Farm
Animals:
Feed or Source
Alfalfa Hay, midbloom
Grass Hay, midbloom
Corn Silage
Corn Grain
Barley Grain
Wheat Middlings
Soybean Hulls
Soybean Meal
Cottonseed Meal
Corn Distillers Dried Grains
Potassium Chloride
Potassium Bicarbonate
Dynamate
1.3
2.2
1.6
.9
50.00
39.05
18.00
Potassium. %DM
2.5
2.6
1.1
.4
.6
1.2
harmonyorganics.net

Potassium Problems and
Deficiency:
• One of the initial signs of Potassium Deficiency is Loss of Appetite Decreased Growth Rate.
• Then Muscular Weakness, Stiffness, Paralysis.
• Potassium Deficient Sheep will sometimes exhibit Wool
Biting, pulling tufts of wool from themselves.
• Potassium Deficiency seldom occurs on practical diets, however Stress can increase Potassium Loss from the body and can induce deficiency over time.
• Calves arriving at Feedlots after Long Transit Times are often Potassium Deficient due mainly to Stress and are fed a Receiving Diet that is High in Potassium.
• Ruminants have Higher Potassium Requirements than other Farm Animals
• Potassium Losses associated with Heavy Sweating or
Diarrhea can result in Potassium Deficiency

Potassium Problems and
Deficiency:

Analyzing Feeds for Potassium
Content:
• Flame Emission Spectrophotometry: etslab.com
• Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry: resumehi.net

Chlorine Functions:

Chlorine Functions:
• Chlorine accounts for 67% of Body Anions and is Mainly
Located in Extracellular Fluids.
• As with Sodium and Potassium, Chlorines Major Functions are associated with Maintenance Cellular Osmotic Pressure, Acid-
Base Balance, Charge Balance.
• Chlorine is Required for the Synthesis of Hydrochloric Acid by
Parietal Cells in the Stomach, which is required to Initiate
Protein Digestion and also Functions as an Antimicrobial.

Chlorine Functions: nx.org
drouald.faculty.mjc.edu

Chlorine Regulation in the
Body of Farm Animals:
• Chlorine Regulation in the Body is Similar to that of
Sodium and Potassium en.wikipedia.org

Feed or Source
Alfalfa Hay, midbloom
Grass Hay, midbloom
Corn Silage
Corn Grain
Barley Grain
Wheat Middlings
Soybean Hulls
Soybean Meal
Cottonseed Meal
Corn Distillers Dried Grains
Sodium Chloride
Ammonium Chloride
Calcium Chloride
Chlorine Sources:
.02
.07
.05
.14
60.66
66.00
63.89
Chlorine, % DM
.38
.51
.20
.05
.18
.05

Dietary Fats and Oils: