THE MODERATING EFFECT OF COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT ON THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPIRITUALITY AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING
A Thesis
Presented to the faculty of the Department of Psychology
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
in
Psychology
(Counseling Psychology)
by
Nassiba Cherif
SPRING
2013
© 2013
Nassiba Cherif
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ii
THE MODERATING EFFECT OF COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT ON THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPIRITUALITY AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING
A Thesis
by
Nassiba Cherif
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Marya Endriga, Ph.D.
__________________________________, Second Reader
Rebecca Cameron, Ph.D.
__________________________________, Third Reader
Jianjian Qin, Ph.D.
____________________________
Date
iii
Student: Nassiba Cherif
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University
format manual, and that this thesis is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to
be awarded for the thesis.
__________________________, Graduate Coordinator
Jianjian Qin, Ph.D.
Department of Psychology
iv
___________________
Date
Abstract
of
THE MODERATING EFFECT OF COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT ON THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPIRITUALITY AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING
by
Nassiba Cherif
The purpose of this study was to examine the moderating effect of community involvement on
the relationship between psychological well-being and spirituality. University students (N = 168)
completed questionnaires that measured levels of psychological well-being, spirituality and
community involvement. I hypothesized that both spirituality and community involvement would
be predictors of psychological well-being. I also hypothesized that higher levels of community
involvement would strengthen the relationship between psychological well-being and spirituality.
Results indicated that spirituality was a strong predictor of psychological well-being. Community
involvement was not a significant predictor of psychological well-being. A three-step hierarchical
regression showed that when both higher levels of community involvement and spirituality were
present, they were significantly associated with higher levels of psychological well-being.
_______________________, Committee Chair
Marya Endriga, Ph.D.
_______________________
Date
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Marya Endriga, for her guidance and for
always knowing what I needed to proceed in my academic journey and achieve my goal.
I also want to thank my readers, Dr. Qin and Dr. Cameron for their support and feedback.
I would like to acknowledge and thank Ting Ting Lee, Daniella Echeveste, and Kellie
Sturgeon for helping me with my data entry and analysis and for always being there to
answer my questions. Finally, I want to thank my family and my friends, especially my
children Leila, Anissa, and Sam for their unconditional emotional support, patience, and
encouragement. Last but not least, I want to thank my dear friend, Dr. Laurel Benhamida,
whose continuous support will never be forgotten.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. vi
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ix
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ x
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………....……………………...….... 1
Psychological Well-Being ........................................................................................... 1
Spirituality ................................................................................................................... 6
Community Involvement ............................................................................................. 9
Hypotheses ................................................................................................................. 12
2. METHOD ......................................................................................................................... 13
Participants................................................................................................................. 13
Measures .................................................................................................................... 15
Procedure ................................................................................................................... 18
Analysis Plan ............................................................................................................. 18
3. RESULTS ......................................................................................................................... 20
4. DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................... 28
Practical Implications ................................................................................................ 33
Limitations and Future Directions ............................................................................. 35
Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 36
Appendix A. SPWB .............................................................................................................. 37
Appendix B. DSES ............................................................................................................... 43
vii
Appendix C. YII ................................................................................................................... 45
Appendix D. Demographic Questionnaire ............................................................................ 48
References ............................................................................................................................... 49
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Tables
Page
1.
Summary of Participants Characteristics ............................................................ 14
2.
Means, Standard Deviation, and Cronbach’s Alpha for Predictor and
Dependent Variables ............................................................................................20
3.
Bivariate Correlations of Covariates, Dependent, and Independent
Variables ............................................................................................................. 21
4.
Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting
Psychological Well-Being ...................................................................................24
5.
Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Age and Community
Involvement Predicting Psychological Well-Being .............................................27
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figures
1.
Page
Plots of Interaction Effects of Psychological Well-Being, Spirituality, and
Different Levels of Community Involvement......................................................25
x
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
In the last century, research in clinical and counseling psychology has focused
primarily on how to effectively diagnose and treat psychopathology. Most of the current
research still involves investigating the efficacy of new drugs, treatments, and risk factors
in the predisposition and causes of mental illness (Diener, Suh, Lucas & Smith, 1999;
Ryff & Singer, 1996). In the last few decades however, researchers have become
increasingly interested in psychological well-being. The term well-being originated in
theology and philosophy and it described the concept of what is ultimately good for a
person (Crisp, 2008; Jahoda, 1958). Well-being was then introduced in positive
psychology as a term describing positive mental health in the absence of mental illness
(Bradburn, 1969; Jahoda, 1958; Ryff, 1996).
Psychological Well-Being
Psychological well-being (PWB) is a dynamic concept that includes subjective,
social, psychological, and health-related behaviors (Ryff & Singer, 1998). Psychological
well-being refers to the experience of growth and thriving when faced by existential
challenges of life, which include pursuing meaningful goals, growing and developing as a
person, and establishing and maintaining healthy relationships with others (Bradburn,
1969; Jahoda, 1958; Keyes, Shmotkin & Ryff, 2002). Ryff and Keyes (1995) presented a
multidimensional approach to the measurement of psychological well-being that taps six
distinct aspects of human actualization: autonomy, personal growth, self-acceptance, life
2
purpose, mastery, and positive relatedness. These six constructs define psychological
well-being both theoretically and operationally, and they specify what promotes
emotional and physical health (Ryff & Singer 1998).
Attaining and maintaining higher levels of psychological well-being throughout
life is considered an important aspect of healthy development (Baltes & Baltes, 1990).
Longitudinal studies show that overall psychological well-being does not change
significantly and remains stable over time (Cummins & Nistico, 2002; Fujita & Diener,
2005). Specifically, higher levels of psychological well-being in younger adults were
found to be correlated with higher levels of psychological well-being in those same
individuals at older ages (Iwasaki & Smale, 1998; Messersmith & Schulenberg, 2010).
Iwasaki and Smale (1998) also found that levels of psychological well-being may be
impacted during difficult times and may temporarily decrease. Over time, however,
psychological well-being levels return to their original state prior to traumatic or difficult
experiences. Thus, examining correlates of psychological well-being in younger adults
may shed light on what aspects of psychological well-being may be important to maintain
and enhance throughout the lifespan in order for adults to have more fulfilling lives.
Psychological well-being is considered to be a protective factor against poor
mental health and is associated with better physical health, which improves quality of life
(Friedli, 2009; Iwaski & Smale, 1998; Liu, Shono & Kitamura, 2009). Individuals who
have higher levels of psychological well-being are better able to cope with major
stressors and negative life experiences (Friedli, 2009). Wood and Joseph (2010)
conducted a ten-year longitudinal study assessing the relationship between symptoms of
3
depression and psychological well-being in a large cohort of elderly population. They
found that people who had lower levels of psychological well-being were more than
seven times more likely to suffer from depression ten years later. Boehm, Peterson,
Kivimaki and Kubzansky (2011) also found that higher levels of psychological wellbeing are linked to better health, and reduced risks of coronary heart disease among
middle aged males and females. Buono, Urciuou and De Leo (1998) assessed life
satisfaction in three different elderly groups, and found that the oldest participants who
had reached 100 years or older had higher level of psychological well-being and life
satisfaction despite similarities in health problems and cognitive functioning, suggesting
a positive correlation between longevity and higher levels of psychological wellbeing. McFarquhar and Bowling (2009) conducted a longitudinal study in Britain and
found a strong relationship between psychological well-being and active aging, which is
the process of optimizing opportunities for health, participation in the family and
community, and feelings of security. Furthermore, they found that elderly individuals
who had higher levels of psychological well-being perceived that they led more fulfilling
lifestyles and were less likely to be isolated.
Past research has investigated different factors associated with psychological
well-being, including gender, age, employment, education, physical and psychological
health, major life events, and spirituality (Friedli, 2009; Lee & Browne, 2008; Iwasaki
and Smale, 1998; Mock and Eibach, 2011; Pinquart & Sorenten, 2000; Ryff, 1996; Starks
and Hughey, 2003). Researchers investigating the relationship between gender and
psychological well-being generally find that women tend to report higher psychological
4
well-being than men (Lee and Browne, 2000; Ryff, 1996). This is consistent with
research that suggests that women in general tend to experience and report more
frequency and intensity of positive and negative feelings than men (Simon & Nath,
2004). However, the relationship between gender and psychological well-being appears
to fluctuate depending on various factors, life events, and experiences. For example,
Iwasaki and Smale (1998) conducted longitudinal studies and found that for women,
psychological well-being tends to decrease when they became widows, but for men,
psychological well-being decreased when they became unemployed.
Age is another factor that has been associated with psychological well-being.
Results of studies are mixed and often conflicting. Some studies have shown a positive
relationship between psychological well-being and increasing age (Keyes, Shmotkin, and
Ryff, 2002; Lee & Browne, 2008; Pinquart & Sorenen, 2000), while others show a
negative correlation (Iwasaki & Smale, 1998) and many show no significant relationship
(Starks and Hughey, 2003). Diener, Suh, Lucas and Smith (1999) and Warr (1978)
conducted an extensive review of the research investigating the relationship between age
and psychological well-being and found that, more often than not, when other variables
such as income, relationship status, and coping skills are controlled, any significant
relationship is eliminated. Furthermore, attitudes toward aging may affect how people
feel and may impact their levels of psychological well-being. In a longitudinal study done
by Mock and Eibach (2011), results showed that when participants have more positive
attitudes toward aging, their psychological well-being levels were generally higher than
those who viewed aging less favorably.
5
Similarly to age studies, research investigating the relationship of other
demographic factors with psychological well-being has yielded conflicting results.
Unemployment for example, has been shown to be associated with lower levels of PWB
(Warr, 1978), however when other variables are controlled, the relationship is attenuated.
A meta-analysis conducted by McKee-Ryan, Song, Wanberg and Kinicki (2005)
suggested that unemployment and job loss bring about secondary stresses such as worry,
uncertainty, financial difficulties, and possibly strained family or marital relationships.
With appropriate coping skills, social support, and resources, however, psychological
well-being levels are not as impacted by unemployment. Another meta-analysis done by
Pinquart and Sorensen (2000) confirms McKee-Ryan et al.’s findings and reports that the
loss of employment is not associated with lower levels of psychological well-being when
there is presence of social support. Lee and Browne (2000) found that levels of
psychological well-being were negatively impacted by unemployment, however the
impact is not as strong for older participants than the younger ones. For education,
research results have not been consistent as well. Keyes, Shmotkin, and Ryff (2002)
found that higher education was positively correlated with higher levels of psychological
well-being for older individuals more than the younger ones and for males more than
females. Starks and Hughey (2003) found a similar positive correlation between
psychological well-being and education; however, there were no age or gender
differences.
Overall, existing studies show different and conflicting results and associations of
psychological well-being with other factors, depending on the aim of the studies and the
6
types of variables controlled. These conflicting results also indicate that psychological
well-being is a complex construct that may be directly or indirectly affected by or
associated with demographic factors. Furthermore, some of the social expectations and
extrinsically motivating goals such as employment, wealth, and education may not
always be fulfilling to individuals as they may feel pressured to accomplish those goals
not because they want to but because society expects them to (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
Intrinsically motivated behaviors are behaviors that are internally motivated without any
expectations for rewards. Deci and Ryan (2008) proposed that intrinsically motivated
behaviors are more likely to positively impact and enhance levels of psychological wellbeing. Spirituality is considered to be an intrinsically motivated behavior (Ryan & Deci,
2000), and researchers are increasingly investigating its relationship with psychological
well-being.
Spirituality
Spirituality is defined as the search for meaning and purpose in life, which may or
may not be related to a belief in God or some higher power (Johnston & Mayers, 2005).
The concept also relates to the notion of an intrinsically motivating life force, which
involves an integration of the dimensions of mind, body and spirit. Spirituality shapes
individuals’ perspectives on the world and is expressed in the way that they live life
(Johnston and Mayers, 2005). Individuals who identify as spiritual believe that their
spirituality affects other facets of their lives such as their decision making, their
relationships with others, and the way they deal with everyday situations (Lee, Kelly &
Cyphers, 2009). Spirituality helps people interpret their experiences and gives meaning to
7
them (Lee, 2007; Yoon, 2006). When people experience negative life events such as
divorce or loss of loved ones, they can derive strength from their spirituality, give
positive meaning to negative events, and accept them as an opportunity for spiritual
growth and reflection upon life (Collins, 2006).
Similarly to psychological well-being, spirituality also appears to be a protective
factor in the context of psychological and physical problems and life transitions.
Spirituality has been associated with lower depressive symptoms, anxiety, and drug and
alcohol use and abuse (Koenig & Larson, 2001, Koenig, 2010). In addition, when people
suffered from depression, those who were more spiritual were able to overcome their
depression sooner than those who were not spiritual (Koenig, 2010). Spirituality was
associated with lower levels of depression and faster healing in a rural sample of elderly
participants (Yoon, 2006; Yoon & Lee, 2004). The participants reported that they drew
from their spirituality when they had to cope with illnesses, bereavement, anticipated
death, and other adversities. Spirituality also encourages acceptance as part of fate and
reliance on a higher power, which is especially important when people endure difficult
life experiences. Butler and Ciarrochi (2007) found that more acceptance was associated
with higher PWB in the elderly population despite the declines in physical health and
productivity. Spirituality has been positively associated with various areas of functioning
and is considered beneficial for increased life satisfaction (Yoon, 2006; Yoon & Lee,
2004; Koenig & Larson, 2001). Spirituality was also found to be a strong predictor for
adjustment to negative or challenging life experiences (Kneipp, Kelly & Cyphers, 2009).
College students, for example, go through many changes including separation from
8
family, adjusting to new environment, new friends, and academic expectations.
Sreekumar (2008) found that students who are spiritual adjust much better than those
who are not. He further explained that students may find relief in meditation, prayers, and
reliance on a higher being or a greater force to give them strength and peace (Sreekumar,
2008).
Spirituality has been found to be a major predictor of psychological well-being
(Sreekumar, 2008; Yoon, 2006; Yoon & Lee, 2004). Koenig (2010) reported that
spirituality may be important for PWB for numerous reasons, including fostering a
positive world view, meaning and purpose in life, personal empowerment, a sense of
control, and guidance for decision making. Koenig and Larson (2001) conducted a
systematic review of 100 studies and found that 80% of them found spirituality and
religious beliefs to be positively correlated with psychological well-being, life
satisfaction, positive affect and happiness. The 100 studies included twelve prospective
cohort studies that followed the same group of participants over a period of time. Ten out
of the twelve studies reported that religiosity and spirituality predicted higher levels of
psychological well-being. Spirituality was found to be especially important for minority
groups and immigrant populations as it provides a sense of continued connection to
familiar values, maintains self-identity, and is associated with increased life satisfaction
(Starks & Hughey, 2003; Yoon & Lee, 2004). In addition, Yoon and Lee (2004) found
that spirituality was a stronger predictor of life satisfaction in the elderly minority groups
compared to Caucasians.
9
Community Involvement
The existing research has shown a consistent positive correlation between
psychological well-being and spirituality; however, none of the research investigated the
potential moderating effect of community involvement. Community involvement is
commonly associated with religiosity and religious attendance in places of worship, but
not with spirituality. For example, Tienen, Scheepers, Reitsma, and Schilderman (2011)
investigated the relationship between religiosity, spirituality, and volunteering. They
found that spirituality was not associated with volunteering when participants did not
attend religious services. Community involvement has been defined as ongoing, planned,
and discretionary prosocial behavior that benefits non-intimate others and offers little or
no tangible reward (Penner, 2002). Community involvement is also considered to be an
intrinsically motivating behavior. Finkelstien (2009) found that volunteering was
associated with higher intrinsic motivation and internal motives. Ryan and Deci (2000)
suggested that intrinsically motivated behaviors have greater potential for enhancing
levels of psychological well-being. Most people consider community involvement as
simply providing services or helping others. However, people who are involved in their
communities eventually gain so much more in return. Research shows that community
involvement fosters healthy identity formation during adolescence. Erikson’s
developmental theory suggests that adolescents move towards identity achievement or
identity confusion. Identity achievement is the process of integrating relevant
identifications to form a unique sense of self. Identity confusion occurs when adolescents
lack direction and commitment to form their own identities (Crocetti, Jahromi, & Meeus,
10
2012). A longitudinal study done by Hardy, Pratt, Pancer, Olsen and Lawford (2010)
found that greater community involvement was associated with increases in identity
achievement. In addition, the participants showed decreased identity confusion and
overall experienced greater maturity when they were involved in their communities
compared to those who were not. Research also shows that for youth, community
involvement acts as a protective factor against suicide, gang affiliation, substance abuse,
and defiant behaviors (Froh, Kashdan, Yurkewicz, Fan, Allen & Glowacki, 2010; Hull,
Kilbourne, Reece & Husaini, 2008; McMahon, Singh, Garner & Benhorin, 2004).
Community involvement in a variety of settings has protective effects on mental health,
and is associated with less emotional distress and better coping skills in adolescents
living in disadvantaged neighborhoods (Hull, Kilbourne, Reece & Husaini, 2008).
Furthermore, higher risk adolescents are less likely to commit crimes and less likely to
become involved in gangs when they are involved in activities in their communities
(Froh, et al., 2010). Adolescents and young adults who do not have positive role models
or have absent parents may benefit from their involvement in their community as it
provides them with alternative positive role models and peer groups which can provide
emotional, physical, and psychological support during this already difficult
developmental stage.
Community involvement provides various opportunities for learning social,
interpersonal, and leadership skills, which may contribute to individuals’ feeling
positively about themselves and having an increased sense of competence (Guerra,
Demain, Figueiredo, De Sousa, 2012). McMahon, Singh, Garner, and Benhorin (2004)
11
found that more frequent involvement of youth in community activities predicted a
greater sense of empowerment and a sense of control which may lead to involvement in
social change. Involvement in various community activities is also associated with higher
levels of self-esteem in children and youth (McMahon, Singh, Garner & Benhorin, 2004;
Jimenez, Musitu, Ramos & Murgui, 2009).
Older adults can benefit from community involvement as well. Daoud et al.,
(2010) found that when older adults were involved in their community providing services
to others, they experienced a sense of appreciation, fulfillment, and achievement, which
then became the motivating factors in continuing to volunteer. Community involvement
can also provide the positive social support that tends to gradually diminish with older
age.
Research investigating the relationship between community involvement and
psychological well-being is very limited. Klar and Kasser (2009) found that college
students who were involved in social or political causes, even briefly, were more likely to
have higher levels of psychological well-being than students who were not involved.
Yoon and Lee (2010) conducted a study investigating the relationship between
psychological well-being and social connectedness, which is associated with community
involvement, in a sample of Korean immigrants. They found that social connectedness
was a predictor of psychological well-being, and was essential for those who culturally
value strong social connections. Other studies suggested that community involvement
may indirectly impact psychological well-being, by providing an increased sense of self-
12
satisfaction, solidarity, and cohesion (Daoud, et al, 2010; Momtaz, Hamid, Ibrahim,
Yahaya & Chai, 2011).
Hypotheses
The present study examined the relationship between levels of psychological
well-being, Spirituality, and Community Involvement. As in the existing research, I
hypothesized that higher spirituality would be significantly positively correlated with
higher levels of psychological well-being. In addition, I hypothesized that Community
Involvement would moderate the relationship between spirituality and psychological
well-being.
Hypothesis 1: Spirituality will be a significant positive predictor of psychological
well-being.
Hypothesis 2: Community Involvement will be a significant positive predictor of
psychological well-being.
Hypothesis 3: The interaction between spirituality and community involvement will
account for a significant portion of the variance in psychological well-being beyond
what is explained by the individual predictor variables. It is expected that the
relationship between spirituality and psychological well-being will be strengthened
with increases in community involvement.
13
Chapter 2
METHOD
Participants
Participants were 168 undergraduate students who were recruited from the subject
pool of the Psychology Department of California State University, Sacramento.
Participants were able to sign up for this study through the departmental website, and
received research participation credit. There were no restrictions to participate in this
study. The demographics of gender, age, education, employment status, ethnicity, and
spiritual or religious affiliation were collected. The consent forms advised participants
where to receive psychological services if they experienced emotionally painful
recollections and assured them they could discontinue participation at any time without
penalty.
Table 1 presents demographic information about participants in the sample. The
sample was largely female and age 20 or younger. Participants were fairly well
distributed across the class standings, and more students worked part-time than full-time
or unemployed. Participants were diverse in terms of ethnicity. “Other” ethnicity group
consisted of American Indian/Alaska Native (n = 2 or 1.2%), Pacific Islander (n = 3, or
1.8%), and Middle Eastern (n = 2 or 1.2%). Highest representation of spiritual/religious
affiliation were Catholics, Christians, and Atheists. “Other” affiliation consisted of 1.8%
Buddhists, 1.8% Hindus, 1.8% Muslims, 1.8% Shamanists, and 7.8 % other.
14
Table 1
Summary of Participant Characteristics
Total Sample
(N = 168)
Demographic Variable
Gender
Male
Female
Prefer not to state
Age
20 and younger
21 to 30
31 to 40
41 and older
Education
Freshmen
Sophomore
Junior
Senior
Employment
Full-time (30 hours or more per week)
Part time (29 hours or less per week)
Not currently employed
Ethnicity
White/Caucasian
Hispanic/Latino
Asian
Black/African American
Other
Religious Affiliation
Catholic
Christian
Atheist/None
Agnostic
Other
N
%
42
125
1
25.0
74.4
0.6
97
63
5
3
57.7
37.5
3.0
1.8
24
50
56
38
14.3
29.8
33.3
22.6
17
87
64
10.1
51.8
38.1
59
40
34
11
24
35.1
23.8
20.2
6.5
14.3
59
42
34
7
26
35.1
25.0
20.2
4.2
15.5
15
Measures
Scales of Psychological Well-being (SPWB)
To assess psychological well-being, Ryff’s (1989) Scales of Psychological WellBeing (SPWB) was used. The 84-item questionnaire includes six sub-scales: SelfAcceptance, Environmental Mastery, Positive Relations With Others, Personal Growth,
Purpose in Life, and Autonomy. Each scale consists of 14 items. Each item is responded
to on a Likert-like scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 6 (Strongly Agree) scale.
Forty negative items were reverse coded as advised by the literature so that higher scores
on the questionnaire reflect the presence of more positive appraisals, and therefore higher
levels of psychological well-being. The following are examples of the items: “I tend to
worry what people think of me”, “I often feel overwhelmed by my responsibilities”, “I
feel like I get a lot out of my friendships.” Springer and Hauser (2003) conducted an
extensive assessment of this scale and caution against using and interpreting individual
subscales. For this study, all responses were computed into a total score. Higher scores
indicate higher levels of psychological well-being. The questionnaire was validated with
college students and older adults, and has been translated into different languages and
validated with linguistically and culturally diverse populations (Burns & Machin, 2009;
Carme, Feliciano, Carme & Montserrat, 2007; Van Dierendonck, 2004). Ryff (1989)
reported the range of reliability between .86 and .93, test-retest reliability ranged from .81
to .85. Cenkseven (2004) reported an internal consistency ranging from .83 to .79 and
test-retest reliability ranging from .74 and .84 (Appendix A).
16
The Daily Spiritual Experience Scale (DSES)
To assess spirituality, the Daily Spiritual Experience Scale (DSES) (Underwood,
2006) was used. This 16-item self-report scale was designed to measure ordinary spiritual
experiences of the participants’ relationship with the “divine” and “awareness of the
transcendent” (Underwood, 2006). Underwood (2006) provides the following description
at the beginning of the scale for individuals who do not associate with any particular
religious beliefs or concepts but identify as being spiritual: “A number of items use the
word ‘God.’ If you feel this word is not a comfortable one for you, please substitute
another word that calls to mind the divine or holy for you.” Items 1-15 are responded to
on a 6-point Likert-like scale (Many times a day, Every day, Most days, Some days, Once
in a while, Never). Some examples of the items are “I find strength in my religion or
spirituality”, “I am spiritually touched by the beauty of creation”, “I feel a selfless caring
for others.” Item 16, “In general, how close do you feel to God?” was responded to on a
4-point Likert-like scale with the following response set: (Not at all, Somewhat close,
Very close, As close as possible.) Items 1-15 were reverse coded., and total scores were
computed. Higher scores indicated higher spirituality. This scale was validated with
spiritually diverse groups, which included Agnostics, Atheists, Buddhists, Christians,
Jews, and Muslims. Internal consistency reliability ranged between .89 and .95, and testretest correlation averaged .85 (Underwood & Teresi, 2002; Underwood, 2011)
(Appendix B).
17
The Youth Inventory of Involvement (YII)
To assess for community involvement, the Youth Inventory of Involvement (YII)
(Pancer, Pratt, Hunsberger & Alisat, 2007) was used. This 30-item scale assesses several
areas in which individuals can be involved such as politics, sports, arts and culture,
school affairs, and neighborhoods and communities. Participants indicated the extent to
which they had participated in each of the activities over the previous year on a Likertlike scale ranging from 1 (Never did this over the previous year) to 5 (Did this a lot over
the previous year). The following are sample questions: “Visited or helped out people
who were sick”, “Took care of other families’ children (on an unpaid basis)”,
“Participated in or helped a charity organization”, “Participated in an ethnic club or
organization.” The total scores were computed. Higher scores indicated higher levels of
community involvement. Cronbach’s Alpha ranged between .58 and .90, and test-retest
reliability was .49 to .61 (Underwood & Teresi, 2002; Underwood, 2011) (Appendix C).
Demographic Data Questionnaire
The participants completed a demographic questionnaire constructed by the
researcher. Questions about gender, age, educational level, employment, and ethnicity
were closed-ended, and the question about spiritual affiliation was open-ended
(Appendix D).
18
Procedure
Participants signed up for the study through the research department website. The
participants came into the research lab, and were led through the consent procedure. They
were given specific instructions on how to complete the survey packets. Participants were
then presented with the packets of questionnaires put together in a randomized order to
mitigate order effects. The packets included the Scales of Psychological Well-being
(SPWB), The Daily Spiritual Experience Scale (DSES), and The Youth Inventory of
Involvement (YII). The demographic questionnaire was included last within each packet.
After completing the packets and returning them to the researcher, the participants
received a debriefing form, which notified them of the purpose of the study, a brief
literature review, the hypotheses of the study, and the contact information of the
researcher. Participants were also provided contact information of the campus
psychological services in case of psychological discomfort arising from research
participation. The researcher answered any additional questions. Participants received
half an hour of research participation credit.
Analysis Plan
Exploratory analyses were performed to examine reliability of scales and
normality of the distributions. Next, correlations between variables were examined to
determine the directions of their relationships. Hierarchical Multiple Regression (HMR)
was used to assess the contribution of the predictor variables of spirituality and
community involvement. Age, gender, and employment were entered in the first step.
Spirituality and community involvement were entered in the second step, and the
19
interaction of spirituality and community involvement was entered in the third step to
assess for moderation effect.
20
Chapter 3
RESULTS
The means, standard deviations, and Cronbach’s alphas for both the predictors
and dependent variables in this sample are listed in Table 2. The average Cronbach’s
alpha reliability coefficient for psychological well-being (PSWB) was .96, which is very
high and supports the reliability findings of Ryff (1989) and Cenkseven (2004). The
Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficient for the spirituality measure (DSES) was .94,
which is high and supports the reliability findings which of (Underwood & Teresi, 2002;
Underwood, 2011). The Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficient for the community
involvement (YII) was .92, which is also high and supports the reliability findings of
Underwood and Teresi, (2002) and Underwood (2011).
Table 2
Means, Standard Deviations, and Cronbach’s Alpha for Predictor and Dependent
Variables
Cronbach’s
Variable
M
SD
Alpha
Psychological Well-Being
385.92
53.98
.96
Spirituality
57.99
19.08
.94
Community Involvement
70.84
21.69
.92
21
For correlation and regression analysis, three covariates were dichotomized. Ages
were split into two groups, “20 and younger” and “21 and older.” Employment was split
into “employed” and “unemployed”, and education was split into “freshmen and
sophomores” and “juniors and seniors.”
Bivariate correlations between the predictors, dependent variable, and covariates
are listed in Table 3. Higher levels of psychological well-being were significantly
correlated with higher levels of spirituality, higher education, older age and being female.
Higher levels of community involvement was associated with younger ages and higher
levels of spirituality.
Table 3
Bivariate Correlations of Covariates, Dependent, and Independent Variables (N=168)
Variables
1
1 PWB
-
2
3
4
5
6
2 Spirituality
.26***
-
3 Community
.09
.22**
-
4 Age
.19*
-.04
-.17*
-
5 Gender
-.16*
-.06
-.04
-.08
-
6 Employment
-.02
.13
-.11
-.03
.07
-
.24**
.02
-.20**
.69***
-.05
-.12
7 Education
Note. *p < .05, **p < .01, *** p < .001.
PWB: Psychological Well-Being.
7
-
22
An independent samples t-test showed a significant effect for gender with females
reporting higher psychological well-being (M = 390.49, SD = 51.77) than males (M =
370.21, SD = 59.45), t(165) = 2.11, p < .05., d = .04.
An independent samples t-test showed that participants 21 years and older (M =
397.28, SD = 49.62) reported significantly higher levels of psychological well-being than
participants who were 20 or younger (M = 376.49, SD = 55.94), t(166) = -2.49, p < .05.,
d = .04.
An independent samples t-test showed a significant effect for age, with
participants 20 years and younger reporting higher levels of community involvement
(M = 73.27, SD = 20.68) than participants 21 years and older (M = 66.82, SD = 22.23),
t(165) = 2.23, p < .05., d = .03.
An independent samples t-test showed that juniors and seniors had statistically
higher levels of psychological well-being (M = 396.77, SD = 47.79) than freshmen and
sophomores (M = 370.69, SD = 58.51), t(166) = -3.18, p < .01, d = .05.
Prior to conducting a hierarchical multiple regression analysis, the relevant
assumptions were tested. Assumptions for normality, linearity and homoscedasticity were
satisfied. There was no indication of singularity and multicollinearity. None of the
variables were highly correlated to each other. No extreme outliers were identified, and
random missing data were given a discrete numerical value.
A three-step hierarchical regression was conducted with psychological well-being
as the dependent variable. Age, gender, education, and employment were entered in step
one of the regression models as covariates. Spirituality and community involvement were
23
entered in step two. The interaction term of spirituality X community involvement was
entered in step three to analyze the moderating effect of community involvement. The
results in step one showed that only gender was a significant predictor of psychological
well-being, F(4, 161) = 4.26, p < .01, and the regression model accounted for 10% of the
variance of psychological well-being (R2 = .10, Adjusted R2 = .07). In step two, results
showed that spirituality was a significant predictor of psychological well-being, F(6, 159)
= 5.96, p < .005, and the model accounted for 17% of the variance (R2 = .17, Adjusted R2
= .14). Community involvement was not a significant predictor of psychological wellbeing. The interaction of Spirituality X Community was entered in the last step to assess
for a moderating effect. The model was statistically significant, F(7, 158) = 6.03, p <
.001, and accounted for 21% of the variance of psychological well-being (R2 = .21,
Adjusted R2 = .18). Table 4 contains a summary of the hierarchical regression analysis
predicting psychological well-being.
24
Table 4
Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Psychological
Well-Being
Step 1
Step 2
β
B
SE
Step 3
β
B
SE
β
Variable
B
SE
Constant
375.98
7.99
-
320.46
18.56
-
436.06
45.38
-
Gender
-24.81
9.45
-0.20**
-23.24
9.16
-0.19*
-26.42
9.08
-0.21*
Age
9.91
11.44
0.09
13.16
11.05
0.12
11.15
10.85
0.10
Employment
-0.39
8.48
-0.00
-2.77
8.29
-0.03
-1.56
8.13
-0.04
Education
19.80
11.44
0.18
19.25
11.11
0.18
21.41
10.92
0.20
Spirituality
0.72
0.21
0.25***
-1.13
0.75
-0.45
Community
0.19
0.19
0.08
-1.40
0.60
-0.56*
0.03
0.01
1.06**
SpiritXCom
R2 = .10
∆R2 = .08
∆R2 = .04
F(4, 161) = 4.26
F(6,159) = 5.51
F(7, 158) = 6.03
p < .01.
p < .001.
p < .001
Note. N = 168; *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .005. Ages were dichotomized into “20 and
younger” and “21 and older.” Employment was dichotomized into “employed” and
“unemployed.” Education was dichotomized into “freshmen and sophomores” and
“juniors and seniors.”
To interpret the interaction effects of levels of community involvement with
spirituality and psychological well-being, scores were split into three groups, high,
moderate, and low, and plotted (Howell, 2007). The interactions illustrated in Figure 1
show that higher levels of community involvement have stronger regression effects
25
(R2 = .14, r = .38), indicating a higher correlation between spirituality and psychological
well-being for participants who reported higher levels of community involvement. The
correlation between spirituality and psychological well-being for participants who
reported a moderate level of community involvement was slightly lower (R2 = .10,
r = .32). For participants with lower levels of community involvement, the correlation
between spirituality and psychological well-being was much lower (R2 = .01, r = .08).
….Low
----Moderate
____
High
Low R2 = 0.006
Mod. R2 = 0.104
High R2 = 0.144
Figure 1. Plots of Interaction Effects of Psychological Well-Being, Spirituality, and
Different Levels of Community Involvement.
26
An exploratory analysis was run based on the significant age differences found in
the independent samples t-tests for community involvement and psychological wellbeing. A two-step hierarchical regression was conducted with psychological well-being
as the dependent variable. Age and community involvement were entered in step one of
the regression model. The interaction term of Age X Community involvement was
entered in step two to analyze the moderating effect of age. The results in step one
showed that age was a significant predictor of psychological well-being, F(2, 164) =
4.70, p < .05, and accounted for 5% of the variance (R2 = .05, Adjusted R2 = .04).
Community involvement was not a significant predictor. In step two, the interaction term
was statistically significant, F(3, 163) = 6.20, p < .01, and accounted for 10% of the
variance of psychological well-being (R2 = .10, Adjusted R2 = .09). Table 5 contains a
summary of the hierarchical regression analysis predicting psychological well-being.
27
Table 5
Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Age and Community Involvement
Predicting Psychological Well-Being
Step 1
Step 2
Variable
B
SE
β
B
SE
Constant
328.74
20.11
-
337.14
19.85
-
Age
23.94
8.40
0.22**
-1.81
11.97
-0.02
0.31
0.19
0.12
0.19
0.19
0.08
0.45
0.15
0.32***
Community
AgeXCommunity
β
R2 = .05
R2 = .10
F(2, 164) = 4.70
F(3, 163) = 6.20
p < .05.
p < .005.
Note. N = 168; *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .005. Ages were dichotomized into “20 and
younger” and “21 and older.”
28
Chapter 4
DISCUSSION
Past and current research on psychological well-being has mainly focused on
associations with mental and physical health or demographic factors such as education,
employment, gender, and age. As mentioned in the literature review, study results have
shown little consensus depending on the factors investigated and the specific aim of the
studies. In addition, research of more intrinsic types of variables appears to be an
underdeveloped area of investigation. The current study sought to contribute to this
branch of the research by examining the relationship of spirituality and community
involvement with psychological well-being.
Utilizing responses from a sample of undergraduate psychology students, the first
hypothesis predicted that a higher level of spirituality was a predictor of higher levels of
psychological well-being. This hypothesis was supported by the data and is consistent
with similar research with university students, middle aged, and older adults (Koenig
(2010; Sreekumar, 2008; Yoon, 2006; Yoon & Lee, 2004; Koenig & Larson, 2001). This
is not surprising as spirituality was shown to be a protective factor in the context of
psychological and physical problems, and helps individuals cope with life difficulties,
illnesses, and bereavement. From the research findings, it is clear that some of the
benefits of spirituality may contribute to more positive feelings and psychological wellbeing. Professionals in the medical, psychological, and social services fields recognize
the potential benefits for the elderly and integrate spirituality of clients in services they
29
provide whenever possible. Doing so has been shown to promote faster healing, increase
life satisfaction, comfort, acceptance, and peace when the elderly population faces loss of
loved ones, declining health, and productivity (Puchalski, 2011; Idler, 2008).
The second hypothesis predicted that a higher level of community involvement
was a predictor of psychological well-being. This hypothesis was not supported. The
result is not consistent with Klar and Kasser’s (2009) study who found that community
involvement among college students was associated with higher levels of psychological
well-being. There are several possible explanations for the result of this study. The
younger participants in this sample reported higher community involvement and lower
psychological well-being. On the other hand, older participants reported lower
community involvement and higher psychological well-being. These opposite age
correlations could have masked the overall correlation between psychological well-being
and community involvement. The result of the exploratory analyses examining the
interaction of age and community involvement in the prediction of psychological wellbeing indicated that age suppressed the relationship between psychological well-being
and community involvement. When age was controlled, the relationship between
community involvement and psychological well-being became significant. The age group
differences with community involvement could be due to many factors. School systems
currently encourage community involvement. Some middle schools and high schools
make community involvement mandatory, and students are required to complete a
specific number of hours to fulfill graduation requirement. When students transition to
college, they may simply continue to be involved as they are used to for some time, but
30
then gradually become less involved. Lower psychological well-being in younger college
students may be explained by the transitions and adjustments to college life, which may
be difficult for some. This is consistent with Iwasaki and Smale’s (1998) findings that
psychological well-being levels decrease during life transitions or difficult times, and
then eventually return back to normal levels after a period of adjustment. Another
possible explanation for the result is the community involvement scale. The response
scale for community involvement offered five options for respondents to choose from to
indicate the level of community involvement in the past year. The response options may
not have been sensitive enough to accurately represent participants’ levels of
involvement. The choices were 1 (You never did this), 2 (You did this once or twice), 3
(You did this a few times), 4 (You did this a fair bit), and 5 (You did this a lot). For
example, one student could have participated in one activity five times in the past year,
and another could have participated in that same activity ten times in the past year. Both
could have chosen the same response option (You did this few times), even though that is
a considerable difference that could have affected results. Another example is that of two
different participants who may have participated five times in the same activity. One may
have chosen option, 3 (You did this few times), and the other may have chosen option 4
(You did this a fair bit) for the same frequency of involvement in that particular activity.
Finding scales to assess community involvement was difficult, as most researchers
develop and use their own scales for their studies. The scale used for this study was the
most appropriate for this sample, but can be improved by modifying the scale anchors to
provide specific ranges of frequencies for each activity. Despite the lack of significant
31
result for the second hypothesis, researchers advise retaining predictor variables even
when they do not correlate with the outcome variable, as they can significantly improve
the explained variance of the model by removing irrelevant predictive variance of
spirituality (Pandey & Elliot, 2010).
The third hypothesis predicted that when participants are more spiritual and are
more active in their communities, then they would have higher levels of psychological
well-being. This hypothesis was also supported. The findings suggested that community
involvement on its own was not associated with and was not a predictor of psychological
well-being. However, with the presence of spirituality, community involvement became
significant for psychological well-being. This suggested that a relationship between
community involvement and psychological well-being was dependent on the presence of
spirituality. The result of this study also showed that community involvement moderated
and strengthened the relationship between spirituality and community involvement. The
relationship between spirituality and psychological well-being was strongest for those
who had a higher level of community involvement. As levels of involvement decreased,
the correlation between spirituality and psychological well-being also decreased,
suggesting an interaction effect.
Spirituality means different things for everybody, but it is more personal. For
some, it is about private prayers. For others, it is about self-reflection or meditation. Most
importantly, spirituality is a focus on the self, and people usually experience some
benefits immediately. This might be one possible reason for the strong association to
psychological well-being. Community involvement, however, is primarily about serving
32
or benefiting others. Individuals who volunteer may eventually benefit but only after
some time. The combined benefits of community involvement and spirituality might
possibly contribute more to psychological well-being than each intrinsic behavior
individually.
Another explanation for the result is that community involvement acted as a
suppressor variable. It was not a strong predictor of psychological well-being, but its
inclusion improved the predictive power of the model. In this case, it is possible that
community involvement simply strengthened the relationship between spirituality and
psychological well-being by partialling out or cleaning the invalid variances in the model
and more specifically in spirituality (Pandey & Elliott, 2010). Since spirituality is closely
related to religiosity, the spirituality measure might have tapped into aspects of religious
involvement usually associated with religiosity (Tienen et al., 2011). As a suppressor
variable, community involvement could possibly have strengthened the predictive nature
of spirituality by removing that variance from it. This explanation of the result needs to
be further investigated. The benefits of community involvement can be complex and
different with each developmental stage. Research with youth showed that community
involvement fosters identity and acts as a protective factor against many of the risk
behaviors such as gang affiliation, substance abuse, and suicide (Froh, Kashdan,
Yurkewicz, Fan, Allen & Glowacki, 2010; McMahon, Singh, Garner & Benhorin, 2004).
Research with older adults, however, suggests that community involvement serves a
different function in that it provides an increased level of satisfaction, solidarity, a sense
of appreciation, and prevents isolation (Lee & Goh, 2008; Momtaz, Hamid, Ibrahim,
33
Yahaya & Chai, 2011, Yoon & Lee, 2010). It is possible that the benefits of community
involvement may impact psychological well-being indirectly, or that the impact is only
significant at different ages or developmental stages. It is also possible that community
involvement can have more of an impact when associated with other behaviors such as
spirituality.
One way to conceptually explain a significant and meaningful interaction between
spirituality and community involvement on psychological well-being is that spirituality is
a focus on self, and community involvement is a focus on others. Focusing on self
promotes self-reflection, autonomy, and self-acceptance. Focusing on others promotes
growth, opportunities for healthy relationships, and gives purpose in life. The combined
benefits of spirituality and community involvement may potentially contribute to
autonomy, personal growth, self-acceptance, life purpose, mastery, and positive
relatedness; the six aspects of human actualization which define psychological well-being
(Ryff & Keyes, 1995).
Finally, psychological well-being entails a holistic approach to determine what
people need physically, psychologically and spiritually to live more fulfilling lives. This
study is an example of such approach as it looks at people’s spiritual and humanistic
relationships.
Practical Implications
The findings of this study provide more awareness and understanding of factors
and behaviors that may promote psychological well-being. Spiritually is gaining more
attention in the field of counseling as a tool for creating shifts in thoughts that might have
34
significant therapeutic outcomes (Johnston & Mayers, 2005; Koenig & Larson, 2001).
Therapists can use clients’ spirituality in therapy to help them move past painful
experiences toward forgiveness and acceptance, and eventually healing. In addition,
community involvement, while it may not directly impact well-being, it has the potential
to strengthen positive well-being in the context of spirituality. It may also help people by
focusing their attention onto others while still gaining benefits such as a sense of
fulfillment, and meaningful connection to others.
Thus far, spirituality is one factor that seems to be consistently positively
associated with higher levels of psychological well-being. In this study, community
involvement significantly contributed to psychological well being in addition to
spirituality. Many benefits of community involvement have been identified in the
research literature. Professionals and providers working with children, teens, and older
adults, may want to encourage and provide opportunities to facilitate involvement. One
consideration for schools is that they may want to reconsider making community
involvement mandatory. When people are required to do something, the task becomes
extrinsically motivated and individuals may no longer benefit as much as if they chose to
do the activity themselves. Social services program developers need to create
opportunities for the elderly population to continue to be involved as this may help them
stay connected, maintain a sense of fulfillment, and have a healthy and productive
lifestyle.
35
Limitations and Future Directions
There are several limitations to this study. The correlational design does not
reflect causality and it may be the case, for example, that individuals who have stronger
psychological well-being are more likely to practice spirituality and be active in their
communities. In addition, the sample size limited the number of variables that could be
utilized in fuller investigation of the primary constructs. The data were collected from a
convenience sample of undergraduate students attending a university and therefore may
have limited generalizability to the overall population. Also, age was categorized and this
may have impacted results and especially the relationship between community
involvement and psychological well-being. The dependent and independent variables
were self-report measures assessing what could be perceived as socially desired
behaviors and could have had an effect on accurate reporting and data collection. To
investigate this possibility, future studies may want to include a social desirability
measure.
The unique results of this study limits confidence in their interpretation. Also,
even though research literature has clearly identified and distinguished spirituality from
religiosity, differentiating between the two might not be an easy task Replication with a
broader sample of individuals and better control of covariates is important for
generalization and confirmation of the results. Adding a component to assess religiosity
might reveal some interesting findings, especially since community involvement is
usually associated with religiosity. The measure of community involvement was another
weakness as previously discussed. Finding an appropriate measure that assessed various
36
aspects of community involvement was a difficult task. Researchers should invest in
creating valid measures, which will assess the various social, academic, family, and civic
engagements effectively.
Conclusion
This study adds to our understanding of psychological well-being by investigating
the more intrinsically-focused variables of spirituality and community involvement,
which have received less attention in the literature. Awareness of what contributes to
psychological well-being is important for every developmental stage. This and similar
studies provide greater understanding and awareness about positive mental health. People
can be more proactive with their health while possibly preventing negative outcomes.
Investing in behaviors shown to positively impact mental health and psychological wellbeing is the kind of research that we need to focus on. More than ever, we need to invest
in our mental health, so that we may continue to experience the benefits when we need it
most, during our later developmental stages.
37
APPENDIX A
Ryff’s Scales of Psychological Well-Being (SPWB)
The following set of questions deals with how you feel about yourself and your life.
Please remember that there are no right or wrong answers.
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Slightly
Agree
Slightly
Agree
Somewhat
Strongly
Agree
1
2
3
4
5
6
1. ______Most people see me as loving and affectionate.
2. ______Sometimes I change the way I act or think to be more like those around me.
3. ______ In general, I feel I am in charge of the situation in which I live.
4. ______I am not interested in activities that will expand my horizons.
5. ______ I feel good when I think of what I’ve done in the past and what I hope to do
in the future.
6. ______When I look at the story of my life, I am pleased with how things have turned
out.
7. ______Maintaining close relationships has been difficult and frustrating for me.
8. ______I am not afraid to voice my opinions, even when they are in opposition to the
opinions of most people.
9. ______The demands of everyday life often get me down.
10. _____In general, I feel that I continue to learn more about myself as time goes by.
11. _____I live life one day at a time and don’t really think about the future.
12. _____In general, I feel confident and positive about myself.
38
Ryff’s Scales of Psychological Well-Being (SPWB) Continued
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Slightly
Agree
Slightly
Agree
Somewhat
Strongly
Agree
1
2
3
4
5
6
13. ______I often feel lonely because I have few close friends with whom to share my
concerns.
14. ______My decisions are not usually influenced by what everyone else is doing.
15. ______I do not fit very well with the people and the community around me.
17. ______I tend to focus on the present, because the future nearly always brings me
problems.
18. ______I feel like many of the people I know have gotten more out of life than I
have.
19. ______I enjoy personal and mutual conversations with family members or friends.
20. ______I tend to worry about what other people think of me.
21. ______I am quite good at managing the many responsibilities of my daily life.
22. ______I don’t want to try new ways of doing things - my life is fine the way it is.
23. ______I have a sense of direction and purpose in life.
24. ______Given the opportunity, there are many things about myself that I would
change.
25. ______It is important to me to be a good listener when close friends talk to me
about their problems.
26. ______Being happy with myself is more important to me than having others
approve of me.
39
Ryff’s Scales of Psychological Well-Being (SPWB) Continued
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Slightly
Agree
Slightly
Agree
Somewhat
Strongly
Agree
1
2
3
4
5
6
27. ______I often feel overwhelmed by my responsibilities.
28. ______I think it is important to have new experiences that challenge how you think
about yourself and the world.
29. ______My daily activities often seem trivial and unimportant to me.
30. ______I like most aspects of my personality.
31. ______I don’t have many people who want to listen when I need to talk.
32. ______I tend to be influenced by people with strong opinions.
33. ______If I were unhappy with my living situation, I would take effective steps to
change it.
34. ______When I think about it, I haven’t really improved much as a person over the
years.
35. ______I don’t have a good sense of what it is I’m trying to accomplish in life.
36. ______I made some mistakes in the past, but I feel that all in all everything has
worked out for the best.
37. ______I feel like I get a lot out of my friendships.
38. ______People rarely talk to me into doing things I don’t want to do.
39. ______I generally do a good job of taking care of my personal finances and affairs.
40. ______In my view, people of every age are able to continue growing and
developing.
40
Ryff’s Scales of Psychological Well-Being (SPWB) Continued
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Slightly
Agree
Slightly
Agree
Somewhat
Strongly
Agree
1
2
3
4
5
6
41. ______I used to set goals for myself, but that now seems like a waste of time.
42. ______In many ways, I feel disappointed about my achievements in life.
43. ______It seems to me that most other people have more friends than I do.
44. ______It is more important to me to “fit in” with others than to stand alone on my
principles.
45. ______I find it stressful that I can’t keep up with all of the things I have to do each
day.
46. ______With time, I have gained a lot of insight about life that has made me a
stronger, more capable person.
47. ______I enjoy making plans for the future and working to make them a reality.
48. ______For the most part, I am proud of who I am and the life I lead.
49. ______People would describe me as a giving person, willing to share my time with
others.
50. ______I have confidence in my opinions, even if they are contrary to the general
consensus.
51. ______I am good at juggling my time so that I can fit everything in that needs to
be done.
52. ______I have a sense that I have developed a lot as a person over time.
53. ______I am an active person in carrying out the plans I set for myself.
54. ______I envy many people for the lives they lead.
55. ______I have not experienced many warm and trusting relationships with others.
41
Ryff’s Scales of Psychological Well-Being (SPWB) Continued
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Slightly
Agree
Slightly
Agree
Somewhat
Strongly
Agree
1
2
3
4
5
6
56. ______It’s difficult for me to voice my own opinions on controversial matters.
57. ______My daily life is busy, but I derive a sense of satisfaction from keeping up with
everything.
58. ______I do not enjoy being in new situations that require me to change my old familiar
ways of doing things.
59. ______Some people wander aimlessly through life, but I am not one of them.
60. ______My attitude about myself is probably not as positive as most people feel about
themselves.
61. ______ I often feel as if I’m on the outside looking in when it comes to friendships.
62. ______ I often change my mind about decisions if my friends or family disagree.
63. ______ I get frustrated when trying to plan my daily activities because I never
accomplish the things I set out to do.
64. ______For me, life has been a continuous process of learning, changing, and growth.
65. ______I sometimes feel as if I’ve done all there is to do in life.
66. ______Many days I wake up feeling discouraged about how I have lived my life.
67. ______I know that I can trust my friends, and they know they can trust me.
68. ______I am not the kind of person who gives in to social pressures to think or act in
certain ways.
69. ______My efforts to find the kinds of activities and relationships that I need have been
quite successful.
70. ______I enjoy seeing how my views have changed and matured over the years.
42
Ryff’s Scales of Psychological Well-Being (SPWB) Continued
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Slightly
Agree
Slightly
Agree
Somewhat
Strongly
Agree
1
2
3
4
5
6
71. ______ My aims in life have been more a source of satisfaction than frustration to
me.
72. ______The past had its ups and downs, but in general, I wouldn’t want to change it.
73. ______I find it difficult to really open up when I talk with others.
74. ______I am concerned about how other people evaluate the choices I have made in
my life.
75. ______I have difficulty arranging my life in a way that is satisfying to me.
76. ______I gave up trying to make big improvements or changes in my life a long
time ago.
77. ______I find it satisfying to think about what I have accomplished in life.
78. ______When I compare myself to friends and acquaintances, it makes me feel good
about who I am.
79. ______My friends and I sympathize with each other’s problems.
80. ______I judge myself by what I think is important, not by the values of what others
think is important.
81. ______I have been able to build a home and a lifestyle for myself that is much to
my liking.
82. ______There is truth to the saying that you can’t teach an old dog new tricks.
83. ______In the final analysis, I’m not so sure that my life adds up to much.
84. ______Everyone has their weaknesses, but I seem to have more than my share.
43
APPENDIX B
The Daily Spiritual Experience Scale (DSES)
The list that follows includes items you may or may not experience. Please consider how
often you directly have this experience, and try to disregard whether you feel you should
or should not have these experiences. A number of items use the word ‘God.’ If this word
is not a comfortable one for you, pleases substitute another word that calls to mind the
divine or holy for you.
1
Many times
a day
2
Every day
3
Most days
4
Some days
5
Once in a
while
6
Never
1. _____I feel God’s presence.
2. _____I experience a connection to all of life.
3. _____During worship, or at other times when connecting with God, I feel joy lifts
me out of my daily concerns.
4. _____I find strength in my religion or spirituality.
5. _____I find comfort in my religion or spirituality.
6. _____I feel deep inner peace or harmony.
7. _____I ask for God’s help in the midst of daily activities.
8. _____I feel guided by God in the midst of daily activities.
9. _____I feel God’s love for me, directly.
10. _____I feel God’s love for me, through others.
11. _____I am spiritually touched by the beauty of creation.
12. _____I feel thankful for my blessings.
44
The Daily Spiritual Experience Scale (DSES) Continued
1
Many times
a day
2
Every day
3
Most days
4
Some days
5
Once in a
while
6
Never
13. _____I feel a selfless caring for others.
14. _____I accept others even when they do things I think are wrong.
15. _____I desire to be closer to God or in union with the divine.
1
Not at all
2
Somewhat close
3
Very close
16. _____In general, how close do you feel to God?
4
As close as
possible
45
APPENDIX C
The Youth Inventory of Involvement (YII)
For each of these activities, please use the following scale to indicate whether, in the last
year,
1
You never did
this
1.
2.
2
You did this
once or twice
3
You did this a
few times
Visited or helped out people who were
sick.
Took care of other families’ children (on
an unpaid basis).
3.
Participated in a church-connected group.
4.
Participated in or helped a charity
organization.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Participated in an ethnic club or
organization.
Participated in a political party, club or
organization.
Participated in a social or cultural group
or organization (e.g., a choir).
Participated in a school academic club or
team.
Participated in a sports team or club.
10. Led or helped out with a children's
group or club.
4
You did this a
fair bit
5
You did this a
lot
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
46
The Youth Inventory of Involvement (YII) Continued
1
You never did
this
2
You did this
once or twice
3
You did this a
few times
11.
Helped with a fund-raising project.
12.
Helped organize neighborhood or
community events (e.g., carnivals, hot
dog days, potluck dinners, etc.).
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Helped prepare and make verbal and
written presentations to organizations,
agencies, conferences, or politicians.
Did things to help improve your
neighborhood (e.g., helped clean
neighborhood).
Gave help (e.g., money, food, clothing,
rides) to friends or classmates who
needed it.
Served as a member of an organizing
committee or board for a school club or
organization.
Wrote a letter to a school or community
newspaper or publication.
18
Signed a petition.
19.
Attended a demonstration.
20
Collected signatures for a petition drive.
4
You did this a
fair bit
5
You did this a
lot
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
47
The Youth Inventory of Involvement (YII) Continued
1
You never
did this
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
2
You did this
once or twice
3
You did this a
few times
Contacted a public official by phone or
mail to tell him/her how you felt about a
particular issue.
Joined in a protest march, meeting or
demonstration.
Got information about community
activities from a local community
information centre.
Volunteered at a school event or
function.
Helped people who were new to your
country.
26.
Gave money to a cause.
27.
Worked on a political campaign.
28.
Ran for a position in student
government.
29.
30.
Participated in a discussion about a
social or political issue.
Volunteered with a community service
organization.
4
You did this a
fair bit
5
You did this a
lot
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
48
APPENDIX D
Demographic Questionnaire
Gender
o Male
o Other gender identification
o Female
o Prefer not to state
Age
o 20 or less
o 41-50
o 21-30
o 50 or more
o 31-40
Education
o Freshmen
o Senior
o Sophomore
o Other
o Junior
_________________________
Employment Status
o Full-time (30 hours or more per week)
o Part time (30 hours or less per week)
o Not currently employed
Racial/Ethnic Background
o American Indian/Alaska Native
o Middle Eastern or North African
o Black/African American
o White/ Caucasian/ White
o Hispanic/Latino
o Asian/South Asian
European
o Other _________________
o Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander
Spiritual or Religious Affiliation _____________________________________
49
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