REVISED EDITION
FUNDAMENTAL
PRINCIPLES & PRACTICE
OF
INSTRUCTION
EDITED BY :
I .O ABIMBOLA
A .O ABOLADE
1
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND
PRACTICE OF INSTRUCTION
Edited by
I. O. ABIMBOLA
A. O. ABOLADE
DEPARTMENT OF CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY.,
UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN P.M.B.1515 ILORIN, NIGERIA
2
Separately or as a part of the relevant sections, each chapter has its own
bibliography and revision questions drawn in part from past examinations in the
relevant courses to guide the reading. we made deliberate efforts to simplify the
language in which \ the hook without loss of meaning.
we wish to use this medium to thank all the con for their prompt response to reediting their works and reviewers who have given their suggestions to enhance the
quality of this second edition. Our sincere appreciation goes to Educational Technology
lecturers who have used their expertise in preparing the layout of this edition. Our
appreciation goes to, cover designer. Dr. Bisi Onasanya. It is hoped that the dimensions
of innovations and information explosion will engender further revision and another
edition of this book.
PROF I. O ABIMBOLA
PROF A.O. ABOLADE
3
CONTENTS
Chapter 1
-
A Brief History Of Teaching
I .O Abimbola
Chapter 2
-
Philosophical Foundations Of Instruction
A.S Olorundare
Chapter 3
-
Psychological Foundations Of Instruction
M.O Fajemidagba
Chapter 4
-
Sociological Foundations Of Instruction
C.O Daramola
Chapter 5
-
characteristics of professions
A.A Jekayinfa
Chapter 6
-
Teaching As A Profession In Nigeria
Problems And Prospects
R.W Okunloye
Chapter 7
-
Concepts In Education
A.G.A.S Oladosu
Chapter 8
-
Concepts Of Aims , Goals And Objectives
R.W Okunloye
Chapter 9
-
Aims,Goals,Objectives Of Education In Nigeria
A.A Jekayinfa
Chapter 10
-
Approaches. Methods. Strategies
Techniques and their Interrelationship
R. A. LawaI
Chapter 11
-
Relevance of Curriculum. Teaching
and Examination Syllabi for Instruction
S. O. Daramola
Chapter 13
-
Socratic. Project. Discovery and
Problem Solving Methods of Instruction
4
M 0, Fajemidagba
Chapter 14
-
Laboratory. Demonstration and F,eld
Trip Methods of instruction
E 0 Omosewo
Chapter 15
-
Play-way, Role Playing and Story
Telling Methods of Instruction
M F Salman
Chapter 16
-
Team Teaching and
Departmentalization
Solomon Olorundare
Chapter 17
-
Modular Instruction & Contracts
S. O. Medahunsi
Chapter 18
-
Dalton Plan and Keller Plan
M. A. Fakomogbon
Chapter 29
-
Types and Uses of Tests
Adebayo LawaI
Chapter 30
-
Alternative Assessment Techniques
B.T. Danmole
Chapter 31
-
Non-Conventional Grading Systems
5
for Classroom Use
B. T. Danrnole
Chapter 32
-
The Use of Continuous Assessment
U. A Ajidagba
Chapter 33
-
Professional Growth and Development
O. Abimbola
Chapter 34
-
How to write Behavioural Objectives
A Yusuf
–
Chapter 35
Strategies for effective instruction
In Large Esl Classes
S. B. Olajide
Chapter 36
-
The Communication Process: Model
and Implications for Instruction
M. V. Adegbija
Chapter 37
-
Agencies of Education
S. B. Olajide and A Yusuf
Chapter 38
-
Basic Criteria for Selecting and Using
Learning and Instructional Materials
A.O. Abolade
Chapter 39
-
Philosophical Foundations of Science
6
Teaching
Prof. S. O. DaramoJa
Chapter 40
-
Comment Enseigner Le Francais a
L' Ecole Secondaire Au Nigeria?
A.O.Abolade
Revision Questions
1 (a) What do you understand by Grading in the context
evaluation?
(b ) Mention and Explain the use of any two types of nonConventional grading systems.
2(a) Explain the non-conventional grading system: "A
Mastery Approach" for the. purpose of evaluation.
(b) Give two advantage and two disadvantage of the
grading system mentioned above.
3. Distinguished between "Written Evaluation" and "Self
Evaluation" grading systems.
4(a) Describe "a contract" grading system
(b) Give two types of contract grading systems
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CHAPTER 32
EVALUATION OF STUDENTS' LEARNING
OUTCOMES IV
The Use of Continuous Assessment
U. A. Ajidagba
Introduction
Assessment in whatever form, remains the only practical and veritable means of
gauging students' learning outcomes. In education. it is widely acknowledged and
recognized as a necessary component of the system In this chapter, we shall
endeavour to bring out a discourse on definition of continuous assessment and its
evolution in definition of continuous assessment and its evolution in Africa as well
as its introduction into the Nigerian system of education. Other areas Covered
include advantages of effective use. Lastly, the chapter ends with a conclusion and
revised questions
Definition of Continuous Assessment
In education, it has been accepted to use the two Words. continuous and
assessment as a single or compounded word, or as a phrase to represent a concept
Despite the coinage the original duality of the Word (s) Continues to manifest
itself in meaning and usage. When the Phrase is used as one. it connotes' dual
meanings. This probably. is the reason why It has become increasingly difficult to
propose a single meaning or definition for the concept. For instance the word
continuous at times means unending. But we may loss focus if so interpreted in
this context. Hence, the word functions as a prefix, representing the regularity or
frequency with which test are administered on the learner. Other words that can
function in the same way are Intermittent, regular, and cumulative. .
8
The word assessment, on the other hand. is in the family of words like, test.
measurement and examination, the highest form been evaluation. In spite of all the
observed grammatical complexities, attempt have been made to give educational
definition to the concept.
In an attempt to satisfy curious minds. the Federal ~ministry of Education
(1980) gave a somewhat complex definition of continuous assessment thus:
A mechanism whereby final grading of a
student in the cognitive affective and
psychomotor domains of behaviours takes
:
account, in a systematic was of all his
performances during a given period of
schooling:
such assessment involves the
use of variety of modes of evaluation for the
purpose of guiding and improving learning
and performances of the student;1
(P.10) '
Despite the seeming comprehensiveness of the above definition. it does not take
into account the importance of continuous assessment to teachers in the area of
methodology.According to Ogunniyi (1984), continuous assessment may be defined as a
formative process of finding out the accomplishment of students in a systematic manner
after exposure to some learning experiences Continuous assessment, according to,
Kamar (1984), should not only be systematic ,it should also be objective- He asserted
that:
It is a systematic and objective process of
determining the extent of a students'
performance in a continuous and
progressive manner, as well as judicious
accumulation of assessment information
with a view to using it to guide students in
their learning and as a basis for important
9
decision about the teachers' methodology
(P,7).
It could be seen from the definitions that one crucial issue is missing This is the
relationship between the continuous assessment and the educational objectives. In the
light of the various governments' resolve to make education available and functional.
there is the need for a comprehensive and meaningful approach to continuous
assessment. To make it be in consonance with the current trend of education in
Nigeria. it is pertinent to propose that. continuous assessment, as against the all-ornone final paper-pencil examination, should be defined as a steady,
formative and analytical grading of students' academic and non-academic activities
throughout their stay in the school. It should be pointed out here that the C.A. been
conducted on various courses, to form a particular percentage of the overall scores,
is just a subset of the comprehensive concept of continuous assessment because the
role of education transcends intellectual development.
Apart from being formative in nature, a good continuous system must be
systematic, comprehensive, cumulative and guidance inspiring. To be systematic, C.A.
must be properly planned. if it should measure what it intends to measure. The
assessor must decide wisely when to administer his/her test, he/she should regulate
the frequency of the test to-be meaningful. .C. A. is comprehensive if it is conducted
by the use
of a variety of instruments, standardized or teacher-made. The
cumulative aspect of C.A refers to the fact that a decision on the learner is based on
so many records containing a variety of data.
Lastly, C.A is guidance - inspiring because it serves as a basis for mirroring
what the learner has achieved. It allows the learner to know how he/she is fairing and
It allows the teacher to know areas of strength and weakness of the students. .
A Brief History of Continuous Assessment in Africa
Despite the variety in political ideologies. with their concomitant effects on
education, many African countries had introduced the system of C.A. as a way
of determining students' academic attainment as far back as the early
10
70's.According to Pennycuick (1990), many countries had even gone to the
extent of substituting external examination with C.A. The Introduction of C.A
in Tanzania, according to Njabili (1987). was sequel to the Musuma revolution
which began the campaign against the "Almighty" once-and-for-all
examination in the country. The intention then was to de-emphasize paperqualification examination which did not reveal students’ ability and capability.
It was however in1976 that the system got well entrenched in Tanzania
educational system. That year alone, the C.A had constituted 50% of. the total
weighing in the final results of students.
In New Guinea. CA had been in operation since late 70's. Between that time
and 1981, two systems of education, of which CA was part, were experimented.
the CA system suffered a temporary setback only to resurface on the scene in
1982-. Up till today. C.A. is so officialised in the Guinea that it is the. State
Department of education that issues guideline on its conduct to all schools.
The Nigerian experience of the C.A is dated back to the introduction of the 6-3-3-4 of
system of education. As a complete departure from the former 6-5-2-3 system, the 6-3-34 system allows a child to be in primary school for 6 years, and a secondary education for
another 6 years which are divided equally into Junior and Senior sections. For university
education, it is minimum of 4 years. The system advocated for an evaluation system that
would not only be enduring but also must ensure intra and inter-students comparability.
Although, the system did not take off at the same time throughout the country, for
political reasons, both the Federal Government - owned schools and those controlled by
the then ruling party commenced the new programme in 1982. Justifying the introduction
of C.A. into the system of education in Nigeria. FME (1980) stated that it was meant to
gradually discontinue the use of results obtained from the final or end-of-course
examination level of educational accomplishment of a child. Today, C.A. is used in all
levels of Nigerian educational levels for both promotions and graduation purposes.
Advantages of Continuous Assessment
The following are the advantages of C.A. in the educational enterprise:
11
1. Continuous assessment is less stressful to students
2. It does not summarily penalize students
3. It affords students the opportunity of knowing their performance
level and this will encourage them to work harder
4. It encourages the use of a variety of problem-solving skills.
Since not all problems require similar solution.
the progressive nature of C.A. makes it easy for
teachers to develop and use different approaches to teaching
5. It serves as a measure that forces students to sit up for
serious academic and non- academic activities instead of playing
.
6. With reference to academic work. C.A. has the potential to
reduce the rate of memorization which students employ
during final examination.
Problems Associated with Effective Use of Continuous Assessment
Like other educational issues. C.A. has its own problems. They include:
Inadequate conceptualization. Many institutions that operate C.A do not
assess every aspect of the curriculum except the cognitive dimensions
2.
Not all teachers have sufficient knowledge and expertise in the use
of C.A. Only teachers with
requisite teacher education can lay
claim to the required expertise in this regard.
3.
.
C.A. no doubt. increases the workload of the operators and its application
in its original form required a lot of dedication and sacrifice.
4.
Economic recession does much harm of the application of C.A.
especially where students have to buy materials to facilitate assignments.
5.
Inconsistencies in government policies and programmes constitute
a major bane in effective utilization of CA For instance, the
desire to maintain high quality of education on one hand and
the enforcement of automatic Promotion to give room for
new intakes On-the other.
6.
The fact that it is teacher-made. CA is prone to abuse and Error
12
of judgment For instance, it can be to used to assist undeserved students.
Conclusion
Assessment in Whatever form remains the only known means of determining
students' level of academic and non-academic achievement Although Continuous
assessment Was not introduced the same time in Africa, most major African countries
have introduced it into their systems of education. In Nigeria it has become an
inseparable part of the educational system, as it is used for both promotion and
graduation In Spite of its numerous merits. CA is still beset with a number of difficulties
which are not insurmountable with time and determination.
Bibliography
Cangelosi. J. S. (1990) Designing test for evaluating students' achievement.
New York
Longman
Clift. J. C and Imrie. B. W. (1981) Assessing students, appraising teachmg
New York John Wiley Son.
Federal Government of Nigeria (1998) National Policy On Education Lagos
NERDC Press.
13
Federal Ministry of Education (1980) Handbook On Continuous assessment.
Lagos: Government Press
Teacher appraisal and self-evaluation: A practical guide.
(1990) London: Basil
Kamar Y. N. (1989). Continuous Assessment of pratical
work in Biology. Sokoto Educational Review 2.
Njabili. A. F. (1987). continuous assessment: The Tanzania
experience. A paper
presented at a seminar. Sussex.Institute of Development Studies:
University of . Sussex. ,
Ogunniyi. M. B. ( 1984). Educational measurement and evaluation
Lagos Longman.
Pennycuick. D (1990) the introduction of continuous assessment in
developing countries in P. Broad. R.
Murphy and H. Torrance (EdS.). Changing
educational assessment: international perspectives
and trends. London: Rout edge.
Rowntree. D (1977) Assessing students: How shall we
London. Happer & Row
Revision Questions
1, Define continuous Assessment within the context of
the system of education in Nigeria,
14
. know them
2. Write briefly on the historical development of C,A. in
Africa,.
.
3. Give 5 points of comparison of C:A. with final
examination.
4. List and explain 4 characteristics of a good C,A.
5. Highlight 5 major problems militating against the
effective use of C.A.
15