EDUCATION AND
PRODUCTIVITY IN
NIGERIA
EDITED BY:
E.G. FAGBAMIYE
&
D.O. DUROSARO
A Publication of the Nigerian Association for
Educational Administration and Planning.
PUBLISHED BY:
Nigerian Association for Educational
Administration and Planning, Unilorin.
First Published 2000
ISBN: 978-35169-4-9
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means without the prior permission of the
copyright owner or the publishers.
COVER DESIGN:
by Kayode Olanrewaju
PRODUCED BY:
HAYTEE PRESS & PUBUSHING COMPANY
LIMITED
154, Ibrahim Taiwo Road, P.O.Box 6697, llorin.
ii
FOREWORD
This book arose out of the annual conference of the Nigerian
Association of Educational Administration and Planning held in llorin from
January 30 to February 2, 2000. The conference focused on various
aspects of productivity with particular reference to educational
institutions.
A very common assumption in this country is that workers are
generally not as productive as they could be and so wages are generally
low and would remain low unless workers are more productive,
nevertheless one wonders why the obverse of this assumption is not
considered; that productivity is not as high as it could be because the
enabling environment for greater productivity is yet to be available.
This book is divided into five sections with a total of 27 chapters.
Section one focuses on issues in measuring of teacher productivity and a
general overview of productivity in Nigeria. Section two considers the
various aspects of human resource management and productivity,
human resource development and productivity, teachers' remuneration,
conditions of service and their productivity, resource allocation and
utilization, personnel management and productivity in education,
personnel practice, role stress and productivity. Section three considers
productivity in relation to the available physical facilities. Section four
examines the relationship between teacher professionalism and
productivity, and Section five considers the crucial variables such as
school climate, gender factors, welfare services, staff morale and
productivity.
Even though the coverage has not been exhaustive, these
papers are a useful contribution to a more profound understanding of the
correlates of productivity in educational institutions in Nigeria.
Our expectation is that this book of readings will generate
discussion and research on teacher productivity at all levels of the
education system in this country.
'
E.O. Fagbamiye
iii
ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Dr. J.O. Fadipe is a Reader/Assistant Chief Programme
Specialist and Former Acting Director, National Institute
for Educational Planning and Administration, Ondo.
Dr. A.O. Sofoluwe is of the Department of Educational
Management, University of llorin.
Mr. J.B. Odunuga is a Lecturer at the Federal College of
Education, Osiele, Abeokuta.
Mr. P.K. Ajila is a Lecturer at the Federal College of
Education, Osiele, Abeokuta.
Dr. A.F.S. Ahmed is an Assistant Director, Kwara State
Ministry of Education llorin.
Prof. Segun Ogunsaju is of the Department of
Educational Managment, University of llorin.
Prof.
E.O. Fagbamiye is of the Department of
Educational Administration, University of Lagos, Lagos.
Prof. D.O. Durosaro is of the Department of Educational
Management, University of llorin, llorin.
Dr. (Mrs.) R.O. Oduwaiye is a staff of the Kwara State
Ministry of Education, llorin.
Dr. S.A. Oyebade is a Lecturer in the Department of
Educational Administration, University of Lagos, Lagos.
Dr. (Mrs.) Yetunde Ijaiya is a Reader in the
Department of Educational Management, University of
llorin.
Dr. P.K. Ojedele is a Senior Lecturer/Principal
Programme Specialist, National Institute for Educational
Planning and Administration, Ondo.
Dr. N. Nzoka is a .Lecturer in the Department of
Educational Administration, University of Lagos, Lagos.
iv
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
DR. G.O. Oyesola is a Senior Lecturer, Department of
Educational Management, University of llorin. llorin.
Dr. N.B. Oyedeji is a Senior Lecturer, Department of
Educational Management, University of llorin, llorin.
Mr. B.M. Taiwo is Head, Department of Educational
Foundations, Kwara State College of Education, llorin.
Dr. (Mrs.) A.T. Alabi is a Lecturer, Department of
Educational Management, University of llorin, llorin.
Mr. A.T. Lawal Ojibara is a Senior Lecturer, Department
of Primary Education Studies, Kwara State College of
Education, llorin.
Mrs. N.B. Lawal Ojibara is a Teacher, Banni Community
Secondary School, llorin.
Dr. (Mrs.) U. Emetarom is a Lecturer, Abia State
University, Uturu.
Mr. J.K. Udensi is a Lecturer, Federal College of
Education, Okene.
Dr. (Mrs.) A.N. Okorie is a Lecturer, Department of
Educational Management, University of llorin, llorin.
Dr. M.O. Arikewuyo is a Lecturer, Institute of Education,
Ogun State University, Ago-lwoye.
Dr. J.O. Omokhodion is Acting Head, Department of
Educational Foundations, Lagos State University, Lagos.
Dr. C.C. Okam is a Lecturer at the University of Jos, Jos.
Dr. G.O. Bozimo is a Lecturer at the University of Jos,
Jos.
Mr. S.A. Rimfat is a Lecturer at the University of Jos, Jos.
Mr. R.W. Okunloye is a Lecturer, Department of
Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology,
University of llorin, llorin.
Dr. E.E. Oluchukwu is a Senior Lecturer/Principal
Programme Specialist, National Institute for Educational
Planning and Administration, Ondo.
Dr. (Mrs) A.I. Fabiyi is a Lecturer, School of Education,
Adeniran Ogunsanya College of Education, Otto/ljanikin.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page..............................................................................i
Copy right page......................................................................ii
Foreword..............................................................................iii
About the contributors..............................................-...............iv-v
Table of contents...................................................................vi-ix
Sub-Theme 1
Measurement of Productivity in Education
CHAPTER ONE: Education and Productivity in Nigeria: An Overview
- Dr. J. O. Fadipe................................................................... ....................1
CHAPTER TWO: Issues in Measuring Teachers Productivity
-Dr. A.O. Sofoluwe.....................................................................................9
CHAPTER THREE: Measuring Teachers Productivity and Primary
School Quality: An Evaluation of Concept and Issues
- Mr.J.B. Odunuga & Mr. P.K. Ajila............................................................16
CHAPTER FOUR: Measuring Teacher Productivity: An Overview of
the' APER' Form - Dr. A.F.S. Ahmed.....................................................22
Sub-Theme 2
Human Resource Management and Productivity
CHAPTER FIVE: Human Resource Development and Productivity
- Prof. Segun Ogunsaju........................................................................32
CHAPTER SIX: Teachers' Remuneration, Conditions of Service, Job
Satisfaction, Attitude to Work and Job Performance in Selected
Secondary Schools in Lagos State
-Prof. E.O.-Fagbamiye.........................................................................41
CHAPTER SEVEN: Resource Allocation and Utilisation for University
Education in Nigeria: Trends and Issues - Prof. D.O.
Durosaro...............................................................................................51
vi
CHAPTER EIGHT: Staff Personnel Management and Productivity in
Education - Dr. R.O. Oduwaiye...................................................................68
CHAPTER NINE: Personnel Practices and Role Stress as Correlates of
Students' Academic Performance in Public and Private Secondary
schools in Lagos State
- Dr. S.A. Oyebade,...............................................................................77
CHAPTER TEN: Belief Systems of Secondary School Principals and
Vice Principals about Productivity of Teachers in llorin Metropolis, Kwara
State
- Dr. (Mrs.) Yetunde Ijaiya..........................................................................88
CHAPTER ELEVEN: Enhancing Educational Productivity through
Effective Staff Personnel Administration in Nigerian schools- Dr. P.K.
Ojedele ,................................................................................................,99
CHAPTER TWELVE: Providing Quality Education when Resources are
Scarce: Strategies for Improving Secondary School Effectiveness- Dr.
Ngozi E. Uzoka.................................................................................109
Sub-Theme 3
.
Management of School Physical Facilities and Productivity
CHAPTER THIRTEEN: Physical Facilities and Productivity in Education
- Dr. G.O. Oyesola..............................................................................118
CHAPTER FOURTEEN: The Role of School Plant in Educational
Productivity - Dr. N.B. Oyedeji..........:.......................................................128
CHAPTER FIFTEEN: Maintenance of School Infrastructure for
Productivity - B.M. Taiwo..........................................................................134
Sub-Theme 4
Teacher Professionalism and Productivity in Nigeria
CHAPTER SIXTEEN: Teacher Professionalism and Productivity: A .management Perspective - Dr. A.T. Alabi……………………..............142
VII
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN: Towards Teacher Professionalism and
Productivity in Nigerian Primary schools A.T.L Ojibara & N.B.L Ojibara
(Mrs.)..................................................................................................147
Sub-Theme 5
Other Correlates of Education and Productivity in Nigeria CHAPTER
EIGHTEEN: School Climate and Productivity in Selected Secondary
Schools in Owerri and Umuahia Educational Zones of Imo and Abia
States - Dr. Uche Emetarom............................................................154
CHAPTER NINETEEN: Impact of Welfare Services on Productivity of
Academic Staff in Colleges of Education
-K. Udensi...........................................................................................165
CHAPTER TWENTY: Gender Behavioural Flexibility and Productivity of
Women in Nigeria - Dr. O. Mowaiye Fagbemi……………………........176
CHAPTER TWENTY ONE: Theory Z: A Management Model for
Increasing Teacher Morale and Productivity in Nigeria
- Dr. (Mrs.) A. N. Okorie......................................................................186
CHAPTER TWENTY TWO: Strategies for Achieving Productivity in the
Universal Basic Education (UBE) Scheme
- Dr. M.O. Arikewuyo.......................................................................198
CHAPTER TWENTY THREE: The Socio-Economic and Socio Cultural
Context of Juvenile Street Trading in Lagos
- Dr. J. O. Omokhodion....................................................................208
CHAPTER TWENTY FOUR: The Making of a Productive Teacher of
Social Studies for Nigerian Secondary Schools
- Drs. C.C. Okam, G.O. Bozimo and Mr. S.A. Rinfat........................212
CHAPTER TWENTY FIVE: Deprofessionalization of Teaching and
Teachers' Productivity in Nigeria
- Dr. R.W. Okunloye........................................................................ 219
viii
CHAPTER TWENTY SIX: Organisational Climate and Teacher
Productivity in secondary Schools in Jos-North Local Government Area
of Plateau State
- Dr. E.E. Oluchukwu..........................................................................226
CHAPTER TWENTY SEVEN: Lecturers Job Satisfaction and
Performance in Nigerian Colleges of Education
Dr. (Mrs.) A.I. Fabiyi ...........................................................:...............237
ix
STAFF PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT AND PRODUCTIVITY IN
EDUCATION
BY
R. O. ODUWAIYE, Ph.D., AlPM
Abstract
This chapter focuses on staff personnel management as an
ingredient to increased productivity in the educational sector. All staff
personnel services such as selection and promotion, training/and
staff welfare development, compensation and benefits should be
geared towards getting the best out of the work force.
The chapter concludes that while Nigerian education system
enjoys a lot of skilled man-power, it is however faced with a lot of
problems that had led to labour flight, brain drain and premature
retirement. Strategies such as security of tenure of employment,
education and training, motivation in wages and benefits are ways to
mobilize staff for increased productivity.
Introduction
Inyang (1995) defined productivity as the output and input
ratio within a given time frame and with special attention to quality
and the efficient use of resources. The National Productivity Centre in
the information booklet defines productivity as doing the right things
the right way, getting more output within less input, getting more
output with the same input, punctuality and promptness, elimination
of wastes in all forms, justifying your pay, improvement in all aspects
of life, producing more and more of better quality. The summary of all
definitions of productivity is the balance between all factors of
production that will give the greatest returns for the smallest efforts.
Since staff personnel are the essential in all organisations,
especially the educational sector, the effective management of staff
personnel no doubt has a great influence on productivity.
This paper is divided into three parts. In Section one, the
writer examines the definition and activities of personnel
management This is followed by an examination of the measurement
and causes of low productivity while the last section features ways of
mobilising staff for greater productivity.
68
Education and Productivity in Nigeria
Staff Personnel Management
This can be defined according to Miner and Miner (1973) as
involving the development, application and evaluation of policies,
procedures, methods and programs relating to the individual
organisation. People are the essential ingredient in all organisations, be
it business, governmental or educational.
Staff personnel department in organisations are responsible for
activities such as recruitment and selection, training, wage and salary
administration, establishing staffing ratios, benefit planning and
productivity. It is their responsibility to develop and recommend policies
and procedures which will contribute to the achievement of the goals of
the organisation. In summary, the functions of personnel is to select,
train, develop, assimilate and remunerate employees.
Selection
Recruitment involves all prospective applicants for job positions
in the organisation. A good recruitment programme is one that is properly
planned and well operated. Poor recruitment efforts could lead to the
selection of poor applicants. Factors that influence the type of
recruitment to be made include: the quality and number of staff and
positions to be filled, the financial position of the organisation, availability
of required staff.
In many organisations there are often individuals who are
qualified to .ill advertised positions or who could do so with minimum
positions from within the organisation and only fill the entry positions
from external sources. It must be emphasised that the specific source to
be utilized depends on factors such as the size of the enterprise, the
financial resources, economic conditions and time factor. Other major
sources of recruitment include advertisements, educational institutions,
employee referrals and unemployed labour. After prospective applicants
have been recruited, a systematic effort is made to identify the most
suitable candidates to fill identified positions.
Promotion
Promotion is the advancement of an employee to a higher
position or level. This may be in terms of greater responsibilities, more
prestige or status, greater skill and especially increased rate of pay.
Upgrading is the movement of an employee to a more responsible job
within the same occupational unit and with a corresponding increase in
69
Education and Productivity in Nigeria
their knowledge or skill to maintain a high level of productivity.
Training and Development
Training may be used to directly increase the job skills of an
individual or a group of individuals by teaching them how to perform their
tasks more effectively. For instance, production workers may learn how
to handle certain book keeping details associated with their work.
Teachers may go for refresher courses, seminars and workshops. It is
clear that training contributes primarily to the productivity goal. It helps
employees to be up-to-date and meet with modern methods of teaching.
Training develops an individual while the paying organisation also
benefits from higher productivity.
From training to operate efficiently as an input-output mediator, it
must be focused on the individual and situations as the need arises.
When determining training needs, two questions need to be answered. Is
there a problem in terms of the level or type of performance? Can
training be of any value in correcting such a situation? In terms of
training needs, a problem is usually most pronounced among individuals
just starting out on a new job i.e. employees newly employed and
employees shifted into new positions. Employees can be retrained
because the role prescriptions for a position have been changed.
Fortunately the motivation for learning among this category of
employees is usually high.
Compensation and Staff Welfare
Compensation is the totality of the financial and non financial
rewards that the employee gets in return for working for the organization.
Compensation is a major issue in staff personnel management and the
effect on productivity is important. Since compensation is a reward for
service to the organization and also a source of recognition and
livelihood for employees, therefore, it is related directly to the comfort
and welfare of employees. Compensation is a determinant of the extent
to which an organization can attract, motivate and retain the best talents
in the environment. Brain drain from Nigerian tertiary institutions has a lot
to do with the poor and inadequate remuneration available in this
country. At least two of the needs identified in Maslow's hierarchy of
needs theory of physiological and esteem needs are directly related to
the level of compensation for workers. These, according to him, are
among the factors motivating people to work. The scientific management
70
Education and Productivity in Nigeria
movement led by Frederick Taylor had conceived money as the most
important factor in motivating workers to achieve higher productivity.
Taylor therefore advocated the use of an incentive wage system to
stimulate or motivate workers to higher performance. Adams (1972) in
his version of the Equity theory espoused the idea that the feeling of a
worker that he is being adequately rewarded for his labour and services
can motivate him. Central to this theory is the role of perception in
motivation and the fact that individuals make comparisons between
compensation levels.
Equity theory states that if the individual feels that his
compensation is the same with another individual who possesses the
same job inputs and their productivity is roughly the same, he will
perceive the situation to be inequitable.
Expectancy theory developed by Vroom (1964) states that an
individual's motivation to perform is dependent on the expectancies that
individuals have concerning the beneficial outcomes of achieving a
particular target, and what value is placed on that outcome. The theory
posits that the amount of effort or energy expended by an employee is
determined by two key factors. The value or attractiveness of reward; the
degree to which the employee believes that increased effort will lead to
the attainment of this reward. It is generally believed that the level of
compensation paid to employees must reflect their contributions or their
level of productivity within the organisation. This course follows from the
equity theory which many private sector organisations use to determine
wages of workers. Specific and measurable goals and objectives are
established for employees as against the public sector where no such
goals are set. Salary increases are often awarded uniformly for everyone
on the same grade based on years on the job. This does not provide any
incentive for the employee to improve on his/her performance but
improved level of compensation is very important to the employee and
even the country as it is suggestive of the economic prospect of the
country and the quality of life of the people. Higher compensation level
implies higher tax revenue for government under PAYE scheme. High
revenue would in return guarantee better quality of social services such
as education, health and environmental sanitation among others. Owing
to rising cost of living and changing values of employees there is intense
concern now about setting pay levels to ensure workers' welfare.
So much has been said about staff compensation because when
discussing employee management and productivity the issue of
71
Education and Productivity in Nigeria
factors motivating people to work. The scientific management movement
led by Frederick Taylor had conceived money as the most important
factor in motivating workers to achieve higher productivity. Taylor
therefore advocated the use of an incentive wage system to stimulate or
motivate workers to higher performance. Adams (1972) in his version of
the Equity theory espoused the idea that the feeling of a worker that he is
being adequately rewarded for his labour and services can motivate him.
Central to this theory is the role of perception in motivation and the fact
that individuals make comparisons between compensation levels.
Equity theory states that if the individual feels that his
compensation is the same with another individual who possesses the
same job inputs and their productivity is roughly the same, he will
perceive the situation to be inequitable.
Expectancy theory developed by Vroom (1964) 'states that an
individual's motivation to perform is dependent on the expectancies that
individuals have concerning the beneficial outcomes of achieving a
particular target, and what value is placed on that outcome. The theory
posits that the amount of effort or energy expended by an employee is
determined by two key factors. The value or attractiveness of reward; the
degree to which the employee believes that increased effort will lead to
the attainment of this reward. It is generally believed that the level of
compensation paid to employees must reflect their contributions or their
level of productivity within the organisation. This course follows from the
equity theory which many private sector organisations use to determine
wages of workers. Specific and measurable goals and objectives are
established for employees as against the public sector where no such
goals are set. Salary increases are often awarded uniformly for everyone
on the same grade based on years on the job. This does not provide any
incentive for the employee to improve on his/her performance but
improved level of compensation is very important to the employee and\
even the country as it is suggestive of the economic prospect of the
country and the quality of life of the people. Higher compensation level
implies higher tax revenue for government under PAYE scheme. High
revenue would in return guarantee better quality of social services such
as education, health and environmental sanitation among others. 0wing
to rising cost of living and changing values of employees there is intense
concern now about setting pay levels to ensure workers' welfare.
So much has been said about staff compensation because when
discussing employee management and productivity the issue of
72
Education and Productivity in Nigeria
compensation and workers' welfare seem to be the greatest
determinants of productivity perhaps in countries such as Nigeria where
the lowest order needs are yet to be adequately satisfied.
Productivity
From the array of definitions earlier given, productivity can be
summed up to be the balance between all factors of production that give
the greatest returns for the smallest efforts. It is a measure produced by
input/output analysis. It can be expressed as the Naira value output per
man-hour work. Measurement experts on work management agree that
productivity could and can be measured. However, there is differing
opinion amongst experts as how precise the productivity oi-the individual
or organisation could be ascertained especially in such areas as the
service industry like the school system. Productivity can be measured at
the national, organisational and individual levels. Technically speaking,
when productivity is measured, we are actually measuring the efficiency
of the organisation or the individual in question. Given different industries
as well as the fact that there are many interpretations of productivity, the
different industries employ different yardsticks to measure productivity. It
is generally accepted that productivity measure indicates a rate of growth
in capabilities of respective companies and organisations to accomplish
and indeed fulfil their mission goals and ensuring that consumers receive
the goods and services in good condition, promptly and at affordable
prices.
In the service industry, the relationship between output and input
is complex hence it is not to be viewed in a simplistic manner. Indeed
experts opine that outcome resulting from the input/output calculations
and the standard by which outcomes are measured are often
ambiguous. In education, a service industry, one preoccupation with
productivity is to look at the main causes of low productivity with a view
to promoting higher production. According to Nwachukwu (1972) the
major causes of low productivity in Nigeria are economic, sociological,
managerial and technological.
Economic Factors
There should be correlation between effort expended by an
employee and the reward that he receives in the organisation When an
employee believes that equity does not prevail, he is bound to withhold a
measure
73
Education and Productivity in Nigeria
of his productivity. Because of inadequate compensation to employees,
there appears to be no commitment.
Sociological Factors
Employees treasure a sense of belonging to their organisation
and would resent any effort on the part of management to perceive and
treat them only as agents of production. Many Nigerian employees lack
sense of belonging to their organisation and they behave as strangers.
They do the least to avoid losing their employment. As long as
employees feel that they do not belong, there is tendency for them not to
exert themselves or have full sense of commitment and dedication.
Managerial Factors
As it is widely known, the success or failure of an organisation
depends on management. An unproductive and undisciplined supervisor
can hardly motivate employees. Many Nigerian managers are lacking in
the elementary principles of organisational behaviour. Many also do not
appreciate the importance of performance evaluation and feedbacks.
Employees get frustrated and productivity suffers. Management
influence, and in fact determines the productivity of the subordinates.
Where a manager is known for integrity, initiative, a sense of
justice and emotional stability, productivity is usually satisfactory.
Employees in the public sector tend to enjoy guaranteed employment
even in the face of cross negligence of duty. Since the government does
not attempt to maximize profit, redundant employees are retained, jobs
overlap and man hours are wasted.
Technological Factors
Technology as used here involves the use of new ideas,
techniques, innovation, methods and materials to achieve an objective.
In the educational system, the use of obsolete equipment is common.
Modern information techniques have not been put to general use in our
educational system. For instance, electronic computers, fax, e-mail and
internet are only available in a handful of institutions in the education
sector.
74
Education and Productivity in Nigeria
Mobilizing Staff for Greater Productivity
The Nigerian educational system is faced with many problems
such as labour flight, brain drain and even premature retirement. Those
on the job have perhaps resigned to their fate, hoping for a better
tomorrow. Therefore, it is desirable to address such issues as security of
tenure, job satisfaction, training, motivation, supervision and
management.
Beginning in 1975, retirement with immediate effect became a
part of the civil service and public service in Nigeria. Before that date,
tenure was secure and taken for granted. Retirements are now regular
features in these services. If we are to improve productivity in our
educational system and indeed in our national economy, security of
tenure must be guaranteed in our public service. Furthermore,
employees in the public service are neither satisfied with their job
security nor their remuneration and conditions of service. This is well
known by government and the general public in this country. If workers
are to give off their best, then attention must be focused on adequate
remuneration, staff training and development, adequate motivation,
monitoring and involvement of staff in matters concerning their welfare.
These are the ingredients for a virile and productive work force in the
Nigerian educational system.
Conclusion
What has become apparent from this chapter is that the term
productivity can be defined in different ways and productivity
measurement varies from one type of organisation to the other.
Since productivity involves human resources, staff personnel
management must be geared to attract, retain and motivate the best
human assets available. Nigerian employees especially in the
educational sector are capable of being as productive as their
counterparts in other parts of the world if they are properly mobilized
towards greater productivity.
References
Adams, J. S. (1972) Equity in social change. Advances in
Experimental Social Psychology. Edited by L. Berbouritz, New York:
Academic Press.
Awolowo, O. (1978) The people's republic. London: Oxford
University Press.
75
Education and Productivity in Nigeria
Inyang, L. A. (1995) Strategies for promotion of productivity at
the work place. A paper presented at the llorin National Productivity Day
Symposium, February 21.
Gege, Dele (1996) Maintenance strategy: Strategies for
improving productivity in the Nigerian economy. A paper presented at the
1996 Symposium at the National Productivity Day, February 28.
Miller, J. B. and Miller, M. G. (1973) Personnel and industrial
relations: A managerial approach. New York: Macmillan Company.
Nwachukwu, C. C. (1992) Management: Theory and Practice.
Lagos: Academy Press.
National Productivity Centre (1991) National Productivity Centre
Information Booklet. Lagos.
Oladunni, S. A (1998) An integrated approach to sectoral and
zonal compensation packages. Paper presented at the National
Workshop on Trade Unionism and National Building. Abuja.
Vroom, V. H. (1996) Work and Motivation. New York: John
Wiley.