Journal of Educational Theory and Practice. 5 (1&2), 1999.
THE ROLE OF NIGERIAN WOMEN IN
CULTURE AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
By
A. A. Jekayinfa
Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology,
University of Ilorin
ABSTRACT
This paper has embarked on a major discussion of the historical role and
contribution of the Nigerian women in culture and to the various sectors of the
economy, the requirements for advancement and constraints to greater
developments, the paper points out the detrimental effects which colonialism
have had on the social, political, cultural and economic status of the Nigerian
women, The paper also highlights the fact that in spite of the overwhelming
restrictions on the Nigerian women, they have tremendous achievements in
different parts of the country in participating so remarkably in various fields of
developments particularly in agriculture and in business. The paper made
mention of the effects which the Better Life and Family Support Programmes
had on the contribution of women to national development. It also recognizes
the fact that women have considerable potential more than the role they are
presently playing in National development. It made some recommendations which
can help to tap their (women) resources in order to ensure their optimal
performance in national development
INTRODUCTION
Women are at the heart of development as they control most of the non
monetary economy (subsistence, agriculture, bearing children, domestic labour
etc.) and play an important role in the monetary economy (trading, wage labour,
employment, etc (Yawa, 1995). Everywhere in the world, women work both
around the home and outside the home. The most topical issue in international
developmental programme is women.
The woman as a person is an agent of reproduction of life itself. This places
her in the position of the life blood of the entire humanity. She is the first
teacher, the sustained and maintainer of the home, the peace maker, the
symbol of beauty and major molder of the character of the child. She is a mother
of the human race. As mothers and wives, women do exert considerable impact
on the productivity of male workers. As workers in their own rights, they can
conveniently be linked to the rejected stone in the Bible which has become the
cornerstone of the house. By their sheer psychological, physiological and
intellectual make up, they do perform more than mere complimentary roles in the
production process (Jeminiwa, 1995).
Most of these contributions by women had not been recognized until recently
when the United Nations declared the Decade for Women (1976-1985) making it
mandatory on governments to focus on issue of women as an integral
component of national development. In 1979, the United Nations General
Assembly adopted the convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination
against women Consequently, subsequent conferences on women were held in
Copenhagen, Denmark 1980, Nairobi in kenya 1985 and Benjing in China 1995
However, an international news magazines 'Africa Today" reported in July
1995 that the full implementation of all the strategies and recommendations
of the various conferences on women issues had still not been achieved and
enthusiasm was wanning. According to the magazine, the UN itself reported that
only six out of the 184 ambassadors to UN are women and only four out of the
32 UN specialized agencies and programmes are headed by women.
Coming home in Nigeria, the 1995 constitutional conference in Nigeria had only
eight women out of a total of 369 delegates. Much of women's work remains
invisible, unremunerated and unrecognized. But women are now challenging
the status quo. Mechanisms to right the so called "Cultures wrong" are being put
in place. Women's voices are now being heard clamoring for an improvement in
their socio-economic status and for the recognition of their immense contributions
to national development (Amah, 1995).
It is the purpose of this paper therefore to highlight the role of women
particularly the Nigerian women in culture and national development.
The Role of Nigerian Women in Culture
The concept of culture has been defined in various ways. These various
definitions range from its simplistic forms to its complex forms. Culture is being
universally defined and understood as the totality of ways of life of a people or a
society. Sociologists, anthropologists and historians have offered a variety of
meanings of culture and the traits inherent in it. These and burial ceremony,
ethics and of course including philosophy of life (CESSAC 1986).
Clyde (1951) opined that culture represents the distinctive way of life of a
group of people. An American anthologist, Harrries (1971) defines cultures as
abstraction that summaries the pattern ways in which the member of a
population thinks, feel and behave. Asimalafe (1983) refused to accept
Harries definition in its totality but rather defined culture as"the total ways of
life of a people that help to think, promote, implement, shape and predict their
destiny”
Looking at the common thing in all these various definitions, Onwuejeogwu
(1994) sees culture as all material objects made by man ranging from stone
implement to atomic energy; and all non-material things thought out and
institutionalized by man ranging from values, norms to ideas like marriage,
economy, politics, religion, music, drama dance and language. The material and
non material forms according to him interact and interweave to form new
complete forms. In the context of this paper", culture is defined as all the
historically created designed to living, explicit and implicit, rational, irrational and
non-rational which exist at any given time as potential guides for the behaviour of
man. (Olorunnipa 1992), Culture is learned and shared, culture is transmitted
from generation to generation and in this process, culture is modified, renewed or
dropped. It is both static and dynamic.
Culture varies widely with respect to the roles they assigned to different sexes.
While one job may be regarded as a man's job in one society, it may be
regarded as women's job is another. This division Is with the exception of child
bearing. Child bearing is one constant factor that determines the division of
labour in pre-industrial societies. Because of child-bearing, women are less mobile
and therefore send to fill roles which they can perform closer to their houses
such as house keeping, weaving, midwifery and processing of food.
In examining women in culture, there is the need to develop them so as to be
able to keep pace with developments in the Nigerian socio-economic scene.
Apart from the physical attractions, women are indispensable at home not only in
the domestic work they do, but also in the taking care of the children. According
to Oyesakin (1982) women perform certain functions that make for development
they bear and take care of the children, they take care of the home and
economically they are helping hands to man. For example in Yorubaland, women
sell what the man produces and provide the rescue when he is in financial
difficulty.
Denise (1971) describes the roles and duties of women in the family as wives,
mothers and village politicians. He was of the opinion that women function in
various capacities ranging from monarchs and warriors to-founders of nations
states. According to Okonjo (1983), women's major roles in traditional Igbo
society were played in the home as wife and mother. Her husband did "men's
work" which entails clearing the bush and planting yam to provide the family
with enough yams until the next planting season, while the women planted
crops like pepper, okro etc. Women made mats, pottery and wove clothes ;
women processed palm –oil, palm kernels and market them. According to
Okono (1983), it is a punishment to deprive a woman opportunity of attending
the market. Levin (1965) describes the function which a market fulfills in the
life of the Igbo women when she says -it is the battle field, their opportunity,
their channel of expression, it is their club and theatre, their news- paper
and their post office. Looking at this crucial role of women in culture, one can
assume that, if the role is not properly learned, the national development we are
expecting may not be forthcoming. Women are the main custodian of social,
cultural and rudimental values of a society This custodian role of women has
been threatened by colonialism, modern technology and advent of Western
Education where women are grossly under privileged
The Issue of Gender In National Development
Development means different things to different people. Mabogunje (1980)
identifies them to be economic, growth, modernization distributive justice, socioeconomic transformation and spatial reorganization. Some people however
stressed material prosperity as the ultimate objectives of development efforts.
For example, Rogers (1976) describes development as a type of social change
in which new ideas are introduced within a social system to produce higher per
capital incomes and levels of living through more production, methods and
improved social organizations
Rogers (1980) believed that development should mean "a widely participatory
process of social changes in society intended to bring about social and material
advancement (including greater equality, freedom and other valued qualities) for
the majority of people through gaining control over their environment". Murrel,
(1992) has claimed that women predominate among the poor in the world today
and they are more in the rural areas. Their annual incomes throughout the world
have declined so sharply in recent years that they had fallen below poverty
line.
Rural women according to Jeminiwa (1995), are getting poorer and further
marginalized both in the utilization of available resources and access to
development resources. Although, male chauvinists may be right in saying that
women are affected by poverty, it is clear to the most simplistic analyst that
women are far more disadvantaged and more vulnerable. The UNDP report
(1990), claimed that majority of African women still work for between 14-18 hours
per day and produce between 50-80 percent of Sub-Sahara Africa's food, fetch
water, gather firewood, and care for the family In Nigeria, according to ijere
(1991), women form over half of the rural population and it is estimated that 80
percent of rural labour force is provided by women. Another estimate by the
UNDP claims that about one third of all African households are headed by
women.
In terms of sectional allocation, agriculture appears to be the occupation of
70.3 per cent of Nigeria rural women. Yet it is known that agriculture has the
largest chunk of the poor for women, the poverty is compounded by the fact that
only 8 percent of women hold title to the land they work on (UNFPA, 1992). In
the education sector, women also fare worse than men. For example, 46.3
percent of female world wide are considered illiterate (UNFPA, 1993), in Nigeria,
the percentage of women-illiterates is 67 percent.
Education brings benefits to the educated in the forms of access to information
and more economic and political influence. Education can make women gain
more authority in the home and greater control over resources as a prelude to
having more say in family decision. Education is required for skill's acquisition
and consequently to increase the competitiveness of women. Low education
therefore generally limits the upward mobility of Nigerian women.
The data enumerated so far are mere tips of the ice berg and seem to suggest
that women are grossly disadvantaged. This therefore raises the issue of
women participation in development process. If development is about people
and there are evidences that a group of those people are disadvantaged, it
has implications about their level and degree of participation. But one sho uld
identify female’s different profession so that appropriate clues to reality can
be provided.
Arnstein (1969) in her popular 'ladder of citizen participation" has provided
a useful tool. She identifies various steps of participation from informing and
incorporating their needs into national development programmes or are they
in full control of their situations? National development is about human beings
the enablement of blooming of the creative capabilities, irrespective of sex.
Development starts with people irrespective of sex and addresses the issues
of the orientation, organization, values, self reliance, self esteem and
discipline and proceeds to the production and utilization of material
endowments for improved and sustainable quality of life
Colonialism and its effects on Women Participation in Development
Process in Nigeria
Nigeria's association with the British as its colonizers has left an indelible
mark on the socio-cultural attitudes and patterns of behaviour of its citizens.
As regards women, Nigerian men have carefully selected and interpret from
the British, a model that relegates women to the kitchen thus destroying the
indigenous courage and capabilities displayed by their great grand mothers in
service to their communities. (Dadirep 1995).
Coming from a background where a woman's place was in kitchen, the
colonial masters and administrations thought it strange to find the African
woman involved in substantial economic and political activities outside the
home (kitchen). According to Dadirep (1995) the naturalistic movements of the
period in England in the 18th and 19th centuries re-emphasized the fact that
the physiology of women naturally made them timid, feeble and unable to
think because they hold 'smaller' brains than men. In view of this, women
naturally need the protection of a man with powers and the brains.
Colonialism led to the changing roles of women. In his paper, "Urbanisation
and social change, Mabogunje (1969) argued that the "PULL" factor and the
opportunities offer by the new cities induced the limited opportunities of the
country side. The movement to the city results in discontinuity with the role of
women in traditional setting. One can then rightly say that colonialism
disrupted the internal cohesion and harmony of African Societies. It resulted
in an uphill of the cultural content of the Nigeria society. Colonialism raped the
Nigerian Society and imported its own concepts of culture. The African culture
and that of Nigeria in particular at the time of Colonialism had lost its functional
role. It is no more the basis by which the individual including women can
determine his/her relationship vis-à-vis his or her fellow human being and the
society at large. The Nigeria value system during this period was modified and
imported ones were introduced. The Nigeria customs and traditions were
described as primitive. What operated then was just a position of two cultures
with the foreign one, enjoying the privileged position by being the expression
of the dominant political power. One then needs to ask the question that how
can women in such a confused culture contribute positively to the national
development?
Women and Development in Nigeria
Some people have identified some areas of development where women are
active in Nigeria. Mabogunje (1991) identified the eight cardinal elements of
sustainable development as they affect women, e.g. education, health, culture
politics, economy, agriculture, enhanced environment, quality and peaceful coexistence.
Nigerian women take active part in agriculture. In a study of women's
participation in agricultural production in Northern Nigeria's rural areas, Ahmed
Ogungbile and Olukosi (1991), found that women were active participants in the
process. According to them, about 90 percent of the women interviewed had
farming as their main occupation (both arable and pastoral) including those in
purdah. The general patrilineal system of inheritance enabled most women in
Northern Nigeria to have access to land through their husbands who acquire it
through inheritance
Women in this part of the country who had farms of their own had half the sizes
of the men's farm. They planted the same type of crops like the men but they
(women) were hardly physically involved in land preparation and molding but
they were involved in fertilizer application, punting, thinning, weeding and
harvesting.
In some parts of Nigeria e.g. the south eastern state however, women are
involved in land preparation and moulding. They have full control in their
contribution to agricultural development. Though, there are traces of division of
labour based on sex, the functions of women could not possibly be dispensed
with if maximum production is to be attained
Nigeria Women and Informal Sector Activities
Perhaps the field where Nigerian women have excelled and where they
have contributed immensely to National development is trading especially in the
bulking, transportation, exchange and distribution of food stuff. According to
Mabogunje (1991), all over Nigeria, especially in the southern parts, periodic
markets are held every fourth, fifth or eight day where food stuff from farm is
brought by rural women and sold to urban women. So regular and efficient has
this process been that most urban Nigerians are not even aware of how foodstuff
ends up in their kitchens. Indeed Jones (1969) commented that "If tropical
markets for basic food-stuffs worked less well, we should probably know a great
deal more about them
The same unobtrusive efficiency characterizes women's participation in the
trade in imported food items and beverages. Women have also been prominent
in Nigeria in the processing and public preparation of food items generally in
various crafts and cottage industries and in the provision of various services
such as hair dressing, laundry, restaurants and running of public drinking places
(Mabounje 1991).
The Better life programme which was launched in 1987 as well as the Family
Support programme of the Abacha administration did a lot to enhance women's
participation in development process, in spite of their attendant circumstantial
and congenital constraints, some specific achievements can be attributed to the
programmes in some parts of Nigeria i.e.
1
Many women co-operative societies and unions were formed and
registered. These societies and unions were for all aspects of multipurpose co-operative endeavours namely farming, fish smoking, gari
processing, soya-drink production, thrift and credit.etc
2
a)
b)
c)
d)
Many women are deeply involved in
Production of black soap;
Production of honey;
Approach of day care and primary schools;
Organization of literacy classes;
e) Preservation of perishable food
items;
f) Promotion of EPI/ORT activities;
and
(g) Promotion of sanitation programmes
Role of Nigeria Women in Politics
Nigerian women played a vital role in politics during the pre-colonial era,
African social system and the form of division of labour which existed. Nigerian
women participated in politics and government through the institution of women
chiefs, the authority of first born daughters and the age grades. According to
Afonja (1996), the advent of colonialism disturbed the functioning of these
traditional institutions, suppressing them and imposing alien systems through
education, religion and other socio-cultural institutions. In pre-colonial Nigeria,
women played prominent roles in politics and held important positions among
the majority of ethnic groups, particularly among the Hausa, the Yoruba and the
Igbo.In the Hausa society, the dominant people culturally belong to a
civilization characterized by matrilineal succession in the ruling class, women
held high political offices. A particular case in point was queen Amina of Zaria
who succeeded her father’s throne and ruled for thirty-four years.
The Yoruba and Edo, were geographically grouped together from 1954-1963.
Politics in these societies centered around the Oba with his capital and his
palace. In the Oyo Empire, women were political activists in the Alafin’s palace.
His many wives acted as his eyes and ears and as his secret service in the
course of their trading activity.
Women who were title holders like the lyalagbo, lyalode, lya kere contributed
to the smooth functioning of the political machinery. They were responsible for
the spiritual well being of the Oba in some parts of the capital city, being in
charge of market places, taking custody of the palace treasures respectively.
These group of women according to Afonja(1996), formed an effective group of
spokes women for political stability and humane rule as well as for the interest of
women at the highest political level in the kingdom. Their lives were bound with
that of the ruling monarch and so, they were expected t o depart to the land of
the spirits in the event of his death.
The Edos also have a high socio-political system where the women were active.
Among them was the lyeoba (Queen mother). After the Oba's ascension to the
throne, she took part in the running of the affairs of the Benin Kingdom.
Unfortunately, the traditional phase in Yoruba and Edo political evolution
ushered in by the imposition of the pax Britannica and British colonial rule,
eliminated women from their exalted institutional position in traditional politics
replacing the traditional political system with a western oriented system in which
women had no place
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In spite of the imposed constraints on the Nigerian women, there is
overwhelming evidence from what have been discussed in this paper that they
are formidable productive force and a store of incredibly human resources
which are required for national development. They can dictate the pace and
direction of the economy and society. Their sheer numerical strength is enough
to jolt cynics. Their contribution cannot be discountenanced in house hold and
national economies. The current role of women in national development is
considerable but the potential is far more considerable. In order to identify and
tap these resources so as to ensure optimal performance in national
development, efforts should be made for holistic development of women along
the following lines.
(a) Ensure major policy interventions to bring women's social status and
economic opportunities at par with those of men;
(b) Shift emphasis in regional development efforts to the provision of
infrastructures and location of production ventures in marginalized areas;
c) Identification and removal of all appearances of discrimination based on
sex;
Special child care security/allowance should be put in place because
a properly brought up child is an asset to the society and not to the
mother alone;
e) Converted efforts have to be made by women themselves to be heard,
seen and involved in all ventures, including political ones because the best
advocates for women emancipation must be women themselves;
f) Credit facilities that are commensurate with their properties within the
population should made easily accessible to women;
g) Cottage economic activities that are socially acceptable and economically
viable should identified and concerted efforts should be made to integrate
such activities in to the purdan system to carry the women in purdan
along with development process; and
h) All plans for the achievement of the objective of women development
progress should Meticulously designed and faithfully executed
(Jeminiwa, 1995).
d)
REFERENCES
Afonja, S.(1996). Women and the political agenda in Nigeria Keynote
Address delivered Predrich Ebert Foundation's Workshop on popular
participation'in Governance, Ikogosi. Ekiti, Nigeria, August 16th-18th
African Today, (1995). The international news magazine, Vol.1 Issue 2, Pg. 15
July/August, Iff Kingdom Headley Brothers Ltd.
Ahmed, Ogungbile and Oiukosi (1991). "Women's participation in agncutural
production in Northern Nigeria" in Women and Trade Unionism in
Nigeria. Ibadan, Johnmof Printers Limited.
Amah, E. (1995). Developing Nigerian women managers for socio-economic
transformation in Nigeria, Management in Nigeria, Vol. 27, No.6, 2nd
edition.
Arnstein S.R. (1969). A ladder of citizen participation in the U.S.A. Journal of the
American Institute of Planners. Vol. XXXV, No.4th July.
Asimalafe, A.K. (1983) The conflict between traditional African marriage"
The case of Un Erhurun, Bendel State. An Unpublished B.A. Project
UNIBEN.
CESSAC (1979). Nigerian secondary schools social studies Project - Social
Studies, Lagos, Heinemann Educational Books (Nigeria) Limited.
Clyde, K, (1951) "The study of cuiture' : in the Policy Sciences (ed.) D.
Leaner Stan Standford University Press.
Dadirep. M.E. (1995); A preview of women participation in the modern sector of
the Labour, in Women and trade unionism in Nigeria Ibadan: Johnmof
Printers limited
Dennise, Pallme (1971). Women of tropical Africa. Carlifonia. Wads Worth
Company inc
Harries Marvin (1971) Culture, people and nature: An introduction to general
anthropology New)' Thomas Y. Crovell Publ, Co
Ijere, M.O (1991) Women in Nigeria economy Enugu ACENA Publishers.
Jeminiwa, O. (1995) "The role of women in national development" In women
and trade unionism in Nigeria. Ibadan: Johnmof Printers Limited
Jones, W.0. (1969). Marketing of staple food crops in tropical African food
research institute California, Stanford University Press
Levion Ross, S (1965). African women: a study of Igbo of Nigeria. London
Routhedge and Kegan limited.
Mabogunje, A. L (1969). Urbanisation and social change., London,
University of London Press.
Mabogunje, A.L. (1980). The development process; A spatial perspective.
London: Hutchinsm limited.
Mabogunje, A.L. (1991). Women in business and agribusiness in Nigeria
mimeograph .Ibadan. Wemilore Press.
Mabogunje, A.L. & Obasanjo (1991). Elements of development. Abeokuta.
ALF Publications.
Marelli, A. (1992). Towards economic advancement of rural Women, Ilorin.
The Herald
Okonjo,I,K. (1976). The role of women in Social Change among the Igbos of
South-Eastern Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis - University of
Ibadan.
Okojo, J. (1983). “Sex roles in Nigeria politics" In O. Oppong, (Ed.) Female
and male in west Africa. United Kingdom: George Allen and Unwin
Publisher Limited
Olorunnipa, A.E. (1992). Ethnography and culture. Unpublished M.Ed thesis.
University of Ibadan,
Onvuejeogwu, M.A. (1994). Culture as a vehicle for nation building. Paper
Presented at a workshop organized by Edo State Council for Arts and
Culture Benin City on 25th February
Oyesakin, A. (1982). The image of women in Ifa Literary Corpus", Nigeria
Magazine No. 141. Pp 9.
Rogers, E. (1976), The Passing of the Dominant Paradign - Reflections on
Diffusion Research, in schwann, Wand Learner, D, (eds), Communication and
Change: The last Ten Years and the Neft honolulu, University of Hawaic
Publishing Press.
Roger , B. (1980) The Domestication of Women. London Tavistock Press.
UNDP (1990 ) UNDP in Africa, Division of information, May.
UNFPA (1992). Women. Population and the Environment, Information and
External Relations Division. New York
Yawa, P.M. (1985) Government Policies, Equal Opportunities and the rights of
Women in Nigeria's Setting in Women and Trade Unionism in Nigeria
Ibadan, Johnmof printer, Limited