COURSE CODE: FWM 203
COURSE TITLE: PRINCIPLES OF
CONSERVATION IN TROPICAL AFRICA
NUMBER OF UNIT: 2 UNITS
COURSE DURATION: TWO HOURS PER WEEK
DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY AND WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT
COLLEGE OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE, ABEOKUTA
COURSE COODINATOR: DR I. O. O. OSUNSINA
E-mail: osunsinaisrael@yahoo.com
Office Location: E 211, COLERM
OTHER LECTURERS: DR M. O. O. OYATOGUN
COURSE CONTENT
The need
for conservation. Aims and
objectives of conservation. Target species,
courses of migration and emigration in fish
and wildlife species. Conservation methods
and techniques for critical ecosystems such as
watersheds, hilly areas, grazing lands, open pit
mining ,areas of broken topography and
marginal environment preservation of
endangered plants and animals.
COURSE REQUIREMENT
This is a compulsory course for all students in
Department of Forestry and Wildlife
Management and Aquaculture and Fisheries
Management. In view of this, students are
expected to participate in all the course
activities and have minimum of 75%
attendance to be able to write the final
examination.
READING LIST
Definition of Terms
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Conservation is the management of human use of the biosphere so that it may
yield the greatest sustainable benefit to present generations, while maintaining its
potential to meet the needs and aspiration of future generations. Conservation as
rendered involves preservation, maintenance, sustainable utilization, restoration
and enhancement of the natural environment.
Wildlife or Wild animal species refers to all living things, plants, invertebrates and
vertebrates outside the direct control of man (that is, all non-cultivated plants and
non-domesticated animals). It embraces all animals in their natural habitat. They
are undomesticated animals which may be small organisms only visible to humans
if seen through a microscope or as big as the elephant or whale. Wildlife includes
but it is not limited to insects, spiders and birds, reptiles, fish, amphibians, and
mammals if not domesticated (NCF, 1994).
Biodiversity or Biological diversity refers to the total variability of living organisms
on the planet (UNEP, 1995). It is defined in terms of genes, species and ecosystem
which are the outcome of over 3,000 million years of evolution. As biological
concept, biodiversity is an essential or a necessary tool for human survival.
Definition of Terms (CONTD)
• Wildlife management has been defined as the combination and
application of business methods and ecological knowledge to
manipulate undomesticated fauna and flora (wild animal and plant)
resources in a way that ensures their products and services will be
sustained. The application of ecological principles and knowledge to
the management of wildlife entails certain basic approaches viz:
• Preservation of wild species and allowing nature to follow a
balance, devoid of any human intervention.
• Direct or indirect manipulations of wild fauna population such as
through cropping, culling, habitat alteration and other habitat
management tool so as not to exceed carrying capacity.
• Maintenance of useful and desirable species.
• Sustained-yield management through limiting consumptive
utilization to annual production capacity.
Definition of Terms (CONTD)
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Consumptive utilization is the extraction of resources for the production of
consumer goods and services. Apart from providing food other types of
consumptive uses of wildlife include products such as skins and hides, materials
for hand crafts, or ceremonial uses , oils and medicines, live animal trades, sport,
hunting, stock resources for domestication or improvement of domesticated
breeds, farming activities and mineral resources exploitation. All activities directed
towards production of goods and services which often lead to the degradation of
the environment.
Non-consumptive utilization is defined as the provision of natural amenities and
services for recreational use such as game viewing, nature trail, swimming, boating
and other water related recreational activities in lake and waterfall. It includes
spiritual and religious values, values due to the willingness of local and
international user-public (tourist) to pay to see living and non-living resources in
the natural setting.
Sustainable use is the rate of harvest within the capacity of species and their
habitats to maintain themselves. Sustainable use can be non-consumptive or
consumptive in nature.
Commercial use is defined as the management of native wildlife for profit. The
terms utilization and commercial use are interchangeable.
Status Categories of Species
• Extinct (Ex); species has not been seen in the wild
or in captivity during the past 50 years.
• Extinct In the Wild (BW): As above, but the
species is still held in zoological gardens on other
live collection.
• Ecological Extinction is defined as the reduction
of a species to such low abundance that though it
is still present in the community, it no longer
interacts significantly with other species.
Status Categories of Species
• Extirpation : species is not extinct, but no longer
occurring in a wild state or no longer exhibiting
patterns of use.
• Critically Endangered (CR): The species is very
threatened and at risk of becoming extinct.
• Endangered (EN): Any native species in immense
danger of extirpation or extinction. Species is
unlikely to survive if the factor thus is posing
threat persists.
• Vulnerable (VU): Likely to become endangered in
the future if factor that is posing threat persists.
Status Categories of Species
• Near Threatened (NT): Species is approaching
the threshold of vulnerability.
• Data Deficient (DD): Strongly suspected or
thought to belong to one of the above
categories but data is insufficient to
substantiate.
• Rare (R): Species has small global population
that is not threatened but is at risk.
Status Categories of Species
• Low Risk-Conservation Dependent (LR/CD):
Species is in no immediate danger, but survival
will depend on implementation of effective
conservation measures in its range.
• Low Risk-Not threatened (LR/NT): Species is
in no immediate danger, but needs to be
consistently monitored.
• (Adapted from IUCN threatened species
categories 1996)
NATURAL RESOURCES
• Natural resources are naturally occurring resources in the
environment that have not been disturbed by mankind. By
resource is meant any physical entity, which has limited
availability. These resources occur in their natural form.
Few examples of natural resources are:
• Air, wind and atmosphere
• Plants (Flora)
• Animals (Fauna)
• Wildlife
• Forest
• Coal and fossil fuels
• Range and pasture
• Soils
• Water, oceans, lakes and rivers
NATURAL RESOURCES
• Biotic Natural Resources:
Natural resources extracted from the biosphere of earth
are categorized as biotic. The biotic resources can be
obtained in the raw form, or by means of cultivation
through agriculture. Petroleum is a resource that has to be
included in the category of biotic natural resources. This is
because, it has an organic origin. The following list provides
names of resources directly obtained from the biosphere.
Timber , Petroleum, Natural Gas, Fruits, Wax (tree wax).
• Abiotic Natural Resources:
Minerals, metals and other such materials (non-living) fall
in the category of abiotic natural resources.The different
abiotic natural resources are enlisted below. Gold, Coal
,Diamond , Silver, Bauxite , Nickel, Copper , Limestone e.t.c.
THE NEED FOR CONSERVATION
It is known that man’s survival, comfort and development depends
largely on materials obtainable from natural resources. We rely on
these resources for air, food, water, clothing, shelter minerals and
drugs. However, these resources can become non –renewable if
the demand and utilization exceeds its recycling capacity. In this
case, exploitation is said to have exceeded the rate of the
production of these resources. Indicators of such hazard
exploitation of such natural resources in Nigeria include:
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(1) Increase desertification and drought in the north.
(2) Soil erosion and gully erosion e.g in Gombe & Eastern States
(3) Deforestation in the west
(4) It result in poor yield of crops in farmlands that are not
artificially fertilised
• (5) It results in the decline in the population of wild flora and
fauna species.
SPECIES LOSS: A GLOBAL CONCERN
Available evidence indicates that human activities are
leading to the loss of the planets’ biological diversity
which implies erosion of biological resources that are
essential for future development. For instance it has
been observed that normal states of extinction
(disappearance of species) of many of the world’s
biological resources have accelerated and result of on
going destruction of forests and other biological rich
habitats. It is estimated that by the year 2020, one
million or more species of plants animals and other
microbes would have been lost to the planet (United
Nation Agenda 21, 1993).
FACTORS THAT HINDERS SPECIES
ABUNDANCE
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Changing environment
Man – wild life conflict
Hunting and poaching
The use of mammals as foods
Wild mammals as pests
Wild mammals as disease vectors
Economic policies
Climaterics: changes in weather condition
Pollution
METHOD OF CONSERVING NATURAL
RESOURCES
• In-situ Conservation
• In-situ conservation means "on-site conservation". It is the
process of protecting an endangered plant or animal
species in its natural habitat, either by protecting or
cleaning up the habitat itself, or by defending the species
from predators. In-situ conservation, the conservation of
species in their natural habitats, is considered the most
appropriate way of conserving biodiversity. Conserving the
areas where populations of species exist naturally is an
underlying condition for the conservation of biodiversity.
That's why protected areas form a central element of any
national strategy to conserve biodiversity.
METHOD OF CONSERVING NATURAL
RESOURCES
• Ex-situ Conservation
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Ex-situ conservation means literally, "off-site conservation".
Ex-situ conservation is the preservation of components of
biological diversity outside their natural habitats. It is the
process of protecting an endangered species of plant or
animal by removing part of the population from a
threatened habitat and placing it in a new location, which
may be a wild area or within the care of humans. This
involves conservation of genetic resources, as well as wild
and cultivated species, and draws on a diverse body of
techniques and facilities. Some of these include:
• Gene banks, e.g. seed banks, sperm and ova banks, field
banks;
METHOD OF CONSERVING NATURAL
RESOURCES
• In vitro plant tissue and microbial culture
collections;
• Captive breeding of animals and artificial
propagation of plants, with possible
reintroduction into the wild; and
• Collecting living organisms for zoos, aquaria,
and botanic gardens for research and public
awareness.
METHOD OF CONSERVING NATURAL
RESOURCES
• Ex-situ conservation measures can be complementary to in-situ
methods as they provide
an "insurance policy" against extinction. These measures also have
a valuable role to play in recovery programmes for endangered
species. The Kew Seed Bank in England has 1.5 per cent of the
world's flora - about 4,000 species - on deposit.
• In agriculture, ex-situ conservation measures maintain
domesticated plants which cannot survive in nature unaided. Exsitu conservation provides excellent research opportunities on the
components of biological diversity. Some of these institutions also
play a central role in public education and awareness raising by
bringing members of the public into contact with plants and
animals they may not normally come in contact with. It is estimated
that worldwide, over 600 million people visit zoos every year. Ex
situ conservation measures should support in-situ conservation
measures (in-situ conservation should be the primary objective).
CONSERVATION POLICIES AND OBJECTIVES
There are four main policies and objectives of
conserving wildlife spp. They are:
1. Maintenance of essential ecological processes and
life support system
2. Preservation of genetic diversity
3. Sustainable Utilization of Flora and Fauna spp and
the ecosystem
4. Preservation of historical site, land scopes, or
geomorphological formation that has cultural
scientific or aesthetic value.
METHODS OF CONSERVING RARE FAUNA SPP.
These are divided into two
A. Saving Endangered wild Fauna spp. From extinction
1. Granting national park or game reserves status to operate
2. Taking most of the animals if not all into captivity for
breeding and returning them back to the natural wild habitat
3. Translocating the animals from endangered zone to a place
of safety such as the national park, game reserve, wildlife
sanctuary and release them.
4. Public education and scientific research into captive
breeding.
METHODS OF CONSERVING RARE FAUNA SPP.
B. Method relating to preventing fauna spp from spp reaching near
extinction
1. Effective and regular public enlightenment programme on values of
conserving natural resources rather than emphasizing penalties on
poaching.
2. Motivating and increasing the numbers of game reservation staffs for
regular patrol and effective surveillance within and outside the protected
area.
3. Equipping the staff in the game reserve with good communication
gadgets and modern weapons for defence.
4. Imposing stiffer penalty or imprisonment or fines on poachers
5. Check illegal grazing of domestic livestock and poaching in conservation
area to reduce lopping of trees, illegal bush fire, curtail diseases
transmission from domestic livestock to wildlife stock e.g. the rinderpest
disease out break in Yankari National Park Bauchi state was believed to
have originated from domestic livestock.
Reasons for Controlling Stocking
1.To maintain the ecological relationship
existing between the biotic and a biotic
communities.
2.To maintain the production capacity of the
habitat without deterioration.
3.To avoid depletion of the food resources.
METHODS OF CONSERVING VEGETATION
i. Imposing stiffer penalties on indiscriminate cutting of trees.
ii. Enlightening the citizens on the indiscriminate or uncontrolled
bush burning
iii. Afforestation programme nationwide and if all levels, states,
federal, family, world and individual
iv. Encourage the use of coal, gas, kerosene, solar energy and
other non-wood energy sources
v. Provision of subsidies by federal and state government for use
of other fuels instead of fuel wood and the adoption of
improved and efficient cooking stove.
TRAITS OF VULNERABLE SPECIES
Some species of animals have attributes that make them more
vulnerable than others some of the major characteristic traits
are:
• Specialization: Not all species are equally vulnerable to being
destroyed or wipeout. Those vulnerable tend to be
specialists, organisms that live within a narrow range of
tolerance. Owen and Charias (1985) categories the feeding
habit of animals into two categories. The stenophagous
animal, which maintains a specialized, or limited diet and are
therefore prone to starvation when their usual foods are
scarce. An example is the China’s panda, which eats the
leaves of certain bamboo trees. If the bamboo is destroyed
the panda will vanish.
TRAITS OF VULNERABLE SPECIES
Low Biotic Potential
• Some animal species are extremely vulnerable to environmental stress such as
storms, drought and disease, because of their low biotic potential. The female
polar bear for example breeds only once every three years and then gives birth to
only two cubs. The female California condor lays only a single egg every other
year. The problem is further complicated by the fact that Condors require 6 to 7
years to reach reproductive age (Owen and Charias, 1985).
• As earlier stated the African elephant have a gestation period of 2 years and
requires 14 – 16 years to reach reproductive age (Shortridge, 1934). So also the
African rhinoceros, which have a gestation period of about 15 months and requires
long period to reach reproductive age (Petrides, 1965 and Walker, 1978).
Non Adaptive Behaviour
• Some animal species posses a characteristic trait, which makes them an easy
target for hunter. The endangered drills (Mandrillus leucophaeus) found in some
part of Nigeria and Cameroon has certain feeding and other behavioural traits
which makes them an easy target for hunters. The Drills unique food, foraging
technique of turning up the forest floor and stripping the lowmid level vegetation,
provides hunters with signs of track of the drill (Gadsby, 1990; Schafer et al., 1990;
Hearn and Berghaier, 1996).
FIRE ECOLOGY
This deals with bush burning which occurs worldwide. It affects
the life of plants, animal and their habitats
Causes of Fire
Fire in the savannah is caused by natural phenomena such as
lightening, volcanic eruption, sparks from rock boulder andman.
It should be noted that even though effects of fires caused by
lightning, volcanic eruptions and sparks from rocks may be
significant in natural ecosystems, they are relative milder in their
destructive effects and spread than the man caused fires. Man
causes fire deliberately or accidentally.
Types of Fire
There are three main types of fires considering the portion of
the vegetation that is consumed by the fire: Ground fires,
Surface fires and Crown fires.
1. Ground fires: Ground fires are usually flameless and can
penetrate to the Subterranean. They are mostly common in
places where the soil is laid with thick layer of leaf litters, dry
twigs, branches and organic matter
2. Surface fires: Surface fires feature above the round surface
and their flames usually consume the litter, herbs and shrubs.
They also scorch the bases of any tree along their route.
3. Crown fires: Crown fires are fires that burn on the crown of
trees and shrubs.
Reasons Of Burning
1. Pre-historic men uses fire for warfare and roasting
meat
2. For the cultivation of land preparation, settlement
and Urbanization
3. Fire smoke is used by hunters to drive away bees for
honey collection
4. To drive out wild animals during hunting
5. For religious and social festivals prior to rain season
6. Cattle rearers use fire to keep away tse-tse fly and
destroy the vectors
IMPACT OF BUSH BURNING IN THE SAVANNAH
Bush burning has several advantage and disadvantages
Advantages of Bush Burning in the Savannah
1. Early burning reduces the danger of accidental fire, therefore
it protect game reserve, Natural park and forest reserves
2. Burning improve visibility for game view
3. Burning increase the nutritive value of fresh grass. It
improves herbage, higher herbage is obtain after burning
4. Burning eliminates undesirable plant
5. Fire facilitate the movement of animals, man and fire fighting
Equipments
6. Fire is use in pest control e.g tse-tse fly and tick which
transmit human diseases
Disadvantage of Bush Burning
1. Burning injure range plants by removing top shoot.
2. It causes the deterioration of vegetation and destroy the
ecosystem or modify them
3. Burning lead to lost of organic Nitrogen, carbonaxious
materials and organic matter i.e. there is decrease in the
fertility of the soil leading to decrease in output
4. Uncontrolled burning destroy mulching, thereby reduces
effective rainfall through increase run off and decrease
percolation.
5. Burning removes vegetation leading to drying off of perennial
streams and accelerate drought
Effects of Fire on Environmental/Ecological Variables and Processes
Fire can affect the following environmental variables either directly or indirectly:
Soil: Fire can affect the soil in the following ways
1. Affects numbers and rate of activity of soil organism.
2. Removing or changing rates of soils organic matter formation and accumulation
3. Affecting surface compactness
4. Affecting soil water retention properties.
5. Affecting amounts and availability of essential nutrients
6. Removing soil surface horizons through surface run-off and sheet erosion.
Water: Fire can affect the water in the following ways
1. Changing rates of transpiration and evaporation
2. Changing rates of permeability and subsurface flow/ run-off
3. Affecting amount and rate of sedimentation
4. Changing stream and river structure, through bank and surrounding vegetation
destruction.
Effects of Fire on Environmental/Ecological Variables and Processes
Vegetation: Both directly and directly through the habitat effects mentioned
above e.g.
1. Changing direction and speed of vegetation succession
2. Affect plant biomass, structure and shape
3. Affect plant phenology
4. Affect plant quality in terms of nutrient content and availability
Animal: Fire can affect the animal in the following ways
1. Changing the shape or amount of cover used by the animal
2. Changes in animal food, plant palatability and availability.
3. Indirectly altering water availability
4. Causing death or injury to young animals and destroys nests and eggs of
animal
General Guideline on the Use of Fire as a Management Tool in
Protected Areas
• Do not burn in periods of extreme drought
• Do not burn in very windy conditions when fire can
get out of hand of spread to unscheduled habitat
• Ensure wildlife will not be trapped by fires
• Burn small areas at a time- do not start longer fire
lines than you can control
• Cut, rather than burn, where feasible
• Know the fire ecology and fire history of the area and
monitor and record all burns
SOIL EROSION PROBLEM
Soil erosion is the systematic removal of soil particles
from the earth surface. It is the major environmental
degradation occurring mostly when the soil is exposed.
5 major types that has been identify in Nigeria
1. Wind Erosion
2. Coastal Erosion
3. Riverine Erosion
4. Sheet Erosion
5. Gully Erosion
EFFECTS OF EROSION
1. It renders farmland barren. Imo State, Abia, Enugu,
Cross river.
2. It can result in desertification
3. Siltation of water courses and breeding site of
aquatic animals
4. It causes overall reduction in water quality of creeks,
river and coastal areas
5. It removes top soil that is rich in nutrient and organic
matter
CONSERVATION TECHNIQUE FOR
CRITICAL ECOSYSTEM
CONSERVATION TECHNIQUE FOR CRITICAL ECOSYSTEM for example Wetland,
hilly land, grazing area and marginal lands
1. Wetland e.g Hadejia – Nguru. Wet land have marshy soil with permanent
or seasonal water, its conservation is essential for survival of plants and
animals including man.
USES OF WET LAND
1. In Alluvia soil - Fadama is very fertile to support Agric through the rain
fed cultivation and impacted farming Crops cultivated are Rice, beans,
millet, maize and groundnut
2. The large area of the surface water and water flowing in rivers channels
recharge the ground water system or else bore-holes in adjacent 150
villages will dry up
3. The surface water support fishing for local consumption and sales
4. The forest near the wet land support fuel wood, plant and vegetative
USES OF WATER BIRDS AND WETLANDS
1. Serve as ecological indicator, wherever they are found in wet
land area show that the water is healthy for man
2. The bird dropping enrich the water by supplying necessary
nutrient use by aquatic plant to flourish
3. Some of them e.g cattle egret and heron eat finger lings to
reduce over stocking of fish
4. Other Birds feed on Insect which may damage crop therefore
serve as pest control
5. This migrant bird improve international co-operation between
nation,
Problems of Wetland
1.Over-razing by domestic livestock
2.Over-fishing, some even use mosquito net for
fishing
3.Tree felling use of tractor to clear land for
cultivation
4.The exposed water will dry-up
5.Dry-up of wetland during draught
Conservation Technique for Wet Land
1.Vegetative along water courses must not be
cut down, this is to conserve and stabilise
water generation
2.Over-grazing must be avoided
3.Stop the use of obnoxious chemicals for killing
fish
4.Avoid wild fire or uncontrolled bush burning
Steps in the Process of Developing a
Management Plan
1 Form the planning team: include a variety of people with expertise in planning,
ecology, sociology, economics and various other resource sciences. Also include
the protected area authorities and the people who manage the park, as well as
those who will be affected by the plan. The team should consult with scientists,
experts on tourism, educators, concessionaires and people living in and around the
protected area.
2 State the objectives of the area: analyse the original reasons for creating the
protected area and, if necessary, update the objectives as a function of modern
conditions.
3 Gather basic background information: this includes legislation, data on biophysical
features, cultural resources and socio-economic data. (These and the next points
will be expanded below in the section on information required for the
management plan).
4 Field inventory: consult and update existing data, gather new information and
develop the information base to make informed management decisions.
5 Assess constraints: limitations of an environmental, economic, political,
administrative, or legal, nature should be recognized and analyzed, with an
emphasis on realism.
CATEGORIES OF PROTECTED AREA
• CATEGORY 1 STRICT NATURE RESERVES / WILDERNESS
AREAS
• Protected areas managed mainly for science or wilderness
protection. These two types of
• protected area are treated as sub-categories:
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• Category 1a Strict Nature Reserves
• Areas of land and / or sea possessing some outstanding or
representative ecosystems,
• geological or physiological features and / or species,
available primarily for scientific research and / or
environmental monitoring.
CATEGORIES OF PROTECTED AREA (contd)
• Category 1b Wilderness areas
• These are protected areas managed mainly for
wilderness protection. They should include a
large area of unmodified or slightly modified
land, and / or sea, retaining their natural
character and influence, without permanent or
significant habitation and should be protected
and managed so as to preserve their natural
condition.
CATEGORIES OF PROTECTED AREA (contd)
• CATEGORY II NATIONAL PARKS
• Protected areas managed mainly for ecosystem protection
and recreation. These are natural areas of land and / or sea,
designated to:
• a) protect the ecological integrity of one or more
ecosystems for present and future
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generations;
• b) exclude exploitation or occupation likely to degrade the
area; and
• c) provide a foundation for spiritual, scientific, education,
recreational and visitor uses,
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all of which must be environmentally and culturally
compatible.
CATEGORIES OF PROTECTED AREA (contd)
• CATEGORY III NATURAL MONUMENTS
• Protected areas managed mainly for conservation of specific
natural features. These are
• areas containing one, or more, specific natural or natural /
cultural features which are of
• outstanding or unique value because of their inherent rarity,
representative or aesthetic qualities,or cultural significance.
• CATEGORY IV HABITAT / SPECIES MANAGEMENT AREAS
• Areas of land and / or sea where active management
interventions are undertaken so as to
• ensure the maintenance of habitats and / or to meet the
requirements of specific species.
CATEGORIES OF PROTECTED AREA (contd)
• CATEGORY V PROTECTED LANDSCAPES / SEASCAPES
• Protected areas managed mainly for landscape / seascape
conservation and recreation. They consist of areas of land,
sometimes with coast and sea as appropriate, where the interaction
of people and nature over time has produced a landscape of
distinct character with significant aesthetic, ecological and / or
cultural value, and often with high biological diversity. Safeguarding
the integrity of this traditional interaction is vital to the protection,
maintenance and evolution of such an area.
• CATEGORY VI MANAGED RESOURCE PROTECTED AREAS
• Protected areas managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural
ecosystems. They are
• areas containing predominantly unmodified natural systems,
managed to ensure long term protection and maintenance of
biological diversity, while providing at the same time a sustainable
flow of natural products and services to meet community needs.
Development of Protected Area
Buffer Zones
Definition of Buffer zone
• Buffer zone can be defined as an area adjacent
to protected areas, on which land use is
partially restricted to give an added layer of
protection to the protected area itself while
providing valued benefits to neighbouring
rural communities. Buffer zones may serve
two main functions:
FUNCTION OF BUFFER ZONE
• Extension Buffering, which in effect extends
the area of those habitats contained within
the protected area into the buffer zone, thus
allowing larger total breeding populations of
plants and animal species than could survive
within the reserve alone. Example of such
buffering can include selectively logged
production forests, hunting areas, natural
forests used by villagers for fire-wood
collection, unused wilderness and grazing
pastures.
FUNCTION OF BUFFER ZONE
• Socio-Buffering, where wildlife use of the
buffer zone is of secondary importance and
management is aimed primarily at providing
products of use or value (cash crops) to local
people; but such land use should not conflict
with the objective of the protected area itself.
This generally involves planting species that
are unattractive as habitats for local wildlife or
allowing a controlled harvest of wildlife.
Buffer Zone Requirements and
Restrictions
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In determining the types and extent of buffer zones needed, the following factors
should be considered:
Needs of threatened wildlife species for use of additional habitat outside the
reserve boundaries. Knowledge of the size and habits of the species will give some
indication of the extent of an adequate buffer zone.
The need for the buffer zone to serve other protective functions, such as soil and
water conservation or fire-break protection.
The need to contain wildlife species likely to move out of the reserve.
The reasonable needs of local people for land, forest products, grazing areas or
meat.
The amount of land available for use, whether it is currently under natural or other
vegetation, and whether it is vacant or being used.
The suitability of possible buffer crops for the particular land type and climatic
conditions and the interests of local wildlife. For instance, bananas or oil palms
should not be planted if the buffer zone is next to an elephant reserve, and maize
would be unsuitable near macaques or baboons.
Types of Buffer Zones
• The main types of buffer zone for protected
areas include
• 1. Traditional Use Zones inside Protected
Areas: There are situations when no suitable
land exists outside reserves for buffer zone
establishment and it is preferable to permit
collection of certain natural products from
some part of the reserve or at certain times
rather than have to exercise valuable lands as
buffers.
Types of Buffer Zones
• 2. Forest Buffers. These include fuel-wood or timber forests outside
protected area boundaries but on public land. These may be natural
forests, enriched secondary forest or even plantations where the
emphasis is on maximizing sustained yield for local village use, while
maintaining good soil and water protection. The encouragement of
plantation forests in buffer zones is probably the single most effective
resource management strategy for ensuring long-term integrity of
protected areas themselves
• 3. Economic Buffers. Sometimes economic buffering is needed to reduce
the needs of villagers to take resources from protected areas. This could
take the form of special agricultural, social or communication assistance in
lieu of, or as well as provision of productive buffer lands. Other examples
include cash tree plantations, and wildlife cropping outside protected area
boundaries, where the emphasis is on maximizing cash returns to benefit
villagers.
Types of Buffer Zones
4. Physical Buffers. Where no land is available for
buffer zone development the boundary itself must
serve as a buffer and there is sometimes a need for
physical barriers such as fences, ditches, canals, walls
or spiny hedges. These help discourage wildlife from
leaving the reserve and deter people and domestic
stock from entering. In some cases all that my be
required is a clearly visible boundary such as a cut
trace line or single row or thin belt of distinctive tree
(bright leaves or flowers) as a living boundary.
Selection of Crop for Buffer Zones
The merits of various plantation types as buffer zones and their attraction for
wildlife have been identified below
1. Natural forest, disturbed forest and secondary forest provide additional
habitat for wildlife species and excellent protection of soil.
2. Fast growing firewood plantations (various species are of some use to
wildlife species and provide good soil protection. This is most suitable in
areas where land is limited and where the demand for firewood is
pressing. Coppiceable species should be selected.
3. Timber plantations (various species) give good to excellent soil protection
i.e. reforesting steep slopes.
4. Mixed plantations providing firewood, poles and timber are of some use to
use to wildlife and give good protection.
5. Fruit plantations protect the soil and provide cash and food, but problems
may arise with certain wild species e.g. monkeys or bats raiding the crops.
6. Cinnamon provides cash and fire wood but is of no use to wildlife; soil
protection is good although the tree have to be cut every few years.