INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES (ICTs)
AND THE NIGERIAN TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMME1
by
Professor Adewale O. Abolade
Professor of Educational Technology
Tel. 2348033850782
&
Dr. Mudasiru. O. Yusuf
Senior Lecturer (Educational Technology)
Tel. 2348033950774 or 2348042670332
e-mail: lereyusuf@yahoo.com or lereyusuf@hotmail.com
Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology,
Faculty of Education,
University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
1
Published in African Journal of Educational Studies, 3 (1), 1 – 19, 2005, Faculty of Education,
University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana
Abstract
Information and communication technologies (ICTs) have become an indispensable
part of contemporary world. The school system globally has equally being affected in a
number of ways. The school, through teacher must make good use of technology so as to
prepare students for the future. This paper examines preparations for inculcating the needed
ICTs skills and knowledge in serving and pre-service teachers in Nigerian Institution. It
explores the problems, the prospcts, and model for ICTs integration in Nigeria teacher
education program.
Keywords
Information and Communication Technologies, Technology Integration, Nigerian Teacher
Education Program, Preservice Teachers, In-service Training
Introduction
General computer literacy (operating system, word processing, spreadsheet,
database, and telecommunication is not sufficient to prepare preservice
teachers to use technology in their classroom. What is needed is professional
literacy- a basic understanding of how computer and related technology can be
used in education, as well as specific novice skills for integrating technology
into the curriculum at the grade level and in subject preservice teachers plans
to teach (Willis, 2001, para.10).
This quotation underscores the need for quality teacher education program, meant to
develop in serving and trainee teachers’ quality ICT training, for successful ICTs integration
in instruction. Although ICT is becoming a household term, it has definitions as there are
researchers and educators.
Suffice to use the definition of Information technology as
enunciated in the Nigerian National Policy for Information Technology (FRN, 2001).
Information technology is defined as “computers, ancillary equipment, software and
firmware, (hardware) and similar procedures, services (including support services) and to a
related resources” (p. ix). It is also defined in the same document as “any equipment or
interconnected system or subsystem of equipment that is used in the automatic acquisition,
2
storage, manipulation, management, movement, control, display, switching, interchange,
transmission or reception of data or information” (FRN 2001, p. ix). Thus, they can be
regarded as the technologies used for accessing, processing, gathering, manipulating, and
presenting or communicating information. These could include software, hardware, and even
connectivity (Anderson & Baskin, 2002).
Information and communication technologies are essential tools in any educational
system. They have the potentials of being used to meet the learning needs of individual
students, promote equality of educational opportunities; offer high quality learning materials,
increase self-efficacy and independence of learning among students, and improve teachers’
professional development.
Furthermore, ICTs offer great potentials for revolutionizing
school administration (Kirschner & Selinger, 2003; Moseley & Higgins, 1999; Williams,
2003). The Milken Exchange on Educational Technologies (1998) had noted in her synthesis
of research findings that ICT under the right condition has the following potentials in
education.
First, it has the potential to accelerate, enrich and deepen basic skills in reading,
writing, mathematics, and the sciences. Second, it motivates and engages students in learning
as they are encouraged to be more independent and responsible for their own learning. Third,
it helps to relate academics to the practices of today’s work as the influence of ICTs is
pervasive in every field. Furthermore, it is relevant in increasing the economic viability of
tomorrow’s workforce, as students are prepared to be fluent in thinking with and using
technology in ensuring efficiency and effectiveness in their work places, thereby increasing
productivity.
Also, it strengthens teaching as it provides powerful tool to teachers’
repertoires, thereby enabling them to meet individual learners’ needs. Information and
communication technologies allows for networking with other teachers, thus teachers are
more connected with each other to exchange ideas, share resources, and improve teaching
3
practices . They also contribute to change in school as it can be catalyst for education.
Educators are required to rethink current practices and this inspires them to make
fundamental improvements in the system.
In addition, ICTs provide opportunity for
connecting schools to world, as learning is expanded beyond the classroom, thus, relevant
real life contact can be established. Finally, student and teachers can access information and
resources, and they can communicate with experts and peers and make useful contributions to
knowledge through electronic publications.
In spite of the potentials of ICTs, only resourceful and competent teachers can exploit
the potentials. Kirschner and Davis (2003) identified two major frameworks for ICT use in
education. These are as core or complementary technology. Core technologies framework
refers to the principal way of organizing the learning experience. Under this framework ICTs
is the components around which all other components of the school learning are planned. On
the other hand, as complementary technologies, they are seen as optional serving a valuable
function but able to be compensated for via core technology if so needed or dropped all
together. With the benefits which will accrue to the schools there is the need to develop the
knowledge and skills of pre-service and serving teachers in the use of ICTs, so that they can
use ICTs and integrate them in their instruction.
Information and Communication Technologies and Teacher Education
Practicing and trainee teachers need professional development program for successful
application of ICTs within the school system. Research findings have indicated that the extent
to which teachers integrate ICTs in their teaching and students’ learning is related to several
factors, among which are the teachers’ knowledge and competence. Furthermore, teachers’
ability and willingness to integrate ICTs into their teaching will largely be dependent on the
professional training and development which they receive (Pearson, 200 3; Watson, 2001;
Williams, 2003; Selinger & Austin, 2003). A In view of the importance of training to the
4
development of teachers ICTs competence, educators and researchers have been concerned
about basic standard for trainee and serving teachers’ competence in the use of ICTs. These
competencies are classified into personal, subject, and teaching (Selinger & Austin, 2003)
According to them personal competence deals with skills, knowledge and understanding of
when, when not, and how to use ICTs effectively in teaching a particular subject. It
encompasses skills in the function, use and capability of ICTs in supporting the teaching
process. Subject competency deals with the knowledge of the functions, operations, use, and
features of ICTs, including speed and automation function, and how ICTs can support
teaching and learning. It also encompasses competence in subject specific ICTs courseware,
and the ways of handling information through ICTs. Finally, the teaching competency deals
with the ability to plan, prepare, teach, assess, and evaluate lessons in which ICTs could be
seen to be supporting a range of suitable learning outcomes.
The International Society for Technology in Education (1999) outlined three basic
principles of ICTs in teacher education using the AMES white paper. These are that: ICTs
should be infused into the entire teacher’s education program, ICTs should be introduced in
context, and that students should be made to experience innovative technology support
learning environment in their teacher education program. In a synthesis of ideas emanating
from research findings across the globe Kirschner and Davis (2003) highlighted good practice
for both pre-service and in-service program for teacher training in ICTs. These are that (i)
teachers become sufficiently competent to make personal use of ICTs, (ii) competent to make
use of ICT as mindstool, (iii) became masters of range of educational paradigms that make
use of ICT, (iv) sufficiently competent to make use of ICT as a tool for teaching, (v) master a
range of assessment paradigms which make use of ICT, and (vi) understand the policy
dimension of the use of ICT for teaching and learning. These they observed were the six
5
benchmark identified as making for good practices for both preservice and in-service teacher
education program.
The competencies required by serving and pre-service teachers are further elaborated
by the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE, 2003). The body noted that
educational computing and technology is an emerging field, and that the purview of the field
covers knowledge and skills about the use of computer and related technologies in delivery,
development, prescription, and assessment of instruction, effective use of computers as an aid
to problem solving, school and classroom management, educational research, electronic
information access and exchange, personal and professional productivity, and computer
science education.
Using the aforementioned as theoretical basis, it is opposite to use North Carolina
Department of Public Instruction (2002) outline of basic and advanced competencies as the
basis of needed competencies for teachers. The department outlined nine basic competencies
and five advanced technology competencies. The nine basic competencies are: computer
operation skills, setup, maintenance, and trouble shooting; word processing/introductory
desktop publishing; spreadsheet/graphing; database, networking; telecommunications, media
communications (including image and audio processing), and multi-media integration.
Advanced competencies identified are: curriculum; subject specific knowledge; design and
management of learning environment resources; child development, learning and diversity;
and social, legal and ethical issues.
In addition, the ISTE (2003) identified four major levels of training for teachers.
These are educational computing and technology literacy endorsement, the secondary
computer science education, endorsement, the secondary computer science education initial
degree program, and the advanced educational computing and technology leadership
program. The educational computing and technology literacy endorsement program is meant
6
to prepare teachers of computer literacy and computer application. Through the courses
teachers can be furnished with general foundations and other skills to deliver instruction in
technology rich settings. The computer science education program provides content area and
professional education in secondary computer science. The program is meant to prepare
teachers who have primary certification in another field to add a teaching endorsement in
computer education. The computer science education initial degree program is meant to
provide program standards for preparation in computer science as the primary area of
certification. Finally, the educational computing and technology advanced program standard
is designed to prepare candidates to serve as educational computing coordinators or
specialists. These are the basic standards to the development of ICTs in teacher education
program. It is therefore, imperative to examine the Nigerian education program in line with
internationally accepted standard.
Information and Communication Technologies Components of Nigeria Teacher
Education
Teacher education is given prominence in the Nigerian education system. This stems
from the recognition of the fact that “no education system may rise above the quality of its
teacher...” (FRN, 2004; p.39). The importance of teacher education is further exemplified in
the goals of Nigeria teacher education as enunciated in section 6B (57) a-e, of the national
policy on education (FRN, 2004). The goals are to
(a) produce highly motivated conscientious and efficient classroom teachers
for all levels of our education system.
(b) encourage further the spirit of enquiring and creativity in teachers,
(c) help teachers to fit into social life of the community and the society at
large and enhance their commitment to national goals,
(d) provide teachers with intellectual and professional background adequate
for their assignment and make them adaptable to changing situations, and
(e) enhance teachers commitment to the teaching profession (p.39).
Information and communications technologies (ICTs) are new innovations within the
Nigerian school settings. Just like the previous innovations the national policy on education
7
(1998) anticipated such and thus recognized the need for teachers to be kept abreast of new
and emerging development which may impact on the school system or the work of the
teacher. Section 8B (74 & 75) of the national policy on education (FRN, 2004) noted inter
alia.
74: Teacher education shall continue to take cognizance of changes of changes in
the methodology and in the curriculum. Teachers shall be regularly exposed to
innovations in their profession.
75: In-service training shall be developed an integral part of continuing
education and shall also take care of all inadequacies (p.34)
Teachers’ in-service was specifically to be encouraged for the up-grading of teacher
using educational broadcasting through radio, television and other means. This was again reemphasized in Teacher Registration Council Handbook (FRN, 2002) that “the best way to
raising standard of teachers is by means of constant in-service training to serving teachers”
(p.12). It is apposite of this point in time, to examine ICTs content of the present Nigeria
teacher education program.
In Nigeria, teacher education is provided in colleges of education, faculties and
Institutes of Education of universities, National Teachers Institute and schools of education of
polytechnics. The minimum qualification for teaching is Nigeria Certificate in Education
(NCE) (FRN, 2004). The National Universities Commission (NUC) the National for colleges
of Education (NCCE), and the National Board for Technical Education (NBTE), accredit
teacher education program offered in universities, colleges of education, and polytechnics,
respectively.
In those institutions students are provided with basic knowledge and skills in a
particular subject area, techniques of teaching, and knowledge of how children learn
(acquired through courses in basic education and the study of education principles (du
Boulay, 1988). The need for teachers to be versatile in the use of ICTs in the contemporary
knowledge age is recognized by Nigerian teacher education institutions. The acceptance of
8
the value of ICTs in teaching and learning engendered the inclusion of components of ICTs
in the Nigerian teacher education program. For instance, pre-service teachers in Nigeria are
expected to offer at least 2 credits course(s) in ICT. These are GSE 107: Introduction to
Computer Studies I and GSE 108: Introduction to Computer Studies II for NCE students
(NCCE, 2002). At the University level the NUC benchmark for minimum academic standard
prescribes that all education student should offer EDU 304-ICT in Education as a 2 credits
course (NUC, 2004). For GSE 107 and 108 and EDU 304, the content area include the
meaning and types of computer, historical development of computer, classification of
computer, basic computer operation, introduction to word processing, and so on.
While the inclusion of ICT is laudable, it should be noted, however, that the inclusion
is at best superficial when examined from the global perspective. The courses are still
inadequate for trainee teachers to model good use of ICTs in education. What is available
presently are at best rudiments of basic knowledge and skill needed by a teacher in
contemporary knowledge age. Courses should not be aimed at making trainee teachers
literate in using the computer but they should be fluent in the use of and integration of ICTs
in their instruction.
They should be able to husband ICTs potentials to improve their own learning as lifelong learners and also be able to encourage their students to be avid users of ICTs for
learning and personal development. Student teachers need to be taught how to use a variety of
techniques and strategies for implementing ICTs effectively in their instruction
(Frederickson, 1999). Programmes designed for trainee teachers could prepare them to keep
abreast of developments in the application of ICT in education so as to advance their
profession
Just like the Moursund and Bielefeldt (1999) had noted in their report about ICTs in
American teacher education, the general teacher-training in Nigeria teacher training
9
institutions do not provide future teachers with the kind of experiences necessary to use
technology effectively in their classrooms. It is important for training institutions to provide
teacher with the requisite knowledge and skills to be able to use technology effectively.
Since new and practicing teachers will largely come in contact with new technologies they
have no experience with, they will need to be taught how to approach and, master new
technologies as well as existing technologies already in the classroom (Willis, 2001).
Government recognized that the success of any education systems rise (and) fall on
the back of teachers. Thus, they need to be comfortable in access to and preparation for
effective use of ICTs in their schools.
Models of Teacher Preparation for Technology Integration
Educators concerned with teachers’ competency development in ICTs integration
have discussed the major models which have been used to train teachers (Cloke & Sharif,
2001, Fredrickson, 1999, Watson 2001). These models involve the necessary stages of
orientation, adoption, evaluation, innovation, and institutional (Watson 2001). He identified
five approaches to in-service training of teachers are the home grown expert, the comfortable
shoes’ approach, let them struggle, and the Killer application.
Home grown experts
developed competencies personally, this reduce money to be spent on training of teachers.
The comfortable shoe approach involves a lot of demonstration to students which are later
replicated by students. As for the let them struggle, students are shown samples and then the
teacher steps back to let them struggle to master the skill, while killer application involves
some curriculum application which the use of ICT is compelling that teachers cannot help but
be excited by it or at least compelled by it.
Frederickson (1999) identified three major models for preparing pre-serve teachers to
teach in a technology rich environment. Those are: single-course model, integrated model,
and combined model.
Using the single course model teacher training institution teach
10
technology using an isolated course method. In such courses students are presented with basic
instruction in a one semester three credit hour course.
Students are taught basics of
productivity or application software (word processing, database, spreadsheet, etc). This is
called traditional computer literacy. In other instances, software evaluation, web uses,
electronic presentation, among others, are taught. This is the approach used in Nigeria as
recommended by NUC and NCCE in Nigerian teacher education programme.
Integrated model involves students being introduced into technology through
integration of ICTs in various courses that is ICTs are integrated across the curriculum.
Using this approach the teacher models the use of technology. The final model the combined
model which is an eclectic application of the two previous models, this is called the combined
model.
It involves the combination of the two approaches where basic instructional
technology skills and teaching skills are taught generally in one or two credits course, and
this is followed by technology integration in other courses the student teacher take.
In addition, Frederickson (1999), suggested that trainee teachers should be trained
using various strategies like field based experience in technology rich environment,
cooperative learning, electronic field trip, guided inquiry, and so on. It is essential that
serving and trainee teachers should be given adequate ICTs training using the combined
model, particularly in pre-service teacher education programme.
Problems Militating Against Effective Integration of ICTs in Nigerian Teacher
Education
There are certain factors which hinder teacher training institutions in Nigeria in
providing quality ICTs knowledge and skills for trainee teachers. Some of these include lack
of technically experienced lecturers, limited ICTs facilities and infrastructure, inadequate
course content for ICTs training, lack of clear direction in the Nigerian National Policy for
Information Technology (NNPIT) on teacher education, lack of leadership by professional
organisations, and problem of electricity. These factors are enunciated as follow:
11
Lack of technically experienced lecturers: Most of the lecturers in Nigerian universities,
colleges of education, and polytechnics do not have competence in the use or integration of
ICTs in their instruction. Majority of lecturers who had taken tenured job were taught
without ICTs and they have not developed competence in the use of ICTs, thus they cannot
model good use of technology (Idowu , Adagunodo & Popoola, 2003). Even in the USA,
faculty lecturers have been shown not to be better than their students in ICTs usage
(Moursund & Bielefeld 1999).
Limited ICTs facilities: Limited fund available to higher institutions have hindered the
provision of needed facilities and infrastructure to promote ICTs usage. Most faculties of
education and schools of education in Nigeria do not have dedicated laboratory for ICTs
training. Classrooms are equally not equipped for ICTs usage. Thus, teacher trainers and
trainee teachers do not have access to ICTs within their schools. The few available ones are
used mostly for administrative purposes.
Inadequate course content for ICTs: The curriculum for teacher education is centralised
based on NUC draft benchmark or NCCE minimum academic standard. The content and
strategy are based on single course model. It is meant to teach trainee teacher about the
computer, not teaching them how to learn or teach through the computer. While this is good
for introductory stage its outcomes are very limited. They cannot furnish trainee teachers
with the needed skills and knowledge to integrate ICTs in their instruction.
Lack of clear direction on teacher training on ICTs in the NNPIT. The national policy
on information technology (FRN, 2001), is supposed to give clear directions for successful
use of ICTs in schools. The policy only made superficial reference to education at the
mission, goals, and strategy levels. There is no sectoral reference to education. Education is
subsumed under human resource development. Since no clear information or reference is
12
made to teacher development the document does not give focus to teacher education in the
implementation of ICTs in Nigeria.
Lack of leadership by professional organisation:
In advance countries professional
organisations like International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE), Association for
the Advancement of computer in Education, Milken Exchange on Education Technology,
play pivotal roles in promoting ICTs integration in schools, and also in setting standards for
teacher training. However, professional organisations like computer Association of Nigeria
(CAN), National Association for Educational Media and Technology (NAEMT), computer
professionals, and so on, have not impacted on the use of ICTs in schools, the promotion of
ICTs in teacher education, or in setting academics or professional standards on ICTs. This
lack of leadership creates vacuum which militates against quality ICTs component of teacher
education in Nigeria
Problem of electricity: ICTs equipment are electrical equipment that require electricity for
operation. Most rural areas of Nigeria do not have electricity facility and in urban area
electricity supply is epileptic, and this reduces the life span of hardware and also militates
against effective usage. Even enthusiastic teacher educators and students who have access to
computers may be debarred from using them as a result of power outage.
Lack of access to ICTs in trainee teachers’ field experience. Practical teaching practice is
an indispensable aspect of teacher education. During their field experience trainee teacher do
not have access to technologically enriched classroom. Rather they are exposed to classroom
where they use chalk board and talk. This does not give trainee teachers opportunity to
explore the little knowledge, gained in the area of ICTs.
Conclusions
It is widely acknowledge, by the government, educational agencies (NCCE,NBTE,
and NUC) and teacher training institutions that training teachers in ICTs knowledge and
13
skills and appropriate pedagogical approaches is essential. However, the present course
content, 2 credit course (s) are grossly inadequate to provide quality ICTs integration skills
needed for the 21st century. The content as at now is at best minimum level of traditional
computer literacy. There is urgent need for curricular reforms so that more single courses are
introduced and complemented by integration of ICTs in all courses. This will ensure that
teachers acquire their knowledge and skill in an organic whole manner (Moseley & Higgins,
1991).
Practising teachers need to be given in-service training to make them relevant to
contemporary knowledge age and thus acquire skills in the area of ICTs and for them to be
able to husband the potentials of ICTs in their teaching tasks. Such training should
incorporate the four guiding principles identified by Hughes (2004). These are connecting
ICTs learning to professional knowledge, privileging subject matter and pedagogical content
connection, using technology to challenge professional knowled ge and teaching many
technologies. They will be able to model good use of ICTs for students who are being
prepared for tomorrow’s work places, where ICTs will be indispensable.
Teacher trainers would need to be skilled to impart ICTs training on student teachers.
Teacher trainers must be made to undergo compulsory ICTs training to the level of advanced
application as identified by the North Carolina Department of Public Instruction. Through
this they can make personal use of ICTs, model good use of ICTs for trainee teachers, and
also integrate ICTs in their teaching and learning.
Since research studies have established that ICTs use and integration in teaching is
dependent on access (Anderson & Baskin, 2002, Frederickson, 1999, Watson, 2001), it is
important that ICTs facilities and equipment should be provided in teacher training
Institutions. Secondary schools should also be equipped so that trainee-teachers are provided
with technology rich environment during their teaching practice. School authorities, local
14
education authority, and state administration should develop technology planning for the
development of quality teacher’s education.
Since, teacher education is important to
successful use of ICT teachers should be motivated to develop interest in ICT use in school.
References
Anderson, N. & Baskin, C. (2002). Can we leave it to chance? New learning technologies and
the problem of professional competence. International Education Journal, 3 (3), 126
– 137 (Electronic Version), retrieved January 24th, 2004, from http://iej.cjb.net/
Cloke, G. & Sharif, S. (2001). Why use information and communication technology in
teacher education? Some theoretical and practical issues. Journal of Information
Technology for Teacher Education, 10 (1 & 2), 7 – 18 (Electronic Version), retrieved
October 1st, 2004, from http://www.triangle.co.uk/jit/index.htm
du Boulay, J. B. H. (1987). Computers in teacher education. In E. Scanlon & T. O. Oshea
(Eds.), Educational Computing (pp. 1 – 15). London: Publishing Company
Incorporated.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education (4th ed.). Lagos: NERDC.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2001). Nigerian national policy for information technology.
Abuja:
NITDA.
Retrieved
23rd
of
January,
2004,
from
http://www.nitda.gov.ng/docs/policy/ngitpolicy.pdf
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2002). Teacher registration council handbook. Abuja: Author.
Fredrickson, S. (1999). Behind the curve in teacher preparation. How schools and colleges of
education should be preparing their pre-service teachers to using instructional
technology. Journal of Information Technology Impact, 1 (2), 73 – 80 (Electronic
Version),
retrieved
December
http://www.jiti.com/v1n2/fredrickson.pdf
15
15th,
2004,
from
Idowu, P. A.; Adagunodo, E. R. & Popoola, B. A. (2003). Computer literacy level and gender
differences among Nigerian university staff. The African Symposium On-Line
Journal,
3
(3),
7
–
12,
retrieved
23rd
of
January,
2004,
from
http://www2.ncsu.edu/ncsu/aern/comlit.pdf
Hughes, J. (2004). Technology learning principles for preservice and in-service teacher
education. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 4(3),
retrieved
16th,
December
2004,
from
http://www.citejournal.org/vol4/iss3/general/article2.cfm
International Society for Technology in Education (1999). Society for Technology and
Teacher Education position paper statement of basic principle and suggested action
(SITE
Ames
White
Paper).
Retrieved
September
15th,
2004,
from
http://www.aace.org/site/SITEstatement.htm
International Society for Technology in Education (2003). Educational computing and
technology standard for secondary computer science education initial endorsement.
Retrieved
16th,
December
2004,
from
http://cnets.iste.org/ncate/pdf/ISTEfinalCSEDpdf.pdf
Kirschner, P. & Davis, N. (2003). Pedagogic benchmark for information and communication
technology in teacher education. Technology, Pedagogy, and Education, 12 (1), 125 –
147
(Electronic
Version),
retrieved
December
23rd,
2003,
from
http://www.triangle.co.uk/jit/index.htm
Kirschner, P. & Selinger, M. (2003). The state of affairs of teacher education with respect to
information and communication technology. Technology, Pedagogy, and Education,
12 (1), 5 – 17 (Electronic Version), r etrieved December 23rd, 2003, from
http://www.triangle.co.uk/jit/index.htm
16
Milken Exchange on Education Technology (1998). Technology in American Schools: Seven
dimensions
for
gauging
progress.
Retrieved
February
2nd,
2004,
from
http://www.mff.org/pubs/ME158.pdf
Moursund, D. & Bielefeldt, T, (1999). Will new teachers be prepared to teach in a digital
age?
Milken
Family
Foundation.
Retrieved
February
2nd,
2004,
from
http://www.mff.org/pubs/ME154.pdf
Moseley, D. & Higgins, S,. (1999). Ways forward with ICT. Effective pedagogy using
information and communication technology for literacy and numeracy in primary
schools. London: Teacher Training Agency.
National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE, 2002). Minimum academic
standard: Education. Abuja: Author
National Universities Commission (NUC, 2004). Draft benchmarks and minimum academic
standard. Abuja: Author.
North Carolina Department of Public Instruction (2002).Basic technology competencies for
educators.
Retrieved
February
2nd,
2004,
from
http://www.dpi.state.nc.us/tap/basic.htm
Pearson, J, (2003). Information and communications technologies and teacher education in
Australia. Technology, Pedagogy, and Education, 12 (1), 39 - 58 (Electronic
Version),
retrieved
December
23rd,
2003,
from
http://www.triangle.co.uk/jit/index.htm
Selinger, M. & Austin, R. (2003). A comparison of the influence of government policy on
information and communication technology for teacher training in England and
Northern Ireland. Technology, Pedagogy, and Education, 12 (1), 19 – 38 (Electronic
Version),
retrieved
December
http://www.triangle.co.uk/jit/index.htm
17
23rd,
2003,
from
Watson, G. (2001). Models of Information technology teacher professional development that
engage with teachers’ hearts and minds. Journal of Information Technology for
Teacher Education, 10 (1 & 2), 179 – 190 (Electronic Version), retrieved December
23rd, 2003 http://www.triangle.co.uk/jit/index.htm
Williams, K. (2003). Literacy and computer literacy: Analysing the NRC’s being fluent with
information technology. The Journal of Literacy and Technology, 3 (1). ), retrieved
January 2nd, 2004, from http:// www.literacyandtechnology.org/v3n1/williams.htm
Willis, J. (2001). Foundational assumptions for information technology and teacher
education. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 1 (3),
retrieved
3rd,
February
http://www.citejournal.org/vol1/iss3/editorials/article1.htm
18
2004,
from