Chapter 13
Motivation
Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be
able to:
1. Explain the basics of motivation.
2. Use equity theory to explain how
employees’ perceptions of fairness affect
motivation.
3. Use expectancy theory to describe how
workers’ expectations about rewards,
effort, and the link between rewards and
performance influence motivation.
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Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be
able to:
4. Explain how reinforcement theory works and
how it can be used to motivate.
5. Describe the components of goal-setting
theory and how managers can use them to
motivate workers.
6. Discuss how the entire motivation model can
be used to motivate workers.
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Motivation
PERSISTENCE
INITIATION
DIRECTION
GOALS
4
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Basics of Motivation
1
Effort
and
Performance
Need
Satisfaction
Extrinsic
and Intrinsic
Rewards
Motivating
People
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A Basic Model of Work Motivation and
Performance
1.1
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Job Performance
=
Motivation
(effort put forth on the job)
X
Ability
(capability to do the job)
X
Situational Constraints
(external factors affecting performance)
1.1
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Adding Need Satisfaction
to the Model
1.2
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Needs Classification of
Different Theories
Higher-Order
Maslow’s
Hierarchy
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Belongingness
1.2
Alderfer’s
ERG
Growth
Relatedness
McClelland’s
Learned Needs
Power
Achievement
Affiliation
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Needs Classification of
Different Theories
Lower-Order
Maslow’s
Hierarchy
Safety
Physiological
1.2
Alderfer’s
ERG
Existence
McClelland’s
Learned Needs
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Adding Rewards to the Model
1.3
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Extrinsic and Intrinsic Rewards
• Extrinsic Reward:
– A reward that is tangible, visible to others, and
given to employees contingent on the
performance of specific tasks or behaviours
• Intrinsic Reward:
– A natural reward associated with performing a
task or activity for its own sake
1.3
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Extrinsic Rewards
• Companies offer extrinsic rewards in order to get people to
do what they wouldn’t otherwise do.
• Richard Yerema, managing editor of the Canada’s Top 100
Employers, says:
“Create an ownership culture.”
• Money is important when it comes
to attracting and retaining skilled
labour. However, a motivated and
productive workplace often hinges
on nonfinancial strategies and
incentives that boost morale,
productivity, and quality of work life.
1.3
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Instrinsic Rewards
• Intrinsic rewards are the natural rewards
associated with performing a task or activity for
its own sake.
• Examples:
– A sense of accomplishment or achievement
– A feeling of responsibility
– The chance to learn something new or interact
with others
– The fun that comes from performing an
interesting, challenging, and engaging task
1.3
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Class Activity:
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivators
Beyond the Book
• What are some of your intrinsic
and extrinsic motivators for your
education and future career?
• Discuss as a class.
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Class Activity: Praise
Beyond the Book
• How do you respond to praise?
• How exactly does it motivate you?
• Can one be motivated by praise without being
a “glory seeker”?
• Discuss your answers in small groups.
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Motivating with the Basics
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.4
Ask employees what their needs are.
Satisfy lower-order needs first.
Expect people’s needs to change.
Create opportunities for employees to
satisfy higher-order needs.
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Class Activity: What Motivates Us
Beyond the Book
Watch the video What Motivates Us.
The video discussed three factors that lead to better
performance and personal satisfaction:
1. Autonomy: 24 hours to work on whatever with
whomever (i.e., Atlassian)
2. Mastery: highly skilled people work for free and give
away their creation (i.e., Wikipedia)
3. Purpose: people want to be inspired–profit and
purpose motives must be related (i.e., Apeoplee’s
goal is to make a ding in the universe)
What did you learn?
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How Perceptions and Expectations
Affect Motivation
• Equity Theory: People
will be motivated when
they perceive that
they are being treated
fairly.
• The average CEO now
makes 364 times more
than the average
worker.
2
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Components of Equity Theory
Outcome / Input (O/I) Ratio =
Outcomesself = Outcomesreferent
Inputsself
Inputsreferent
Under-reward
Over-reward
2.1
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Adding Equity Theory to the Model
2.2
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Motivating with Equity Theory
1. Start by looking for and correcting major
inequities.
2. Reduce employees’ inputs.
3. Make sure the decision-making processes
are fair.
2.3
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Fair Decision-Making Processes
Distributive Justice:
• The perceived degree to which outcomes
and rewards are fairly distributed or
allocated
Procedural Justice:
• The perceived fairness of the process
used to make reward allocation decisions
2.3
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Class Activity:
How People Perceive Inequity?
Beyond the Book
Are perceptions
of equity
culturally bound?
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Components of
Expectancy Theory
Valance:
• Attractiveness or desirability of various rewards
or outcomes
Expectancy:
• Perceived relationship between effort and
performance
Instrumentality:
• Perceived relationship between performance
and rewards
3.1
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Adding Expectancy Theory
to the Model
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Motivating with
Expectancy Theory
1. Find out what employees want from
their jobs.
2. Link rewards to individual performance in
a clear and understandable way to
employees.
3. Empower employees to make decisions.
3.2
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Class Activity: Class Expectations
Beyond the Book
• Have your expectations for this class (and
whether they have been met) influenced
your attendance, investment of time and
money, or performance?
• If so, how? If not, why not?
• What motivates you to continue to learn
and do your work?
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Reinforcement Theory
• Reinforcement:
– The process of changing behaviour by changing
the consequences that follow behaviour
• Reinforcement Theory:
– Behaviours followed by positive consequences will
occur more frequently, and behaviours followed
by negative consequences, or not followed by
positive consequences, will occur less frequently.
4
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Reinforcement Theory
• Reinforcement Contingencies:
– The cause-and-effect relationships between
the performance of specific behaviours and
specific consequences
• Schedule of Reinforcement:
– The set of rules regarding reinforcement
contingencies, such as which behaviours will
be reinforced, which consequences will follow
those behaviours, and the schedule by which
those consequences will be delivered
4
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Components of
Reinforcement Theory
Positive Reinforcement:
• Strengthens behaviour by following
behaviours with desirable consequences
Negative Reinforcement:
• Strengthens behaviour by withholding an
unpleasant consequence when employees
perform a specific behaviour
4.1
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Components of
Reinforcement Theory
Punishment:
• Weakens behaviour (i.e., decreases its
frequency) by following behaviours with
undesirable consequences
Extinction:
• A positive consequence is no longer
allowed to follow a previously reinforced
behaviour.
4.1
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Adding Reinforcement Theory
to the Model
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Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous
• Follows every instance
of a behaviour
4
Intermittent
• Consequences are
delivered after a
specified or average
time has elapsed or
after a specified or
average number of
behaviours has
occurred.
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Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules
Interval
(time)
Ratio
(behaviour)
4.2
Fixed
Consequences
follow
behaviour after
a fixed time has
elapsed.
Consequences
follow a specific
number of
behaviours.
Variable
Consequences follow behaviour
after different times, some
shorter and some longer, that
vary around a specific average
time.
Consequences follow a
different number of
behaviours, sometimes more
and sometimes less, that vary
around a specified average
number of behaviours.
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Motivating with
Reinforcement Theory
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
4.3
Identify
Measure
Analyze
Intervene
Evaluate
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Components of Goal-Setting Theory
• Goal:
– A target, objective, or result that someone tries to
accomplish
• Goal-Setting Theory:
– A theory that states that people will be motivated
to the extent to which they accept specific,
challenging goals and receive feedback that
indicates their progress toward goal achievement
• Goal Specificity:
– Extent to which goals are detailed, exact, and
unambiguous
5.1
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Components of Goal-Setting Theory
• Goal Difficulty:
– Extent to which a goal is hard or challenging to
accomplish
• Goal Acceptance:
– Extent to which people consciously understand
and agree to goals
• Performance Feedback:
– Information about the quality or quantity of past
performance that indicates whether progress is
being made toward the accomplishment of a goal
5.1
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Feedback Leads to
Stronger Motivation
1. Encourages employees who don’t have
specific, challenging goals to set goals to
improve their performance
2. Encourages employees to set higher, more
difficult goals
3. Makes employees aware if they need
to increase their efforts or change strategies
in order to accomplish their goals
5.2
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Adding Goal-Setting Theory
to the Model
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