1
Chapter 1
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Historically, immigration has been a lifelong process though there are different
reasons that necessitate the immigration of individuals and groups. In the history of the
United States of America, immigration and acculturation are real and common; the
multicultural nature of the American society is due to constant inflow of immigrants into
the country. Nigerians happen to be one of these immigrant populations in the United
Sates that go through acculturation processes and experience their impacts. It is evident
that every immigrant has a primary culture that is the culture into which an individual
was born and raised and Nigerian immigrants are not exceptional.
This study explores the impact of acculturation on family relationships among the
Nigerian immigrants in Sacramento with reference to domestic violence (DV) and
intimate partner violence (IPN). The study focuses on the sources of acculturative stress,
lack of competent support system, role of social networking, spirituality negating
acculturative stress, displacement of stress, and domestic violence, sex role stereotypes
and role expectation confusion as contributing factors to domestic violence/intimate
partner violence (DV/IPV). In this study the researcher explores how family relationships
are impacted by acculturation or acculturative stress and its contribution(s) to domestic
violence. Any knowledge obtained from this study will generate means of helping
Nigerian families to handle their family crisis resulting from acculturation stress. The
participants of this study are first generation Nigerian immigrant men and women who
have lived in the U.S. for one or more years and from age 20 and above. The chosen
2
range of years would help the researcher gain insight of the experiences of those who are
just new and those who have spent more years in the country.
No matter the reason, all immigrants and groups go through acculturation
process in many different ways due to individual and group differences. For some
individuals or ethnic groups acculturation is less stressful while burdensome and
traumatic for others. Ethnic density of communities of resettlement differently affects
acculturative patterns which includes language acquisition (Birman, Trickett, and
Buchanan, 2005 as cited in Trickett, Persky, & Espino, 2002). Language may not be a
problem in the case of Nigerian immigrants though their accent may easily be identified.
Though there are various reasons that necessitate Nigerians’ emigration to the
United States, history indicates that a quest for education is primary. According to
Sarkodie Mensah (2000), the first Nigerians came to the United States essentially for
higher education. Other motivations include socio-economic and political threats to
survival (Akyeampong, 2000; Reynolds, 2002; Ogbaa, 2003, as cited by Onwughalu,
2011, p. 20). Nigerians continue to arrive in the United States as immigrants due to the
increased economic and political instability.
Background of the Problem
The Nigerian immigration to the United States can be traced as far back as the
early colonial time. Ogbaa (2003) distinguished the phases of Nigerian immigration to
the United States as the early colonial period (1925-1952), the late colonial (1952-1960),
the postcolonial period (1961-1970), and the posttbelum period (Onwughalu, 2011, p.20).
In keeping with the four phases, Onwughalu also used different reference points as the
3
thirty months Nigerian civil war known as the Nigerian-Biafran War (1967- 1970). In
place of Ogbaa’s (2003) fourth wave (the postbellum period) that is, the period of the
U.S. government’s Diversity Visa Lottery Program of the Nigerian arrival in the USA,
Onwughalu (2011) used four different periods of what he calls the Igbo-Nigerians arrival
in USA as follows: (a) pre-independence to 1967 immigration before the civil war; (b)
during the Nigerian-Biafran war (1967-1970), (c) after the civil war (1970-1980) and (d)
immigration in the 1980s to the present day. These four waves or phases are referred to as
Nigerian immigration to the United States of America “in the modern era” (Onwughalu,
2011, p. 21). Sarkodie Mensah (2000) distinguished this era from the era of slave trade,
the period in which several thousand individuals from what is presently known as Nigeria
were brought to America (Ownughalu, 2011).
It seems that when Nigerian men and women immigrate into the United States
and got established, they lose their minds, focusing only on education and money
(granted that these are the obvious reasons for most Nigerian immigrants), and competing
with fellow Nigerians who have made it. Though both men and women try to maintain
their culture of origin as well as that of the American society, they encounter difficulties
in adjustment. Some Nigerian men want their wives to make as much money as possible
as other American women do, but forget that their wives also would like to live like their
American counterparts who will like to know and have a say on how the money is spent.
Likewise, some women who earn more money than their husbands forget that most
Nigerian men value their authority as much as their lives.
4
Within the Nigerian communities in different parts of America, money and
authority management have created a lot of divisions in families. Due to lack of
openness for help, many men have lost their temper and displayed difficulties with anger
management and engaged in homicide which is taboo and abomination in the context of
Nigerian culture. This is why family support and social support system is most needed for
early intervention.
It is claimed that being a new immigrant in America is not fun for many
immigrants, both educated and non-educated, because getting work permit or getting
work with foreign certificate is a problem. Another serious issue is that requesting for
original transcript directly from Nigeria by the evaluating centers subjects the immigrant
Nigerians to a stressful situation because the protocols involved in getting transcripts
from Nigeria can be extremely difficult. This long period of waiting before acquiring a
job exposes the new immigrant families to some economic difficulties. Meanwhile, the
families are already running out of money and have no access to any public assistance.
Statement of the Research Problem
As stated in the background of the problem, and in the next chapter on
literature review, immigration and acculturation are processes that accompany certain
degree of stress for all immigrant groups, particularly for some groups. Nigerian
immigrant groups is one of the groups that have varying gradations of cultural differences
with the host group, particularly with sex role stereotypes and defined role expectations
5
for men and women. The purpose of this study is to explore how family relationships are
being impacted by acculturation/acculturative stress and its contribution to domestic
violence.
Generally, in many Nigerian cultures, since Nigeria is a multicultural country
domestic violence is not given special attention as one of the social issues and in essence,
what we consider domestic abuse in America is not so for many Nigerians. Practices such
as spanking children, calling of names or certain exchange of words among partners and
male authority and control are not uncommon. For many Nigerian cultures it is
considered common in human interaction. Secondly, what causes divorce among
Americans is normally overlooked by many Nigerian families; however, working and
living within the American society has made a great impact on the way Nigerians look at
things even though many still want to live the Nigerian culture in America. This is true of
men whose authorities are threatened. Worse still, workplace policies are not at the same
pace with that of families and may compromise the ability of many Nigerian mothers to
fulfilling their traditional role obligations, thereby creating some form of frictions
between partners especially in the areas of meal preparation, care giving to children and
housekeeping.
. The divorce rate among the Nigerian immigrant community here in the US is
alarming, leaving negative impacts on children. Hence, this study examines how
acculturative stress/stressors affect the Nigerian immigrant families and communities in
their day-to-day living in the US. Findings from the study may contribute to
6
awareness/perception of Nigerian immigrants’ family life and culture of behavior within
the American society with reference to domestic violence by exploring acculturative
stress/stressors, role performance and perceptions of domestic violence.
Study Purpose
This present study is designed to examine the following questions:
(1.) What are the levels of perceptions on domestic violence among the Nigerian
families that live in Northern California (Sacramento)?
(2.) To what extent is domestic violence understood as a problem in the view of
Nigerians male and female immigrants?
(3.) How does perception with regard to domestic violence vary due to the male
dominant culture of this population?
(4.) Do perceptions regarding domestic violence influence their professional help
seeking behavior in time of domestic violence crisis?
(5.) To what degree do factors of acculturation impact family relationships of the
Nigerian immigrants in the United States with reference to domestic violence?
Theoretical Framework
There is a vast range of theories that underpin this study. The first is the
acculturation theory. The acculturation model is relevant in understanding every aspects
of adjustment process in immigration groups of several cultural origins. The second is
system theory. This theory deals with social system such as individuals, families, and
societies, saying that “All people or groups of people in a system influence one another”
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(Coady & Lehmann, 2008 pg. 69); in essence, this can well explain the ways the Nigerian
immigrant population live, work and interact with other cultural groups within the
American social system. Due to the fact the social system and family system influence
one another, the study is meant to explore the extent to which the American social system
or Nigerian immigrant families’ acculturation has affected the Nigerian family system.
Unlike some of these immigrant communities, Nigerian immigrants’
acculturative stressors may not be that of language because English language is the only
common language of communication among Nigerians since Nigerian has no national
language of communication. However, acculturative stressor may be a problem for those
who may have left Nigeria at a young age. Nevertheless, majority of Nigerian immigrants
in the U.S. are here either for the purpose of educational career or for better economic
opportunity except those whose parents brought over as young children.
Cross-cultural theory gives some clues that cultural perceptions are outcome of
the premises deeply rooted in the context of historical society. Looking back to the
history of African slavery in the United States and Nigeria being one of the African
countries will form perceptions of self and others based on their history as black
population as one of the minority groups. Next theory used for developing the framework
for this study is the feminist theories. “Generally, feminist theories construe the root
cause of individual and social problems as the institutionalized system of male privilege
that relies on the domination and expectation of people” (Coady & Lehmann, 2008).
8
Feminist theories explain the ways for change in social and environmental factors that
brought about the dilemma and problems experienced by women. The theories propose
ways of eliminating interpretations, sexual inequalities, restrictions, and oppressions
faced by women. Looking back to the levels to which Nigerian culture(s) placed men and
women, one would understand how far the American culture has influenced or impacted
the Nigerian family system as families struggle to maintain their cultural identities in the
already existing complex and multicultural American society. Many incidents of Nigerian
men ending the lives of their wives portray some aspects of perception of treat on the
men’s authorities and equality in socioeconomic status of most men and women in our
American society today.
Next is violentization theory. The word violentization was invented by Dr. Lonnie
H. Athens, a sociologist, and the author of “The Creation of Dangerous Violent
Criminals” that describes a 4 stage process that creates violent criminals, murderers and
serial killers. This is said to be a 4 stage programming process that mold a child or young
person into a dangerous violent criminal capable of extreme and brutal violence,
including murder, over a mild or perceived slight and once all the 4 stages are completed
the damage is irreversible. As mentioned earlier, a reasonable number of homicides have
occurred within the Nigerian immigrant families here in the united State and in each case,
children are involved. As children witness and experience violence occurring over and
over again, children begins to internalize the actions as normal there by perpetuating
domestic violence.
9
Definition of terms
Nigerian immigrant: Nigerian born individuals who immigrated to the US.
Acculturation: Acculturation has been defined as the phenomenon that occurs when
different cultural groups come into continuous contact with subsequent changes in the
original cultural patterns of either or both groups (Redfield, Linton, & Herskovits
, 1936, p. 149).
Acculturative stress: This is defined as a response to life events that are rooted in
intercultural contact and the interaction between cultures (Berry, 2006).
Domestic Violence or Gender-based Violence: is “any act of violence that results in, or is
likely to result in physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women,
including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether
occurring in public or private life" (UN Economic and Social Council, 1992; BentGoodley, T. B., 2009).
Role expectations: This refers to a specific function or task that an individual or a
group/family member is expected to perform.
Sex role stereotyping: This concept is a set of shared expectations that people hold about
the characteristics suitable for individuals on the basis of their gender (male or female)
thereby endorsing the expected behaviors as appropriate for men and for women.
Assumptions
The main assumptions of this study are based on the educated notion of this
study that acculturation accompanies certain degree of stress and this stress impacts
10
interactions within family. A secondary assumption is that the stress associated with
acculturation and the problems pertaining to the interactions as a consequence of this
tress are manageable through social work interventions based on scientific inquiry about
the importance of understanding the role of processes such as acculturation in domestic
violence.
Social Work Research Justification
National Association of Social Workers’ Code of Ethics and the Council on Social
Work Education emphasize the importance of diversity education both in the foundation
curriculum and in the advanced concentration. Social work practice with immigrant
populations such as Nigerian communities which are patriarchy-governed with clearly
defined sex roles require cultural competence based on empirical evidence. As challenges
to the authority of men in Nigerian families in the U.S. creates the potential for tension
within families, crisis in these communities. Social work professionals need to develop a
system based approach with spiritual and community elements integrated with
professional practice.
This study contributed to the knowledge base on acculturation and domestic
violence on different cultural groups of people and immigrant populations and this
knowledge, despite its limited external validity can be transferred to similar cultural
groups of African immigrant populations. The findings pertaining to perception of
domestic violence are linked to Nigerian immigrants’ experiences of acculturation in the
United States and thus understanding demographic factors pertaining to age and years of
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stay in the United States are important to consider when planning interventions with this
population.
Study Limitations
The two main limitations to this study are due to the size of the study sample, and the
non-probability nature of the study sample. These factors affect the external validity of the study
findings, thus limiting the generalizability of the study findings. Additionally due to the
availability of the sample in a community center, the researcher was limited to surveying only
those who volunteered to participate in the study.
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Chapter 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The term acculturation was introduced by anthropologists to refer to intercultural
changes that emerge from intercultural contact (Castro, 2003 p. 8). Redfield, Linton, and
Herskovits (1936, p.149) redefined acculturation as “those phenomena which result
when groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous first-hand
contact with subsequent changes in the original culture patterns of either or both groups.”
Acculturation is a neutral term in principle (that is, change that may take place in either
or both groups), but tends to induce more change in one of the groups (termed the
acculturating group in this article) than in the other.
Castro (2003) focused on the role of acculturation dimension and strategy in
shaping one important source of psychological adjustment; namely, self-esteem. Castro
(2003) asserted that individuals’ experience of interethnic contact and demographic
variables such as ethnicity, socioeconomic status, gender, age have been found to be
important determinants of acculturation outcomes (Castro, 2003, p. 3).
Sources of acculturative stress
William and Berry (1991) stated that acculturation stress occurs when
individuals experience problems arising from the process of acculturation, which can
result from conflicting cultural values and practices (Crockett et al., 2007). For
immigrants, the demands of adjusting to a new culture can be a significant source of
stress. Establishing a new life in one's adopted country can be a difficult adjustment,
especially when there are differences in language and culture and few available jobs or
13
training opportunities. One significant source of stress is said to be pressure to become
acculturated—to adapt to the values, linguistic preferences, and customs of the host or
dominant culture. Presently there are numerous studies on acculturation and its impact on
different ethnic groups like Mexican immigrant families, Korean immigrant families, and
some African immigrant families but there is little or no research on Nigerian
immigrants’ group. Hence, the aim of this study is to explore the impact of acculturation
on Nigerian immigrants. Some researchers stated that Mexican Americans, born in the
United States tend to show higher rates of psychological problems than recent immigrants
from Mexico (Escobar, Hoyos Nervi, & Gara, 2000). This may be due to cultural conflict
since they are caught between their parents’ culture and the American culture.
Furthermore, other researchers linked lower acculturation status among Hispanic
Americans to higher risks of depression and anxiety (Neff & Hoppe, 1993). The
knowledge of Mexican immigrant can facilitate intervention, for example, how to work
with, help or support the Mexican immigrant communities here in US. It is equally
obvious that understanding the impact of acculturation on Nigerian families will lead to
the establishment of social support system that can help and support Nigerian families
here in the United States. Research shows that the process of adjusting successfully to a
new society depends on a number of factors. Stress associated with economic hardship
seems to be a major contributor to adjustment problems in immigrant groups, as it is for
members of the host culture. Difficulties faced by poorly acculturated immigrants in
gaining an economic foothold in the host country may lead to anxiety and depression.
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Acculturation can lead to an erosion of traditional family networks, which in turn may
increase vulnerability to psychological disorders in the face of stress (Ortega et al., 2000).
Definitely, factors such as economic opportunity, language proficiency, and
connections to a social network of people whom one can identify with and draw support
from may underlie the psychological adjustment of immigrant groups. Maintaining a
sense of ethnic identity may also buffer the effects of stress (Ryder et al., 2000;
Thompson et al., 2000). Studies of Asian Americans showed that establishing contacts
with the majority culture while maintaining one's ethnic identity generates less stress than
withdrawal and separation (Huang, 1994). Withdrawal fails to prepare the individual to
make the necessary adjustments to function effectively in a multicultural society.
Young children who came to the U.S. with their parents may experience stress.
Other research identified acculturative stressors such as (a) problems related to landing
documents, (b) work and housing-related problems as daily life aspects, (c)
competitiveness and tension in social relations with fellow countrymen and other
immigrants, (d) destructured family because of emigration, (e) cultural differences
between country of origin and host country, and (f) discrimination and or perceived
rejection (Hernandez et al., 2011).
Acculturative “stressors” refers to the stimuli the migrant encounters, while the
“stress” is reserved for the migrant's response, which some scholars have termed “culture
shock” (Oberg, 1960; Pedersen, 1995) as cited by Yu-Wen Ying (2005). Berry et al.
(1987) identified five major categories: physical environmental, biological, social,
cultural, and psychological. Just like other immigrant populations here in the United
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States, Nigerian immigrants like other immigrants population are likely to experience
certain research identified stressors like: social and cultural differences, economic
problems, unemployment or poorly paid jobs, social imagination, perception of
discrimination, especially, the loss of social and family support (Hovey, J. D., 1999;
Hernandez et al 2011).
Nigerians coming to the United States are faced with the problem of either
changing career or taking certification before securing a good job and this imposes some
economic difficulties on Nigerian families who are new in the country. It is equally
noteworthy that social and cultural differences have some problematic impact on
Nigerian immigrant families bearing in mind that Nigerian families are patriarchygoverned just like the Latin American and other African immigrant families and which,
are not individualistic in nature as seen in American society.
Lack of Culturally Competent Support System for Families From Nigeria
Cultural competent support system is very important to all immigrants and
minority populations and it is important to be culturally competent in order to assist, help
or work batter with people that share different cultural values. This is why in the
preparation of the Diagnostic and Statistical manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), the
American Psychiatric Association has incorporated awareness that the manual is used in
culturally diverse populations in the United States and internationally (American
Psychiatric Association, 2000). Therefore, as one of the immigrant communities,
Nigerian families in U.S. need culturally competent support system. Since this support
16
system is lacking, a lot of Nigerian families in difference parts of the United States have
suffered homicide due to some unresolved family issues.
Nigerian men are afraid of being divorced by their spouses. They fear they
would be ridiculed back home in Nigeria because they are not able to control their
spouses. Fear that the U.S. law in almost every case gives the custody of young children
to their mothers and children of divorced parents are out of control burden the men’s
psyche. Men who are not able to accept their marital status, have sometimes killed their
spouses and themselves, abandoned their family and returned to Nigeria or relocated to
other American cities (Mensah, 2000). Their situation would be different in Nigeria
where if discovered on time, the parents of spouses, the church, and the extended
families, as well as other cultural organizations would do everything they could to
mediate, counsel, and help in any way possible to reconcile the spouses to stop the
proposed divorce. Since these family support resources are lacking, divorce and homicide
rate within the Nigerian communities has increased. Many Nigerian men in America have
succeeded in adjusting their role in their families to allow their wives have their way if
they want to take leadership role in the family just for the sake of the well-being of their
families while many others are still struggling.
Role of Social Networking in Harmonious Adjustment to the Host Country
Obviously, social support is a very important issue in the life of immigrants for
coping and harmonious adjustment to the host country. Hernandez, et al (2011) sees loss
of social and family support as a stressor because family is usually the main source of
social support in the Latin-American culture. In Nigerian culture, as well as in African
17
culture at large, loss of family support is a great loss that cannot be expressed by words.
Family support is what no Nigerian would ever like to miss. This is why Nigerians in
U.S. especially women would always like to invite their mothers/parents over to help out
with the care of children particularly when there is a new birth in the family. In times of
family crisis, family support is inevitable.
In order to fill this vacuum created by loss of family support, Nigerians in
Sacramento and in United States at large “belong to various associations and
organizations based on ethnic groups, states or towns of origin” (Onwghalu, 2011). Some
of these associations include Sacramento Associating of Nigeria, Enugwu State
Association of Sacramento, Anambra State, Imo State; ethnic groups such as Efik, Edo,
Hausa, and Nigerian Igbo Catholic Organization of Sacramento and so on. Some
individuals belong to more than one or two of these associations. If a person belongs to
the national body, there is still need for that person to belong to his or her tribal group.
Spirituality negating acculturative stress
The moral behavior of most Nigerians in Americans is influenced by their deep
religious beliefs. Spirituality has always been a source of strength and support system for
Nigerians in America no matter the religious affiliation- Christians, Moslems, Buddhists,
and the traditional believers (Ogbaa, 2003., p. 49). Most Nigerians if not all, have special
trust in their religious leaders; those who still hold on to their faith and are close to their
religious group find greater support from both religious leaders and other group
members. Holding firm to their faith and associating with other group members have
helped some Nigerian families to keep their families together.
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Displacement of Stress and Domestic Violence (DV)/Intimate Partner Violence
(IPV) Among Nigerian Families
Coming from a culture where men have ultimate say in virtually everything, it is
obvious that families will encounter conflicts; for example, Nigerian women demand
their right of freedom like their counterparts in the American society. Experiences have
shown that many Nigerian families go through a lot of stress and struggle to adjust to the
new environment of the American society/culture in which they live and work.
Additionally, Nigerian culture considers domestic violence as a family matter, which
makes it difficult for Nigerian families to seek professional help in terms of domestic
violence issues. According to Nigerian culture, family problems like domestic violence is
discussed within the families of the husband and that of the wife, however, being far
away from home and not having other family members generates a lot of stress in most
Nigerian families here in the United States (Sacramento).
Incidents of violence exist among Nigerian families in the United States of
America. For example, on March 8, 2006 a 36 year old mother of six children escaped
death from the hands of her husband in Atlanta after sustaining some deep cuts. The
woman and her children were taken to family shelter while her husband was facing trial.
Again, in March 25, 2007 a 46-year old Nigerian living in Dallas, Texas, killed his 36year old wife, a mother of four children, ages 4 – 9 in a domestic violence crisis and the
man was sentenced to life imprisonment without parole. In the same city of Dallas, a 38
year old mother was killed by her husband after 20 years of marriage. In Tennessee, a
Nigerian man after a long standing dispute with his wife lost his home and custody of his
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three children but makes periodic visit according to court’s order. Finally, the man lost
his temper and killed his wife, now he is awaiting death penalty. Similar incidents have
occurred to other Nigerian families in Los Angeles and other states here in America, all
resulting from unresolved family issues of control, restrictions, emotional, financial or
economic disputes. All the women involved in these incidences and their respective
husbands were educated; some of them have double degrees because some were already
graduates in Nigeria and immigrated to the U.S., changed career and acquired more
degrees. Receiving professional help might have provided some remedy before things got
out of hand.
Nigerian Immigrants therefore are among those immigrant populations in the
United States caught between two cultures- their culture of origin and the American
culture. Many Nigerian cultures, (being multicultural country) do not give as much
attention to DV as it should. Since most Nigerians in the US want to keep to their culture
of not discussing their family matters outside their homes and among close family
members, they end up in ugly and abominable situations narrated in the text ( in Nigerian
culture, these incidents are taboo and abomination of the highest degree). Rather than
ending one’s life in what is culturally taboo in Nigeria, majority of Nigerians who are
civil end theirs conflicts in divorce.
An African, Robina Serwanga, contends in an address to one of the African
groups, that “men and dignity are synonymous in Africa” and pointed out that changes
and unavoidable adjustment in family settings like job/school, new birth can bring stress
in a new system. Nigerian men and women are facing misplaced stress and anger
20
resulting from their adjustment to the new cultural and social environment of the
American society.
Furthermore, Nigerian immigrants would do any job, however menial to make
money irrespective of their college degree even the jobs they would never do if they were
to be in Nigeria. The American idea of dignity of labor encourages them to do such
works as janitors, taxi drivers, dishwashers, farm laborers, and night watchmen in spite of
their educational qualifications (Ogbaa, 2003, p49). For instance, the late Dr. Nnamdi
zikiwe, the first President of Nigeria and first indigenous governor-general of Nigeria
arriving in the United State by boat in 1925, entered Storer College and later transferred
to Lincoln University and Howard University. During his stay in U.S., he experienced
prejudice worked as a dishwasher, a coal miner, and a boxer in order to survive the
difficult times in America (Sarkodie-Mensah, 2000). As it is common with most present
day Nigerians in U.S., late Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe later became a professor at several
prestigious America Institutions. Nigerian men do all these in order to keep up with the
Nigerian culture that places men as the breadwinner of the family not only for their
family here in the U.S. but also for the family members back in Nigeria. Nonetheless, the
stress associated with both keeping up their culture, clash of maintaining the demand of
Nigerian culture in the mainstream of American culture, job, and challenges from their
spouses/children are sometimes misplaced and bring about conflicts that may turn into
family violence.
Anita Raj and Jay Silverman’s (2002) study showed that across immigrant
communities studied, gender roles, not only serve as a justification for abuse, but also
21
increase women’s vulnerability to abuse by keeping them isolated, subservient to male
partners, and self-sacrificing to community and family. Fact Sheet of the Pan America
Health Organization (PAHO) states that the scarcity or absence of gender-sensitive health
research, and a lack of understanding about the causes of violence against women are
obstacles to both preventing violence against women (VAW), and developing actions and
efforts to address it.
According to PAHO 33% of women (aged 16-49) have been victims of sexual
abuse. At least 45% have been threatened, insulted or had their personal possessions
destroyed. In established market economies, gender-based violence is responsible for one
out of every five healthy days of life lost to women of reproductive age.
Domestic violence or intimate partner violence is a devastating social problem
that leaves an enduring, negative impact on all family members, especially the victims
and their children (Polites, Andrea; Kuchar, Karen; & Bigelow, Shauna 2010). This may
also be gender-based violence (GBV) defined as “any act of violence that results in, or is
likely to result in physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women,
including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether
occurring in public or private life" (UN Economic and Social Council, 1992; BentGoodley, T. B., 2009).
Additionally, Gender-based violence (GBV) affects women across race, ethnicity,
age, socioeconomic status, religion, sexual orientation, and geographic boundaries. No
segments of society are immune from the vestiges of this problem though this seems to
be more prominent in some ethnic or cultural groups. Bent-Goodley (2009) states that
22
GBV has been particularly harmful within communities of African ancestry and that
African American community suffer with greater lethality and more severe injuries than
other racial and ethnic groups because of GBV. Despite this, there are limited culturally
based services available to assist this population.
Sex Role Stereotypes and Role Expectation Confusion as Contributing Factors to
IPV
Nigerian families which are patriarchy-governed with sex roles well defined are now
changing toward more democratic family structure in America imposes some challenges
to the authority of men in Nigerian families in the U.S. Some of these changes according
to Nigerian culture are perceived as overpowering women and threatening to the men’s
authority and adding stress to most Nigerian men. For instance childcare and
housekeeping are women’s job according to Nigerian culture irrespective of their
professional career or status even though in Nigeria, many families can afford house help
which may either be a relative or employed persons.
In the United States, both men and women take responsibility of caring for children
and home and this is not fun for most Nigerian men. According to studies mentioned
above, it is not out of place to say that people of African descent has a common attitude
towards domestic violence due to the long standing nature of family setting that perceive
women as subordinators to men and most men are adamant to changes towards shared
authority between partners in family setting.
Nigerian immigrant families, like other ethnic families in the United States
experience domestic violence, which seems to be a global problem. Studies on domestic
23
violence have been carried out on some ethnic groups but there is none specifically on
Nigerian immigrants in the United States and Northern California in particular.
Therefore, the review of literature was on similar research done on other ethnic groups
with similar male dominant culture such as the Hispanics and the African Americans.
Nigerian immigrants like many other ethnic immigrants in the United States are caught
between two cultures- Nigerian culture and the American culture and the impact this has
on the Nigerian immigrant families will be explored in this study.
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Chapter 3
METHODS
This chapter presents the methods used to conduct this study on the impact of
acculturation on family relationships among the Nigerian immigrants in the United States
(Sacramento). The sections included in this chapter are: Study design, study sample, data
collection instruments, data collection, protection of human subjects and the data analysis
methods.
Study Objectives
The study objectives are to examine the degree to which factors of
acculturation impact family relationships of the Nigerian immigrants in the United States
with reference to domestic violence and understand the levels of perceptions on domestic
violence among the Nigerian families that live in Sacramento. Additionally the study
assessed the extent to which domestic violence is understood as a problem in the view of
Nigerian male and female immigrants. Additional secondary objective is to understand
the perception with regard to domestic violence in the male dominant culture of this
population.
Study Design
This research study utilized exploratory design that examines the impact that
the process of acculturation has on family relationships of Nigerian Immigrant
populations in the United States with special reference to Sacramento region. This
25
exploratory study is designed to elicit qualitative and quantitative data. The researcher
chose exploratory design for this study because little or no significant study has been
done on this particular immigrant population. The studies that have been conducted on
the topic of acculturation and domestic violence on different cultural groups of people
and immigrant populations, have not focused in general on African immigrant population
and in particular there is very little information on the Nigerian immigrants’ experiences
of acculturation in the United States in general or about the Nigerian immigrants living in
Northern California. Due to lack of research on this immigrant population, methods of
intervention and treatment methods that are culturally competent are lacking in the
literature pertaining to this population. Exploratory study helps researchers in gaining
better understanding of the proposed study and more refined proposals for future studies
(Yuen, F. O., Terao, K. L., & Schmidt, A. M., 2009).
Sampling Procedures
The sample for this study was obtained from the population comprising of adult
male and female Nigerian immigrants in Sacramento County who gather for their
monthly worship in a parish Church in Sacramento. The sampling method used is nonprobability convenience sampling because the study utilized the accessible and
volunteering subjects who gather for worship and socialization in a parish Church at Oak
Park Community Sacramento. One of the advantages is that the population of the
worshipers comprises of Nigerian families, who are married adults and their children
26
even though this brings about some limitations because it does not cover a wide range of
the Nigerian immigrant population in Sacramento.
The study sample consisted of fifty-three (53) participants; males and females
who came to the US between the ages of 20-35 and who agreed to participate in the study
voluntarily after having read the consent form and the information about the study.
Data Collection Procedures
The researcher collected information from participants by asking them to fill out
some questionnaires and returning them in a sealed envelope that was provided by the
researcher without personal identity. Survey questionnaire was designed to explore
individual’s understanding, awareness/perception of Nigerian immigrants’ family life and
culture of behavior within the American society using closed ended questions. The
requirements to participate in the study included reading and signing an informed consent
form that gave them information about what the study entails, and the voluntary,
confidential and anonymous nature of the information sought from them. The researcher
used only closed-ended questions due to limited time and at the same time to encourage
good response. The researcher provided envelopes for the respondents to seal the
completed questionnaire without name or anything that can identify the respondents there
by confirming the anonymity of their information. This study did not utilize face-to-face
questionnaire because doing so will not yield any good result knowing that the
respondents would not like to be connected with the information they will provide and
the population’s culture does not encourage exposition of family problems to outsiders.
27
Protection of Human Subjects
The human subject protocol was submitted to the human subjects committee of
the division of social work after approval from the project advisor. Upon receiving
approval (# 12-13-013) from the committee the researcher arranged with the chairman of
the Nigerian Community with whose written permission the researcher had access to the
study sample to administer the research questionnaires. The information was collected
through self-administered questionnaire. Each respondent completed the questionnaire
designed at the sixth grader reading level English with the completion process requiring
not more than 25 minutes. Constructing the questionnaires in a sixth, grader reading
eliminated some of the limitations of self-administered questionnaire survey such as
misunderstanding the participants may encounter if professional language is used.
Data Analysis Methods
After the questionnaires were completed and returned, the researcher coded the
data and made the data ready for data analysis. Data was entered into SPSS (Statistical
Package for Social Sciences) and frequencies, descriptive, T-tests, cross tabulations and
correlations were computed. The next chapter presents the results of the study.
28
Chapter 4
STUDY FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter presents the results of the study beginning with the demographic
details of the study subjects. The chapter also includes the cultural profiles such as role
expectations for males and females. Frequencies and percentages, crosstabulations and
correlations were also tabulated. The study sample consisted of 27 females (51.9%) and
25 males (48.1%) of the 53 respondents Table 4.1.
Table 4.1
Frequency Distribution of Gender of the Respondents
Freque Percent
Valid
ncy
Percent
Valid
male
25
47.2
48.1
female
27
50.9
51.9
Total
52
98.1
100.0
Missin System
1
1.9
g
Total
53
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
48.1
100.0
Overall Finding
The majority of the respondents are married (86.8%) as indicated in Table 4.2.
Among the rest, 1.9% are single and 3.8% are divorced while 3.8% are in a relationship.
As indicated in table 4.2, this study sample consisted of respondents who remain in a
marital relationship. Getting married and having a family is very important in Nigerian
culture. It is a cultural pride for every male or female who reaches the marriageable age
to get married and stay married.
29
Table 4.2
Frequency Distribution of Marital Status of the Respondents
Frequency Percent
Valid
Missing
Total
Married
Single
Divorced
In a
relationship
Total
System
46
1
2
86.8
1.9
3.8
Valid
Percent
90.2
2.0
3.9
2
3.8
3.9
51
2
53
96.2
3.8
100.0
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
90.2
92.2
96.1
100.0
The following table indicates the age of the respondents before immigrating to
the United States which shows that majority of the respondents immigrated to the US as
young adults with their preconceptions and other motives of gender role fully in place.
Table 4.3
Age Before Immigration into the United States
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
20-24
9
17.0
17.6
17.6
25-29
17
32.1
33.3
51.0
30-34
15
28.3
29.4
80.4
Valid
35 &
10
18.9
19.6
100.0
Above
Total
51
96.2
100.0
Missing System
2
3.8
Total
53
100.0
30
Summary
Results indicate that there is minimal difference between men and women on
the perception of tendency for domestic violence among members of the Nigerian
immigrant community in Sacramento, California, with men scoring higher (19.52) than
women (18.93). The responses emphasize the rising awareness regarding the support that
immigrant families need to receive in order to make the acculturation process an
empowering adjustment process. Additionally, the study findings support the fact that
with the increase in stay in the host country, there is an increased tendency to share the
decision making process, household responsibilities and child rearing. Nevertheless,
though husband and wives share major family function, result shows that the Nigerian
populations in Sacramento feel comfortable with the heritage culture, values and
traditions.
SPECIFIC FINDINGS
The study findings indicate some of the unique features of the Nigerian
population related to their process of acculturation. For example the age distribution of
the respondents before immigrating to the United States as depicted in Table 4.3.
Majority of them migrated as adults between the age group of 20-29. Their conceptions
of gender role expectations were shaped by their socialization patterns in their countries
of origin.
31
Table 4.4
Educational Qualification of the Respondents
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
High School
1
1.9
2.0
2.0
Some College
2
3.8
3.9
5.9
30
56.6
58.8
64.7
18
34.0
35.3
100.0
51
96.2
100.0
2
3.8
53
100.0
College Graduate
Valid
Post Graduate &
Higher
Total
Missing System
Total
Table 4.4 indicates the frequency and percentage distribution of the
respondents’ educational qualifications. Out of the 51 respondents who indicated their
educational status, 30 (56%) have college degree, 18 (34.0%) have post graduate degree
and higher, 2 (3.8%) have some college qualification and 1(1.9%) has high school
diploma. This confirms the information given earlier with regard to language proficiency
of the host country.
32
Figure 1: Pie Chart of the education of the respondents
Language is not one of the problems of the Nigerian immigrants in the United States as a
group. The sample for this study consisted of mainly individuals who have stayed in the
United States for 5 years and above with few exceptions of 5.8% of the sample that have
stayed here for 1 to 2 years duration (Table 4.5).
Table 4.5
Respondents’ years of Stay in the U.S.
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
1-2 years
3
5.7
5.8
5.8
Valid
5& above
49
92.5
94.2
100.0
Total
52
98.1
100.0
Missing System
1
1.9
Total
53
100.0
33
As indicated in table 4.5, out of the 53 respondents who participated in this study, 49
(92.5%) of the respondents have lived in the United States for five years and above and
only 5.7% have lived in the United States for 1 to 2 years. This indicates the duration of
possible influences of stay in the United States, on their understanding of egalitarian
approaches to marital relationships.
Figure 2: Marital Status of the respondents
34
Figure 3: Pie Chart depicting the number of years of stay of the respondents
Role expectations and functioning
Table 4.6 below depicts the frequency distribution and percentage of the employment
status of the respondents. Majority of the respondents (75.5%) account for the families in
which both partners work while 12 (22.6%) accounts for families where only one of the
partners is employed outside the home. This indicates the degree to which role functions
have changed as a result of migration to the United States.
35
Table 4.6 Both Partners' Work Status
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
yes
40
75.5
76.9
76.9
Valid
No
12
22.6
23.1
100.0
Total
52
98.1
100.0
Missing System
1
1.9
Total
53
100.0
The table below (4.9) indicates that in this study sample 98. 1 % of the
participants reported both partners as taking part in caring for the children and only
4 (7.5 %) represents the case where wives are the primary caregivers.
Table 4.7
Person who cares for children
Frequenc Percent
y
Valid
Missing
Total
Valid
Percent
Wife
4
7.5
Both
48
90.6
Total
52
98.1
1
1.9
System
53
Cumulative
Percent
7.7
7.7
92.3 100.0
100.0
100.0
This applies to many decisions about the family functions such as decisions about
housing, family size, educational decisions of the children, and financial decisions. The
study depicts that out of the 98.1 % of the respondents, 41% of women prepare meals for
36
the family and in 45.3% both male and female take part in food preparation able 4.8.
This is an indication that in spite of the cultural changes, Nigerian women still assume
the responsibility of cooking for their families in accordance with their heritage culture
gender role, where women do the cooking for the family.
Table 4.8 Food Preparation
Frequency
Valid
Missing
Total
Husband
Wife
Both
Total
System
6
22
24
52
1
53
Percent
11.3
41.5
45.3
98.1
1.9
100.0
Valid Percent
11.5
42.3
46.2
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
11.5
53.8
100.0
Result shows that in 84.9% responses out of 98.1%, both partners decide whether to buy
or rent a house and in 3.8% wife decides. In the same manner, majority of the time,
financial decisions are made by both husband and wife ad in 1.9% the wife does. The
same thing applies to the educational decision about the children where 92% are both
husband and wife and in 1.9% wife does. Decision about family size is equally made by
both husband and wife 86.8% of the time and in 9.4% by wife.
Table 4.9 discloses the respondents’ perception of domestic violence within the
Nigerian immigrants’ families. The frequency and percentage distribution of this is as
37
follows- 32 (60.4%) of the respondents agree that domestic violence exists within the
Nigerian families here in the United States and 35.8% says it does not exist.). The mean
difference between male and female respondents on perception of the factors conducive
to domestic violence can be seen in table 4.11 as (Male=19.5200) and (Female=18.9259
Table 4.9 perception of domestic violence
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
yes
32
60.4
62.7
62.7
Valid
No
19
35.8
37.3
100.0
Total
51
96.2
100.0
Missing System
2
3.8
Total
53
100.0
The proportion of women who perceived the existence of domestic violence in the
community is higher (66.7%) than men (58.3%). Therefore, the chi square test indicates
that this difference is not statistically significant. This result reveals that the level of
understanding and perception of domestic violence among Nigerian immigrant men and
women in the Northern California is still minimal there by answers the study questions
one and two. However, with the minimal level of perception and understanding of
domestic violence, professional seeking help behavior will automatically be influence in
time of domestic violence crisis.
38
Table 4.10 perception of domestic violence * gender Crosstabulation
gender
male
female
Count
14
18
% within
yes
58.3%
66.7%
gender
% of Total
27.5%
35.3%
perception of domestic
violence
Count
10
9
% within
No
41.7%
33.3%
gender
% of Total
19.6%
17.6%
Count
24
27
% within
Total
100.0% 100.0%
gender
% of Total
47.1%
52.9%
Total
32
62.7%
62.7%
19
37.3%
37.3%
51
100.0%
100.0%
The T-test on scale that measures tendency to domestic violence indicated that the mean
difference between men and women was not significant. Table 4.10 reveals that there is
no relationship between the years of stay in the United States and perception of domestic
violence.
Table 4.11 Group Statistics
gender
Score on the scale that
measures tendency to
domestic violence
N
Mean
male
25
19.5200
Std.
Deviation
7.28080
female
27
18.9259
6.58043
Std. Error
Mean
1.45616
1.26640
The statistical mean score in table 4.9 shows that there is no difference in the perception
of the tendency to domestic violence between men and women.
39
Table 4.12 Perception of domestic violence * Years of Stay in the U.S. Crosstabulation
Years of Stay in the U.S.
1-2 years
Count
yes
% within Years of Stay in the
U.S.
% of Total
perception of domestic
violence
Count
No
% within Years of Stay in the
U.S.
% of Total
Count
Total
% within Years of Stay in the
U.S.
% of Total
Total
5& above
2
30
32
66.7%
62.5%
62.7%
3.9%
58.8%
62.7%
1
18
19
33.3%
37.5%
37.3%
2.0%
35.3%
37.3%
3
48
51
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
5.9%
94.1%
100.0%
It must be noted that the number of years of stay in the United States does not change the
view and perception of domestic violence. As indicated in table 4.10, 66.7% of those who
spent 1-2 years in the United States compared to 62.5% of those who have spent 5 years
and above perceived the existence of domestic violence whereas 33.3% of those who
spent 1-2 years compared to those who have lived in the US for 5 years and above
disputed the fact that domestic violence exists. This may be as a result of cultural
influence on their understanding of domestic violence.
40
Degree of acculturation
This section of the chapter gives an in-depth explanation of the extent to which
the respondents are acculturated into the American society. This was measured by the
degree of contact and comfort that the participants derive when interacting with people
and activities of their heritage culture which is their culture of origin s compared to the
mainstream American culture, marriage preference and friendships; maintenance of
cultural belief and values. Crosstabultion of acculturation level using social activities
with typical American people discloses that the more of stay in the US influences the
participants’ involvement in the social activities of the American people as depicted in
table 4.10 where 66.7% of those spent 1-2 years in the US compared with 32.7% who
have live in the US for 5 years and above that do not enjoy social activities typically
American over the 33.3% who stayed in the US for 1-2 years and 67.3% of those that
have spent 5 and ore years who agree they enjoy activities of the American people. This
indicates that the more the individuals stay in the US, the more they acculturate.
All the participants from the group that spent 1-2 years in the US agree that they
felt comfortable interacting with people who are from the same heritage as theirs. Most of
those who stayed 5 years and above also felt comfortable with members of the same
heritage. See tables 4.11, 4.12 and 4.13.
41
Table 4.13 Social activities with people from same heritage culture * Years of Stay in
the U.S. Crosstabulation
Years of Stay in the
U.S.
1-2 years
Count
Disagree % within Years of
Stay in the U.S.
Social activities with
people from same
heritage culture
% of Total
Count
Agree
% within Years of
Stay in the U.S.
% of Total
Count
Total
% within Years of
Stay in the U.S.
% of Total
Total
5&
above
1
2
3
33.3%
4.1%
5.8%
1.9%
3.8%
5.8%
2
47
49
66.7%
95.9%
94.2%
3.8%
90.4%
94.2%
3
49
52
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
5.8%
94.2%
100.0%
42
Table 4.14 Comfortable interacting with people of same heritage culture * Years of Stay
in the U.S. Crosstabulation
Years of Stay in the
U.S.
Total
1-2 years 5& above
Count
Disagree % within Years of
Stay in the U.S.
Comfortable
interacting with
people of same
heritage culture
% of Total
Count
Agree
% within Years of
Stay in the U.S.
% of Total
Count
Total
% within Years of
Stay in the U.S.
% of Total
0
2
2
0.0%
4.1%
3.8%
0.0%
3.8%
3.8%
3
47
50
100.0%
95.9%
96.2%
5.8%
90.4%
96.2%
3
49
52
100.0%
100.0% 100.0%
5.8%
94.2% 100.0%
43
Table 4.15 Comfortable interacting with typical American people * Years of Stay in the
U.S. Crosstabulation
Years of Stay in the
U.S.
Total
1-2 years 5& above
Count
Disagree
Comfortable
interacting with
typical American
people
% within Years of
Stay in the U.S.
% of Total
Count
Agree
% within Years of
Stay in the U.S.
% of Total
Count
Total
% within Years of
Stay in the U.S.
% of Total
1
11
12
33.3%
22.4%
23.1%
1.9%
21.2%
23.1%
2
38
40
66.7%
77.6%
76.9%
3.8%
73.1%
76.9%
3
49
52
100.0%
100.0% 100.0%
5.8%
94.2% 100.0%
Table 4.13 shows that the level of comfort at which the participant have interacted
with typical American people. The number of those who express comfort in interacting
with typical American people increases with the number of years in the U.S.
44
Table 4.16 Social Activities with typical American people * Years of Stay in the U.S.
Crosstabulation
Years of Stay in the
U.S.
Total
1-2 years 5& above
Count
Disagree
Social Activities with
typical American
people
% within Years of
Stay in the U.S.
% of Total
Count
Agree
% within Years of
Stay in the U.S.
% of Total
Count
% within Years of
Stay in the U.S.
Total
% of Total
2
16
18
66.7%
32.7%
34.6%
3.8%
30.8%
34.6%
1
33
34
33.3%
67.3%
65.4%
1.9%
63.5%
65.4%
3
49
52
100.0%
100.0% 100.0%
5.8%
94.2% 100.0%
Interpretation of Findings
Immigration to the United States create certain level of competition with
fellow Nigerians who are successful and this causes a sense of alienation instead of
cooperation with the members of their communities. Though both men and women try to
maintain their culture of origin as well as that of the American society, they encounter
difficulties in adjustment. Some Nigerian men want their wives to make as much money
45
as possible as other American women do, but still maintain traditional sex role
expectations in which women are still responsible for certain household jobs such as
cooking for the family as indicated by this study findings where nearly one half of all
respondents indicated that women are responsible for cooking food for their families
although majority of these women work outside for family’s economic wellbeing.
The study highlighted the fact that among majority of the respondents’
families, both husband and wives make decision on family functions such as decisions
about housing, family size, educational decisions of the children, and financial decisions.
However, less than fifty percent of men help in meal preparation although their wives
work outside their home. Nigerian women still assume the responsibility of cooking for
their families in accordance with their culture gender role, where women do the cooking
for the family.
The challenges involved in being new immigrant in America for both educated
and non-educated, immigrants are great, particularly around getting work permit. This
creates certain degree of helplessness among both spouses. Generally, in many Nigerian
cultures, frustrations are expressed in different ways than in America. Practices that
would be considered as domestic violence in the United States are tolerated in Nigeria.
For instance, practices such as spanking children, calling names or certain exchange of
words among partners and male authority and control are not uncommon. Such practices
are considered as common forms of human interaction. However, as both partners work
outside the home as is the case in this study ample, working and living within the
American society has changed the way Nigerians perceive their interaction pattern
46
although many opt to live the Nigerian culture in America. This is especially true of men
whose authorities are threatened.
Likewise, some women who earn more money than their husbands
automatically assume some authority which eventually brings about some power struggle
between husband and wives. The study findings indicate that the shift in sharing power is
evident as close to 80% of the respondents indicated that decisions are jointly made by
both husbands and wives in their families. Respondents indicated that decisions about
family size are equally made by both husband and wife 86.8% of the time and in 9.4% by
wife. Based on cross-cultural theory dictates, cultural perceptions are outcome of the
premises deeply rooted in the context of historical society. Looking back to the history of
African slavery in the United States and Nigeria being one of the African countries is
important to understanding perceptions of self and others based on their history as black
population as one of the minority groups. This is particularly true in the understanding of
the differences between the respondents of this study and the mainstream society’s
definitions of domestic violence and role expectations.
47
Chapter 5
CONCLUSION, SUMMARY, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter presents the conclusions from this study and includes a summary of
the discussion of the findings for the study questions. These conclusions are linked to the
recommendations in the areas of social work policy, practice, research and theories. This
chapter ends with a brief discussion of the limitations of this study, and specific
implications for social work practice.
Summary of Study
The purpose of this study was to explore the impact of acculturation on family
relationships among the Nigerian immigrants in Sacramento with reference to domestic
violence. The study focused on the sources of acculturative stress, lack of competent
support system, role of social networking, spirituality negating acculturation stress,
displacement of stress, and domestic violence, sex role stereotypes and role expectation
confusion as contributing factors to domestic violence/intimate partner violence
(DV/IPV. The participants of this study are first generation Nigerian immigrant men and
women who have lived in the U.S. for one or more years and from age 20 and above.
Study findings indicate that pursuit of education and socio economic motivations
including political threats to survival motivate Nigerian immigrants to immigrate to the
United States. Nigerians continue to arrive in the United States as immigrants due to the
increased economic and political instability.
As stated in the literature review, immigration and acculturation are processes that
accompany certain degree of stress for all immigrant groups, particularly for some
48
groups. Nigerian immigrant groups is one of the groups that have varying gradations of
cultural differences with the host group, particularly with sex role stereotypes and
defined role expectations for men and women. This creates an imbalance in perception
of power in relationships and in the perception of the prevalence of domestic violence.
An important finding of this study is with regard to the respondents’
perception of domestic violence within the Nigerian immigrants’ families. Majority of
the respondents (60.4%) agree that domestic violence exists within the Nigerian families
here in the United States and 35.8% deny its prevalence among the Nigerian community
in the United States. The mean difference between male and female respondents on
perception of the factors conducive to domestic violence is minimal (Male=19.5200 and
Female=18.9259).
The extent to which the respondents are acculturated into the American society
was measured by the degree of contact and comfort that the participants derive when
interacting with people and activities of their heritage culture which is their culture of
origin as compared to the mainstream American culture, marriage preference and
friendships; maintenance of cultural belief and values. Cross tabulation of acculturation
level using social activities with typical American people discloses that more years of
stay in the US influences the participants’ involvement in the social activities of the
American people as 66.7% of those spent 1-2 years in the US compared with 32.7% who
have lived in the US for 5 years and above do not enjoy social activities with Americans
outside their cultural heritage. Thirty three percent of those who stayed in the US for 1-2
49
years and 67.3% of those that have spent 5 and more years agree that they enjoy activities
with what they consider to be typical Americans. This indicates that the duration of stay
influences the acculturation process of Nigerian immigrants. Interestingly, all the
participants from the group that spent 1-2 years in the US agree that they felt comfortable
interacting with people who are from the same heritage as theirs and most of those who
stayed 5 years and above also felt comfortable with members of the same heritage thus
indicating that interactions with members of their own cultural groups are found
enjoyable.
The proportion of women who perceived the existence of domestic violence in
the community is higher (66.7%) than men (58.3%). However, the chi square test
indicates that this difference is not statistically significant. This result reveals that the
level of understanding and perception of domestic violence among Nigerian immigrant
men and women in the Northern California is still minimal there by answering the study
questions one and two. However, with the increased level of perception and
understanding of domestic violence, professional seeking help behavior will
automatically be influenced in time of domestic violence crisis.
As indicated by the T-test on scale that measures tendency to domestic
violence the mean difference between men and women on this scale was not significant.
Another important finding is that there is no relationship between the years of stay in the
United States and perception of domestic violence. It must be noted that the number of
years of stay in the United States does not change the view and perception of domestic
violence as reflected by the fact that 66.7% of those who spent 1-2 years in the United
50
States compared to 62.5% of those who have spent 5 years and above perceived the
existence of domestic violence. This may be as a result of cultural influence on their
understanding of domestic violence.
Additionally, the study findings indicate that majority of the respondents
immigrated to the US as young adults with their preconceptions and other motives of
gender role fully in place. This is why many Nigerian immigrants find it difficult to let go
of their cultural beliefs and values such as gender role stereotypes and male dominant
attitude that initiate and encourage family disputes. However this study’s findings
indicate that there is change in the way Nigerian couples interact in the United States.
Study results show that in 84.9% indicated that in their families, both partners decide
whether to buy or rent a house and that majority of the time, financial decisions are made
by both husband and wife. The same thing applies to the educational decision about the
children where 92% respondents indicated that they jointly make these decisions.
Recommendations
Based on the study findings it is important to recognize the fact that within the
Nigerian communities as in other immigrant communities in different parts of America,
the process of adjustment coupled with authority management has created stress based
divisions in families. Due to lack of openness for help, many men have lost their temper
and displayed difficulties with anger management and engaged in homicide leading to
displacement of children involved. The respondents of this study indicated that their
interactions with members of cultural groups other than their own are limited. This
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includes seeking help from sources outside their familiar circles. Thus there is a greater
need for family and social support system for early intervention.
As this study examined the questions pertaining to the levels of perceptions on
domestic violence among the Nigerian families that live in Sacramento, and the extent to
which domestic violence is understood as a problem in the view of immigrants the
findings consistent with the primary themes delineated from this study’s literature review
determined that the process of acculturation plays a role in the kind of networks, role
expectations of wives and husbands and the stressors associated with adjustment to the
host society. Thus community based education, awareness and prevention efforts to
increase the understanding of sex role stereotypes and proper boundaries for men and
women to interact with one another must be coordinated.
As the study findings refer to the ways in which perceptions regarding
domestic violence influence the professional help seeking behavior in time of domestic
violence crisis, among Nigerian immigrants, service for domestic violence can be
integrated with community centers and churches that are frequented by the Nigerian
families, as the respondents felt comfortable interacting with members of their own
groups. As factors of acculturation impact family relationships of the Nigerian
immigrants in the United States with reference to domestic violence, mechanisms to
reduce acculturative stress need to be established to prevent domestic violence
occurrence. At the macro level, professionals who work with this population need to be
trained in the application of systems theory and acculturation models.
52
While it is true that Nigerian immigrant families, like other ethnic families in
the United States experience domestic violence, the context of this experience is different
because of how domestic violence is defined and experienced by this population. Thus
social work professionals need to connect their micro, macro and mezzo level
interventions without differentiating these approaches from individual as separate from
the family and the community.
Implications for Social work Practice
Social work practice with Nigerian immigrant families need to be based on cultural
competence and understanding of the historical context of Nigerian families which are
patriarchy-governed with sex roles well defined. Although this system is slowly
changing, toward more democratic family structure in America, challenges to the
authority of men in Nigerian families in the U.S. creates the potential for tension within
families. Social work professionals need to develop a system based approach with
spiritual and community elements integrated with professional practice.
This study contributed to the knowledge base on acculturation and domestic
violence on different cultural groups of people and immigrant populations and this
knowledge, despite its limited external validity can be transferred to similar cultural
groups of African immigrant populations. The findings pertaining to perception of
domestic violence are linked to Nigerian immigrants’ experiences of acculturation in the
United States and thus understanding demographic factors pertaining to age and years of
53
stay in the United States are important to consider when planning interventions with this
population.
Limitations
The limitations of this study are due to the social desirability of answers given by the
study participants, the size of the study sample, and the non-probability nature of the study
sample. All these factors in combination affect the external validity of the study findings.
Further studies need to be conducted using random samples on culturally and socially
empowering approaches to working with Nigerian immigrants to prevent instances of domestic
violence.
Conclusion
This study was designed to determine the impact of perception of acculturative
stressors on the Nigerian immigrant families in their day-to-day living in the United
States as these stressors interacted with their perception of domestic violence. There is
evidence to support these concepts being highly relevant to social work practice in the
context of diversity competence. There was additional evidence to support the increased
perception of domestic violence among women than men despite the minimal difference
noted. The change in power and role performance of Nigerian men and women has not
been accompanied by the corresponding changes in role expectations of men regarding
their wives. While systems theory and acculturation models have been useful in
understanding this change, there was not much support for the use of violentization
theory at least in this study sample with regard to domestic violence although there are
54
many reports of homicides of spouses among this particular immigrant population.
Unlike some of these immigrant communities, Nigerian immigrants’ acculturative
stressors may not be that of language because English language is the only common
language of communication among Nigerians since Nigeria has no national language of
communication. Since, majority of Nigerian immigrants in the U.S. are here either for
the purpose of educational, career or for better economic opportunity purposes with the
exception of those whose parents brought them over as young children, there is increased
motivation to make their life processes work well for them and their families. It is in this
strength based approach the Nigerian families in the United States must be approached
for professional intervention with regard to circumstances that require assistance and
intervention by social work professionals.
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APPENDIX A
CONSENT LETTER
56
Consent to Participate in a Research Study on the Impact of Acculturation on
Family Relationships among Nigerian Immigrants in Sacramento with reference to
Domestic Violence
My name is Helen Umejesi, a graduate student of Social Work Division at
California State University Sacramento. You are invited to participate in a study that
examines the impact of acculturation on family relationships among the Nigerian
immigrants in Sacramento with special reference to domestic violence.
This study is conducted to gain understanding on how to help Nigerian families in
Sacramento and the United States manage their adjustment process and prevent domestic
violence and seek services to manage domestic violence. You are therefore invited to
participate in this study and you may be able to contribute to this understanding.
If you decide to participate in this study, you will be given a questionnaire to
complete. Envelope will be made available to you to seal the completed questionnaire to
make sure that you are never identified with the information you provide and it will take
about 10-15 minutes to complete the process. This activity is safe, only that some of the
items in the questionnaire may remind you of past or present experiences, but you do not
answer any questions that you don’t feel like answering.
Your participation in this study is voluntary, and you are free to quit participating
if you do not want or feel comfortable to continue. Your refusal to participate does not
cause you anything. You may not personally benefit from participating in this study.
However, the outcome of the study may be helpful to Nigerian families here in the US to
manage potential acculturation stressors and family issues that result in domestic
violence. Be assured that any information you give is confidential and anonymous. Please
do not write your name or anything that will identify you in the questionnaire or on the
envelope. The envelopes can be dropped off at the church.
Before completing the questionnaire, I would like you to sign below confirming your
informed consent.
Should you experience any emotional discomfort because of your participation,
please feel free to contact the County Mental Health in Sacramento at (916) 875-1055.
If you have any questions feel free to contact the researcher at (916) 889-9004; e-mail
adaumejesi28@yahoo.com or my thesis advisor Dr. Jude Antonyappan at (916) 278-7171
e-mail: judea@csus.edu
________________________________
_______________________
Participant’s Signature
Date
57
APPENDIX B
QUESTIONNAIRE
58
QUESTIONAIRE
The purpose of this study is to help determine the impact of acculturation on
family relationship with reference to domestic violence among the Nigerian families
living in Sacramento.
Please check the box that is appropriate to you.
1. Gander:
Male [ ]
Female [ ]
2. Marital status
[ ] Married [ ] Single [ ] Divorced [ ] In relationship
3. How old were you when you came to the United State?
[ ] 20-24 years [ ] 25-29 years [ ] 30-34 [ ] 35 years and above
4. Educational qualification
[ ] High School [ ] some college [ ] College graduate [ ] Post-graduate and higher
5. How long have you lived in the United States?
[ ] 1-2year [ ] 3-4 years [ ] 5 years and above
6. Do both partners works?
[ ] Yes [ ] No
If no, who works? [ ] Wife [ ] Husband
7. In your view, who should be the head of the household?
[ ] Husband [ ] Wife [ ] Both
8. Is domestic violence a problem that is a family issue which should be settled within the
family?
[ ] Yes [ ] No
9. Who cares for the children?
[ ] Husband [ ] Wife [ ] Both
Among the Nigerian families in America (Sacramento) to the best of your knowledge,
please identify who is the decision maker by checking the box that is appropriate to you
10. Who cooks and keeps the house?
[ ] Husband [ ] Wife [ ] Both
11. Who decides how money is spent
59
[ ] Male [ ] Female [ ] Both
12. Who makes decision for the education of the children (which school to attend?)
[ ] Male [ ] Female [ ] Both
13. Who decides on how many children to have?
[ ] Male [ ] Female [ ] Both
14. Who decides whether to buy or rent a house?
[ ] Male [ ] Female [ ] Both
Among the Nigerian families in the United States (Sacramento) you know, please rate
your degree of agreement/ disagreement
15. Spouses argue about how money is spent
[ ] Often [ ] very often [ ] Never
16. Spousal arguments turn into physical fight
[ ] Often [ ] very often [ ] Never
17. One spouse is afraid of the other spouse
[ ] Often [ ] very often [ ] Never
18. One spouse restricts or tries to restrict the other from communicating with family
members and or friends
[ ] Often [ ] very often [ ] Never
19. One spouse monitors the other’s time and demands for explanation for being late
from work, or away from home
[ ] Often [ ] very often [ ] Never
20. Spouses do humiliate and or call one or the other names in front of their children or
friends
[ ] Often [ ] very often [ ] Never
21. Spouse inflicts physical injury on the other that needs medical attention
[ ] Often [ ] very often [ ] Never
22. Some spouses are isolated and alone, and would not Share their problems with nonfamily member(s)
[ ] Often [ ] very often [ ] Never
60
23. Spouses talk down on each other in front of their child
or friend
[ ] Often [ ] very often [ ] Never
24. Spouses seek professional help during family crises (such as counseling)
[ ] Often [ ] very often [ ] Never
25. Family issues end in divorce
[ ] Often [ ] very often [ ] Never
Please answer each question as carefully as possible. Please circle one of the numbers to
the right of each question to indicate your degree of agreement or disagreement.
Many of these questions will refer to your heritage culture, meaning the culture that has
influenced you most (other than American culture). It may be the culture of your birth,
the culture in which you have been raised, or another culture that forms part of your
background
26. I often participate in my heritage cultural traditions.
1. Disagree 2. Agree
27. I often participate in mainstream American cultural traditions.
1. Disagree 2. Agree
28. I would be willing to marry a person from my heritage culture.
1. Disagree 2. Agree
29. I would be willing to marry a white American person.
1. Disagree 2. Agree
30. I enjoy social activities with people from the same heritage culture as myself.
1. Disagree 2. Agree
31. I enjoy social activities with typical American people.
1. Disagree 2. Agree
32. I am comfortable interacting with people of the same heritage culture as myself.
1. Disagree 2. Agree
33. I am comfortable interacting with typical American people.
1. Disagree 2. Agree
34. I enjoy entertainment (e.g. movies, music) from my heritage culture.
1. Disagree 2. Agree
61
35. I enjoy American entertainment (e.g. movies, music).
1. Disagree 2. Agree
36. I often behave in ways that are typical of my heritage culture.
1. Disagree 2. Agree
37. I often behave in ways that are ‗typically American.‘
1. Disagree 2. Agree
38. It is important for me to maintain or develop the practices of my heritage culture.
1. Disagree 2. Agree
39. It is important for me to maintain or develop American cultural practices.
1. Disagree 2. Agree
40. I believe in the values of my heritage culture.
1. Disagree 2. Agree
41. I believe in mainstream American values.
1. Disagree 2. Agree
42. I enjoy the jokes and humor of my heritage culture.
1. Disagree 2. Agree
43. I enjoy white American jokes and humor.
1. Disagree 2. Agree
44. I am interested in having friends from my heritage culture.
1. Disagree 2. Agree
45. I am interested in having white American friends.
1. Disagree 2. Agree.
Thank you very much for taking time to complete this questionnaire.
62
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