1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Previous studies on soccer players have indicated that the performance levels of
starters are affected more than nonstarters over the course of the competitive season
(Kraemer et al., 2004; St. Pierre, 2008). Since the starters tend to play more than the
nonstarters, their athletic performance tends to decrease. Although many people may
think that the extra muscle stimulus provided by more playing time will either maintain
or improve performance levels, it actually causes muscular fatigue which decreases
physical performance (Florini, 1987). However, different studies report that soccer
players who start a season at a high level fitness can maintain or improve physical
performance (Silvestre, West, Maresh, & Kraemer, 2006), but these findings are
dependent on position played (Silvestre et al., 2006).
Research suggests that without a combined strength and speed training program
implemented, the nonstarters maintain performance skill level and starters decrease in
performance, especially vertical jump (Kraemer et al., 2004; St. Pierre, 2008). A
plausible solution to counteract the reduction in performance is to implement a strength
and conditioning regimen during the season. The problem will be addressed by
completing a pre-test and post-test of the athletes comprised of various performance
skills. It will also include a treatment (a strength and conditioning program) to both
starters and nonstarters. After the season, the statistical analysis of the pre-test and posttest will deliver evidence to a possible solution to the problem.
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Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the change in the results of 5 physical
performance tests between starters and nonstarters after implementing a combined
strength and speed training program to a collegiate women’s soccer team over a
competitive season.
Significance of the Study
This study was derived from a previous study conducted by St. Pierre (2008) in
which similar methods were used. Results from that study found that vertical jump
decreased among starters during the season. According to St. Pierre (2008), “because no
formal strength training program was used by the team in this study, the decrease in
lower body power indicated that the team may benefit from using such a program” (p.
34). A supplementation to the study was a strength and conditioning program during the
competitive soccer season. This study added to the significance of St. Pierre’s (2008)
study and also gave more depth to the literature and the field of strength and conditioning
by supporting the importance of training both starters and nonstarters over the course of a
season.
Assumptions
1. All participants attended at least 90% of the training sessions.
2. All participants gave full effort while participating in the training and testing.
3. All athletes were physically fit for a strength and speed training program.
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Limitations
1. The small sample size (n=16) limited the ability to apply the results to the entire
junior college female soccer player population.
2. Tournaments or games played during the week caused few the subjects to skip a
session of strength and conditioning due to fatigue.
Delimitations
1. The strength and conditioning program used in this study was limited to one hour
sessions, twice weekly for 10 weeks.
2. The subjects in this study consisted of first and second year female collegiate
soccer players.
3. The subjects played on a community college soccer team.
4. This study did not include preseason games or training.
5. The study concluded at the end of the regular season and did not include the
postseason or playoff tournaments.
Definitions of Terms
1. Complex training-a form of combination training that alternates between
resistance exercises and biomechanically similar plyometric exercises within a
single exercise session (Mihalik, Libby, Battaglini, & McMurray, 2008).
2. Compound training-form of combination training in which resistance exercises
and plyometric exercises are performed in separate sessions (Mihalik et al. 2008).
3. Nonstarter—any player who starts less than 25% of the games during the season.
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4. Plyometric exercise-an exercise involving eccentric-to-concentric actions
performed quickly so a muscle stretches slightly just before the concentric
contraction. Examples include standing jump, multiple jumps, depth or drop
jumps (McArdle, Katch, & Katch, 2006).
5. Resistance training-a form of strength training in which each repetition is done
against a resisting force.
6. Starter—any player who starts at least 75% of the games during the season.
Hypotheses
1.
There will be no significant change in vertical jump height among starters.
2.
There will be no significant change in vertical jump height among nonstarters.
3.
There will be no significant difference between starters and nonstarters in
vertical jump height.
4.
There will be no significant change in standing broad jump of starters.
5.
There will be no significant change in standing broad jump of nonstarters.
6.
There will be no significant difference between starters and nonstarters in
standing broad jump.
7.
There will be no significant change in 10 meter sprint time of starters.
8.
There will be no significant change in 10 meter sprint time of nonstarters.
9.
There will be no significant difference between starters and nonstarters in 10
meter sprint time.
10.
There will be no significant change in 40 meter sprint time among starters.
11.
There will be no significant change in 40 meter sprint time among nonstarters.
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12.
There will be no significant difference between starters and nonstarters in 40
meter sprint time.
13.
There will be no significant change in 150 meter shuttle time among starters.
14.
There will be no significant change in 150 meter shuttle time among
nonstarters.
15.
There will be no significant difference between starters and nonstarters in 150
meter shuttle time.
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Chapter 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The purpose of this study was to examine the change in the results of 5 physical
performance tests between starters and nonstarters after implementing a combined
strength and speed training program to a collegiate women’s soccer team over a
competitive season. In depth research shows the game of soccer places many demands on
athletes, including strength, speed, power, and endurance (Ohashi, Togari, Isokawa, &
Suzoki, 1987; Van Gool, Van Gerven, & Boutmans, 1987). Further analyses have
revealed that using interval and resistance training programs can help players develop
more strength, speed, power, and physical fitness (Dupont, Akakpo, & Berthoin, 2004;
Helgerud, Engen, Wisloff, & Hoff, 2001; Hickson, Rosenkoetter, & Brown, 1980; Jenson
& Larson, 1993; Wilson, Newton, Murphy, & Humphries, 1993).
Despite the previously mentioned findings, the results of studies tracking physical
performance of athletes over the course of a competitive season have mixed conclusions
(Cajasus, 2001; Caterisano, Patrick, Edenfield, & Batson, 1997; Dos Remedios et al.,
1995; Hoffman & Kang, 2003; Schneider, Arnold, Martin, Bell, & Crocker, 1998;
Tavino, Bowers, & Archer, 1995). Research suggests that male collegiate soccer players,
starters and nonstarters, following the same in-season training program may experience
different effects on physical performance (Kraemer et al., 2004; Silvestre et al. 2006).
Physical Demands of Soccer
Throughout the course of a soccer game, the players run approximately 10,000
meters (6 miles) with up to 12.8% of that distance at high intensity (Ohashi et al., 1987;
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Van Gool et al., 1987). Because the game of soccer requires high physical exertion,
athletes who are not properly trained may experience fatigue. This presents an undesired
problem because high levels of fatigue can decrease skill execution (Lyons, Al-Nakeer, &
Nevill, 2006).
Game Analyses
Athletes must be both highly skilled and well-trained for strength, speed, power,
and endurance in order to be competitive in soccer at the collegiate level. Studies have
been done to examine the actual distance covered by an athlete during a competitive
soccer game, and the intensity at which they run has also been observed. Using computer
software analysis, Ohashi et al. (1987), found that 4 elite soccer players covered between
9,303 and 11,601 meters within one, 90 minute game. The analysis also indicated that
12.8% of that total distance was covered by sprinting.
In that same year, a similar study was done which analyzed seven male collegiatelevel soccer players (Van Gool et al., 1987). The results from this study found that on
average, the soccer players traveled 10,225 meters during a game. The distributions of the
intensities are as follows: 42.9% low-intensity, 42.6% medium-intensity, and 7.5% highintensity. The differences in percentage of high-intensity percentages between the two
studies may be a result of different skill level, elite (Ohashi et al., 1987) and collegiate
(Van Gool et al., 1987). However, the collegiate level player still sprinted about 767
meters (Van Gool et al., 1987).
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Physical Performance and Fatigue
Lyons et al. (2006) studied passing skill performance and localized muscle fatigue
in 20 male students. Using the Modified Longborough Soccer Passing Test (MLSPT),
each student was tested on three different levels of fatigue: rest, moderate fatigue (70%),
and high fatigue (90%). The results show that that at high fatigue (90%), the students
performed significantly worse on the MLSPT than at moderate fatigue (70%) and rest. In
addition, at high fatigue (90%), the students were penalized significantly higher,
indicating that high levels of fatigue negatively affect passing speed and accuracy.
Physiological Attributes of Soccer Players
Due to the difference in high intensity movements in soccer, it is evident that
speed and conditioning of soccer players vary at different levels of skill and competition.
Kollath and Quade (1993) conducted a study that compared the speeds of professional
and amateur soccer players. The players’ sprint times were compared at 5, 10, 20, and 30
meters. The professional players averaged 4.19 seconds for 30 meters, significantly faster
than the amateurs’ average of 4.33 seconds for 30 meters. The results indicate that
professional soccer players are faster than amateur soccer players.
In addition to the competition level, position is another factor in the physiological
attributes of soccer players. Davis, Brewer, and Atkin (1992) conducted an in-depth
analysis of the positions on a soccer field. One hundred thirty-five professional English
soccer players were evaluated on body mass and fat percentage, levels of hemoglobin,
aerobic capacity (VO2 max), leg power, anaerobic capacity, and speed. These evaluations
exposed that goalkeepers and center-backs were significantly heavier than full-backs,
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midfielders, and forwards. Also, goalkeepers’ body fat percentage was significantly
higher than all other positions. In measures of aerobic capacity (VO2 max), goalkeepers
were significantly lower than all positions, and midfielders were significantly higher than
center-backs. Forwards were faster than full-backs, center-backs, and goal keepers in the
60 meter sprint.
Test Results and In-Game Performance
Although evaluations physical performance (speed, strength, agility, and
endurance) reveal what an athlete can do in a lab-setting, their ability to transfer those
results onto the playing field has been inconsistent. Bangsboro and Linquist (1992)
compared distance that soccer players run and the high-intensity distance that they run to
their performance on aerobic and anaerobic field tests. Twenty professional soccer
players were tested on blood lactate accumulation, VO2 max, and continuous and interval
field tests, along with a soccer related test to exhaustion. The players’ running distance
and high-intensity distance were analyzed from a competition that was videotaped. The
results suggest that total game distance to be significantly correlated to high-intensity
game distance. The total game distance was also significantly correlated to blood lactate
concentration and VO2 max. The high-intensity game distance correlated significantly
with the endurance field test.
One year later a different study produced different results. A professional Italian
soccer team was observed over six competitive seasons. During the pre-season, each
player was tested on aerobic capacity (VO2 max). Following the conclusion of each
season, the rank of the team was formulated. Even though the team finished at a different
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ranking each year, there were no significant differences between the six seasons on
average aerobic capacity (Roi et al., 1993). The researchers commented that the results
may have been affected by the different rosters between the years. Furthermore, they also
noted that the pre-season evaluation of aerobic capacity may not be a valid measure of inseason performance.
The highly successful teams and the low success teams competing at the same
competition level produce different results on physical performance tests. Two elite
Swedish soccer teams in the same league were studied over a competitive season. One of
the teams finished the season as league champions. The other team finished the season in
last place. The results of the physical performance test show that the champions were
significantly better than the other team in 1 RM back squat and aerobic capacity. The
results of the vertical jump were not significantly different. However, the vertical jump
heights did significantly correlate with 1 RM back squat (Wisloff, Helgerud, & Hoff,
1998). The results from this suggest a relationship between physical performance and onfield play.
Types of Training
For soccer players, training tries to make improvements in technical, tactical,
psychological, and physical qualities (Dupont et al., 2004). For running and cutting
sports, like soccer, acceleration and speed separate elite and sub-elite athletes (Cometti,
Maffiuletti, Pousson, Chatard, & Maffuli, 2001; Fry & Kraemer, 1991). Research has
shown a lot of interest in speed training of athletes in all sports. Maximum speed is the
highest velocity at which a player can sprint (Gambetta, 1996). The players’ speed
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capacity decreases during soccer activity (Abt, Reaburn, & Gear, 2003; Mohr, Krustrup,
& Bangsbo 2003; Rebelo, Krustrup, Soares, Bangsbo, 1998), but the athletes’
performance will improve with the reduction of fatigue (Fitzsimons, Dawson, Ward, &
Wilkinson, 1993). While most athletes desire to improve acceleration and speed, the most
effective method of training to experience improvements is still vague (Corn & Knudson,
2003; Deane, Chow, Tillman, & Fournier, 2005; Frappier, 2002; Harris, Stone, O’Bryant,
Proulx, & Johnson, 2000; Kotzamanidis, Chatzopoulos, Michailidis, Papaiakovou, &
Patikas, 2005; Lockie, Murphy, & Spinks, 2003; McBride, Triplett-McBride, Davie, &
Newton, 1972).
Programmed versus Random Training
In a study regarding random training versus programmed training (Bloomfield,
Polman, O’Donoghue, & McNaughton, 2007), programmed training was far more
effective in improving physical performance. Forty-six athletes (25 male, 21 female)
were divided into 3 groups: programmed conditioning (PC), random conditioning (RC),
and no conditioning (NC). The program conditioning was based on the SAQ (speed,
agility, quickness) method of training (Pearson, 2001a; Pearson, 2001b; Pearson, Colbert,
& Friar, 2002) which has been validated as an effective PC method for elite female
soccer players (Polman, Walsh, Bloomfield, & Nesti, 2004). Athletes who trained by PC
experienced significant improvements in 0-5 m and 0-15 m sprint tests, T-test, and
standing long jump than the group who completed random training. The results from this
study suggest that SAQ exercises are superior for improving speed and agility parameters
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(Bloomfield et al., 2007). The results also indicate that athletes following a specific
training program will benefit more than random training.
Resistance Training
Much attention is given to resistance training and its effects on physical
performance. Studies indicate that resistance training with weights can both significant
and non-significant effects on speed and lower body power (Dodd & Alvar, 2007;
Fatouros, et al., 2005; Moore, Hickey, & Reiser, 2005; Kotzamanidis, Chatzopoulos,
Michailidis, Papaiakovou, & Patikas, 2005; Myer, Ford, Brent, Divine, & Hewett, 2007;
Spinks, Murphy, Spinks, & Lockie, 2007; Yetter & Mohr, 2008).
Effects on Speed
Myer et al. (2007) looked at the differences in ground-based resistance training
versus incline treadmill training on female soccer players. Thirty-one high school age
female soccer players were split into either ground-based (GBT) or treadmill (TT)
treadmill training. The six week training programs, each with 2 sessions per week,
yielded similar results. The findings show that both groups significantly decreased their
average sprint start time (faster times), and the training increased stride frequency but not
stride length. The results of this study suggest that ground-based resistance training and
inclined treadmill training are effective methods to improve sprint start speed.
A different resistance training method used to increase speed is the weighted sled
which is towed by athletes. In a different study examining resistance training, Spinks et
al. (2007) obtained thirty male volunteers to be involved in a study that examined the
effects of resisted sprint training on performance. The group of participants was a
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combination of rugby, soccer, and Australian football players. They were divided into
three groups: resistance training, no resistance training, and control. After 8 weeks of
speed training, the resistance training group showed significant improvements (p = .05) in
acceleration and leg power, but it was no more effective than non resistant training.
Yetter and Mohr (2008) studied the effects of heavy-load back and front squats on
40 meter sprint times. In a cross-over design, 10 trained men executed a heavy back squat
(HBS), heavy front squat (HFS), or a control (no squat) before running three 40 meter
sprints, separated by three minutes of rest. The HBS produced significant increases in
speed during the 10-20 m interval when compared to the control treatment. During the
30-40 meter interval, HBS was significantly faster as compared to the HFS treatment and
the control treatment. This study lends proof to include heavy back squats into the warmup protocol of athletes to improve sprinting performance.
Effects on Lower-body Power
Research on vertical jump, lower-body power and resistance training has
produced mixed results (Kotzamanidis et al., 2005; Moore et al., 2005; Dodd & Alvar,
2007; Fatouros et al., 2000). Kotzamanidis et al. (2005) gathered a group of 35 male
volunteers to examine the effects of strength and speed training on physical performance.
The three groups were divided as follows: strength training, speed and strength training,
and no training for a control. The vertical jump performance was tested by the squat jump
(SJ), countermovement jump (CJ), and drop jump (DJ). The strength training group
showed no significant changes in vertical jump performance for all three of the measures
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from pre-test to post-test. The results suggest that resistance training does not improve
vertical jump.
Dodd and Alvar (2007) studied the effects of explosive training modalities on
lower-body power. Forty-five male junior college baseball players participated in three
separate four-week resistance training interventions. The three interventions were
complex training, heavy resistance, and plyometric training. Each individual was tested
on 20 yard sprint, 40 yard sprint, 60 yard sprint, vertical jump, standing broad jump, and
T-agility. Although there were no statistically significant changes between all three
groups across all of the physical performance measures, the heavy resistance intervention
had positive changes in 60 yard sprint, vertical jump, standing broad jump, and T-agility
only. This study suggests that resistance training can improve vertical jump, but the
improvement may not be statistically significant.
In contrast, Fatouros et al. (2000) examined at the effects of strength training,
plyometric training, and a combination of the two on vertical jumping performance of 41
untrained males. The subjects were divided into 4 groups: plyometric training, weight
training, plyometric plus weight training, and no training. Each subject was measured for
vertical jump, mechanical power, flight time, and maximal leg strength. The pre-test to
post-test results show that the weight training group improved in all physical performance
measurements. This study provides statistical support for the use of resistance training to
improve lower body strength and power.
Moore et al. (2005) found similar results to the previously mentioned study. They
studied both male and female entry-level collegiate soccer players on their physical
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performance. The players were divided into 2 groups: traditional resistance training
combined with Olympic-style lifting and traditional resistance training combined with
plyometric exercises. The subjects were tested on countermovement vertical jump, 4 RM
squat, 25 meter sprint, and a figure-8 drill on a 5-dot mat. After 12 weeks of training,
both groups experienced significant improvements across all testing parameters. This
study suggests that resistance training improves vertical jump and lower body power.
Non-resistance Training
Interval or sprint training has been found to improve 40 meter sprint times during
a competitive soccer season (Dupont et al., 2004). Also, plyometric exercises positively
improve 20 yard, 40 yard, and 60 yard sprints, and the T-agility test (Dodd & Alvar,
2007) Plyometric exercises also contributed to further improvements in athlete’s jumping
performance(Dodd & Alvar, 2007; Fatouros et al., 2000).
Dupont et al. (2004) studied the effects of in-season, high-intensity, interval
training of soccer players and its effects on physical performance. Twenty-two
professional male soccer players participated in 2 consecutive 10-week training periods:
interval training and control. The interval training consisted of 12-15 intermittent runs
(120% of maximal aerobic speed) lasting 15 seconds with 15 seconds of rest in between
each run. Sprints involved 12-15 40 meter sprints at 100% anaerobic speed, followed by
30 seconds rest. Each subject was tested in 40 meter sprint time. The pre-test to post-test
results showed the interval training significantly lowered 40 meter sprint times when
compared to the control group. The results suggest that implementing an interval training
program during the season will improve speed.
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Dodd and Alvar (2007) also examined the effects of plyometric training on sprint
and agility times and jumping performance, but their subjects were junior college
baseball players. The 45 male baseball players were divided into 3 groups: plyometric
training, heavy resistance training, and complex training. The plyometric exercises used
were box jumps, depth jumps, and split squat jumps. The players were tested for speed
and agility with a 20 yard sprint, 40 yard sprint, 60 yard sprint, and a T-agility test. The
players were tested for jumping ability with the vertical jump and standing broad jump.
The results of the study show that plyometric training had greater percentage of
improvement in the vertical jump than the other two training groups, but the
improvements were not statistically significant. The plyometric training also created
positive improvements in the 20 yard sprint, but the improvements were not statistically
significant. The results indicate that plyometric training may cause positive
improvements in performance, but not enough to use them alone.
Fatouros et al. (2000) conducted a study in which they evaluated the differences
in training modalities on vertical jump performance and lower body power. The
plyometric mode of training consisted of 11 men. The men were tested on vertical jump
height, mechanical power, flight time, and maximal leg strength. The 12-week plyometric
training elicited significant improvements in all performance measures from pre-test to
post-test. The plyometric training was as effective as the combined training method, but it
still created significantly positive changes. The results from this study suggest that
plyometric training is an effective training mode to improve lower-body power.
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Combined Training: Resistance and Non-resistance
Combined strength and speed training programs have shown greater
improvements in jumping performance than when separate (Fatouros et al., 2000;
Kotzamanidis et al., 2005). Combined training has also shown to outperform in 30 meter
dash (Kotzamanidis et al., 2005), 20 yard, 40 yard, and 60 yard sprints, and T-agility
(Dodd & Alvar, 2007) when compared to resistance and speed training alone. Further
studies show that combined training improves standing broad jump (Dodd et al., 2007)
and vertical jump (Mihalik, Libby, Battaglini, & McMurray, 2008).
Fatouros et al. (2000) evaluated the combination of plyometric exercises and
resistance training and its effects on jumping performance and leg strength. When
compared to plyometric exercises and resistance training alone, combination training
improved significantly greater in vertical jump height, flight time, and leg strength.
Comparing all three methods, this combination training provided a more powerful
stimulus in improving the measured parameters of lower-body power.
Kotzamanidis et al. (2005) investigated the effects that these programs have on
soccer players. The study consisted of 35 players which were divided into three groups:
combined resistance and speed training program, resistance training program without the
speed training, and the third group was a control group. Subjects were tested on squat
jump, countermovement jump, drop jump, 30 meter dash and leg strength. The results
from the pre-test to post-test showed that the combined training group performed
significantly better than the other two groups in the 30 meter dash, squat jump, and
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countermovement jump. The results suggest that combine training will give greater
improvements physical performance.
Dodd and Alvar (2007) studied training methods of baseball players. They
compared the effects heavy resistance training, plyometric training, and complex training
on physical performance. The complex training group showed a greater percentage of
improvement in 20 meter sprint, 40 meter sprint, 60 meter sprint, standing broad jump
and T-agility than heavy resistance training and plyometric training. Within this study,
the use of complex training has shown greater increases in lower-body speed and power
when compared to heavy weight training and high-velocity methods.
Recently Mihalik et al. (2008) compared short-term complex and compound
training programs on lower-body power. Thirty one volunteers (11 male; 20 female) were
put into one of two groups: complex training group or compound training group. Each
group underwent 4 weeks of training, 2 sessions per week. The results of the study
showed that both groups significantly improved vertical jump height after only 3 weeks
of training. The complex group increased by 5%, whereas the compound group increased
by 9%. This study shows that a combination training method increases vertical jump
height. It suggests that coaches choose the program that best fits their schedules.
In-Season Changes in Physical Performance
During a competitive season is one of the most important times to balance speed,
strength, and endurance. Numerous studies have examined athletes in sports in addition
to soccer, including football, rugby, and basketball, and the results from the studies found
different changes in physical performance (Baker, 2001; Caterisano et al., 1997; Dos
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Remedios et al., 1995; Groves & Gayle, 1993; Hoffman & Kang, 2003; Holmyard &
Hazeldine, 1993; Schneider et al., 1998; Tavino et al., 1995). Some of these studies have
shown changes from pre-test to post-test, while others have produced increases or
decreases in one or multiple performance measures. It is important to note that the
training programs used in the studies had a frequency of two strength-training sessions
per week and the results were still different. The observed differences in results may be
derived from several factors: level of fitness at beginning of study, other training
involved, or the difference in resistance training programs’ characteristics.
Football
Community college football players, divided into two groups (linemen and
backs) were tested three weeks before and one week after their season for the following
parameters: weight, body fat, aerobic capacity, 1 RM bench press, hip sled, 20 yd and 40
yd sprint, 20 yd shuttle, 30 yd t-drill, and vertical jump. The results of the study
suggested that linemen significantly decreased their body weight during the season, and
they also significantly decreased in the 1 RM bench press. However, the two groups
significantly improved their 40 yd sprint times (Dos Remedios et al., 1995).
Schneider et al. (1998) examined the detraining effects of a competitive season on
collegiate football players. The physical performances measure were 1 RM bench press,
standing long jump, vertical jump, sit-and-reach (flexibility), 20 yd shuttle run, upper and
lower body maximal contraction, anaerobic power, and VO2 max. The players were
grouped using the same parameters as Dos Remedios et al. (1995): linemen and nonlinemen. Results indicated that both linemen and non-linemen decreased significantly in
20
1 RM bench press, but increased in aerobic capacity. Non-linemen significantly
decreased flexibility, vertical jump height, and shoulder abduction strength. Linemen
proved to significantly improve their flexibility.
Hoffman and Kang (2003) conducted a study of NCAA Division III football
players that produced contradictive results when they tested 40 meter sprint, t-drill,
vertical jump, body fat measurements, 1 RM back squat, and 1 RM bench press. It was
found that 1 RM back squat significantly increased from pre-test (before season) to posttest (after season), and were greater for freshmen than seniors.
Rugby
There have been similar studies conducted to observe physical performance of
rugby players during the course of a training-season. Holmyard and Hazeldine (1993)
followed 18 professional English rugby players and found that over the course of the
year, the players experienced a significant reduction in body fat. Furthermore, the
participants significantly increased aerobic capacity and lowered (improved) their pre-test
to post-test 30 meter sprint times.
Baker (2001) conducted a study eight years later that examined the effects of
strength training on professional and collegiate rugby players. The results of this study
only produced significant improvement in 1 RM bench press from pre-test to mid-studytest for only the collegiate rugby players. The frequency of training for this study was 2
sessions a week.
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Basketball
Research focusing on physical performances during a competitive season of
basketball conveys contrasting results. Groves and Gayle (1993) conducted a study on
collegiate basketball players participating in resistance training and found that players’
body weight increased significantly from in-season to post-season and from post-season
to off-season. Additionally, body fat percentage significantly decreased from pre-season
to off-season. Moreover, 1 RM bench press increased from pre-season to in-season and
post-season to off-season, but significantly decreased from in-season to post-season.
Tavino et al. (1995) tested NCAA Division I male basketball players on weight,
body fat percentage, anaerobic power, and aerobic capacity in the pre-season, in-season,
and post-season of their basketball program. Results from the study showed a decrease in
body fat percentage from pre-season to in-season, but an increase in body fat percentage
from in-season to post-season. The players’ aerobic capacity (VO2 max) increased from
pre-season to in-season.
Caterisano et al. (1997) also studied the effects of a basketball season on physical
performance in NCAA Division I college basketball players. Starters and nonstarters
were compared in this study. Both starters and nonstarters experienced a decrease in 1
RM bench press. Nonstarters decreased in aerobic capacity (VO2 max) but not in starters.
The results also showed that the starters decreased in 1 RM leg press, but not the
nonstarters.
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In-season Physical Performance Changes in Soccer
Cajasus (2001) studied the effects of a competitive soccer season on professional
soccer players without supplemental training and found that the players significantly
decreased in skin-fold thickness and body fat percentage. The players also significantly
increased speed and heart rate during anaerobic threshold test. The results showed no
significant changes in heights for the squat jump, countermovement jump, or the jump
without countermovement. These results indicate that strength and power did not
significantly change during a competitive season.
Collegiate levels teams that incorporate supplemental training in addition to
regular practices and games have been studied. Kraemer et al. (2004) tested starters and
nonstarters on isokinetic knee flexor and extensor strength, isometric knee extensor
strength, vertical jump, 20 and 40 yard sprints, body composition, and hormone levels.
Results from this study indicate that nonstarters increased in body fat percentage from
pre-test to post-test. Starters significantly decreased in vertical jump height from pre-test
to post-test, and they were also significantly slower in sprint times.
Other studies report different results in regards to the declines in speed and
vertical jump height reported in the previously mentioned study. According to a similar
study of male collegiate soccer players (Silvestre, Kraemer et al. 2006), results showed an
increase in lean body tissue. This study showed no difference in sprint times or vertical
jump height. Starters and nonstarters experienced no significant differences between
results. The entire group of players increased in lower body power and total body power
from pre-test to post-test (Silvestre, Kraemer et al., 2006).
23
In a study on female collegiate soccer players’ body composition and aerobic
capacity (VO2 max), Miller et al. (2007) found a near significant increase in VO2 max,
from April to August, but they significantly decreased aerobic capacity from August to
December. The results from August to December also showed a significant increase in
body fat percentage.
St. Pierre (2008) conducted a study on a female community college soccer team
and the effects of the competitive season on strength, speed, and aerobic fitness. Starters
and nonstarters were also parameters for the analysis of data. All soccer players were
tested on vertical jump, 10 meter sprint, 40 meter sprint, and a shuttle of 150 meters. The
results found the vertical jump decreased significantly (α= .05) for starters but not
reserves; the 10 meter sprint found to be significantly faster at the end of the season for
the entire group; and, the aerobic fitness of the entire team significantly improved at the
end of the season. The soccer players in this study had no formal strength training
program.
Summary
During a 90 minute game, elite soccer players travel close to six miles on the
field, and about one of those miles may be at a full sprint. It is important to incorporate a
strength and conditioning program into a competitive season to maintain physical
performance. Studies indicated that combined strength and speed training is more
effective at improving physical performance than the two methods alone. Studies in
soccer and other sports have found contradicting results concerning whether the physical
performance of the athletes is maintained or improved during the competitive season. The
24
purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a strength and conditioning program
on physical performance of starters and nonstarters on a women’s community college
soccer team during a competitive season.
25
Chapter 3
METHODS
The purpose of this study was to examine the change in the results of 5 physical
performance tests between starters and nonstarters after implementing a combined
strength and speed training program to a collegiate women’s soccer team over a
competitive season.
Subjects
After obtaining informed consent, 24 female soccer players representing a local
community college participated in this study. However, due to injury or termination from
the team, only 16 subjects completed both the pre-test and post-test proscribed, and were
used for statistical analysis. The ages of the subjects varied. The entire team underwent
pre-testing of the vertical jump (VJ) and standing broad jump (SBJ) to determine lower
body power, the 10m sprint to determine acceleration, the 40m sprint to determine
running velocity, and the 150m shuttle to determine muscular endurance. The team then
underwent 10 weeks of strength and speed training. Following the weeks of training, the
team finished the study by performing a post-test of the previous measures.
Training
The entire team, even those not included in the data collection, followed a training
program of 10 weeks, which included two sessions per week. Each session consisted of a
strength training period. The athletes performed three exercises: bleacher step-ups,
bodyweight squats, lunges. Following the strength training, the team immediately
transitioned into the speed training part of the session, lasting approximately 20 minutes.
26
The athletes performed three exercises, which was comprised of sprints and plyometric
exercises. The menu included: interval sprints (10 m, 20 m, 30 m, & 40m; 2 repetitions
each interval), forward jumps or single leg bounds (plyometrics), and a shuttle of varying
lengths (50 m, 75 m, or 100 m). For complete strength and conditioning program see
Appendix A.
Testing
The present research findings suggest that specific testing procedures for
acceleration and maximum speed should be utilized with elite soccer players (Little &
Williams, 2005). The testing protocol includes: vertical jump, standing broad jump, 10m
sprint, 40m sprint, and 150m shuttle.
Vertical Jump
Before any jumping was tested, the participant’s standing reach height was
measured by her touch on the instrument used to test vertical jump with both arms
extended overhead and both feet flat on the ground. The instrument was then raised to a
height that can only be touched by jumping. The participants started with their feet flat on
ground, and their arms straight out in front at shoulder height. Each participant was
allowed to use a naturally occurring countermovement and arm swing for the jump. After
jumping, the participant raised both arms as high as possible with only the right hand
touching the height indicators on the instrument. Each participant had three attempts, but
only the highest jump was recorded.
27
Standing Broad Jump
The subject stood with feet about shoulder width apart with toes aligned at same
plane. The distance jumped was measured by a firmly grounded measuring tape. The
distance recorded was marked at the heel of the foot that traveled the shortest distance.
10m Sprint
Each participant performed a general warm-up that included a short distance jog
(100m-125m), light stretching, and three warm-up sprints of 15m. Each individual then
had two attempts to run the 10m sprint. Each sprint was measured using a hand-timed
stopwatch. Between each sprint was a rest time of one minute. The faster of the two
sprints was recorded and used for the analysis.
40m Sprint
Each participant performed a general warm-up that included a short distance jog
of 100m to 125m, light stretching, and three warm-up sprints of 40m. Each individual
then had two attempts to run the 40m sprint. Each sprint was measured using a handtimed stopwatch. Between each sprint was a rest time of two minutes. The faster of the
two sprints was recorded and used for the analysis.
150m Shuttle
Each participant performed a general warm-up that included a short distance jog
(100m-125m), light stretching, and three warm-up sprints of 40m. The 150m shuttle was
performed by sprinting 25m, turning and sprinting back 25m, then repeating this until
150m is reached. In other words, the 150m shuttle was running down 25m back 25m,
28
three consecutive times. The shuttle time was measured using a hand-timed stopwatch.
The participants ran this once, and their time was recorded.
Analysis of Results
The results from this study were analyzed statistically by a one-way analysis of
variance (ANOVA) test. The first test analyzed the pre-test and post-test scores of the
entire team. The second and third ANOVA tests compared the pre-test and post-test
results of the starters and nonstarters separately. A final ANOVA test compared the
results found for the post-test of both the starters and nonstarters in order to examine
significance of results. The confidence level that was used to test the statistical
significance for both ANOVA tests was a standard alpha level of 0.05.
29
Chapter 4
RESULTS
The purpose of this study was to examine the change in the results of 5 physical
performance tests between starters and nonstarters after implementing a combined
strength and speed training program to a collegiate women’s soccer team over a
competitive season. Similar studies have established numerous results, some with
improvements on the physical performance tests (Cajasus, 2001; Silvestre, Kraemer et
al., 2006; St. Pierre, 2008), others demonstrating worsening results (Kraemer et al., 2004;
St. Pierre, 2008). The subjects in this study were female community college soccer
players. The initial pre-test was conducted in August, immediately prior to the start of the
competitive season. There were a total of 19 subjects involved in the pre-test. The
strength and conditioning program lasted ten weeks and it required all uninjured members
of the team to participate. The post-test was done in November, one week prior to the end
of the competitive season. Because some of the subjects became injured or left the team
during the season, only 16 subjects completed all five performance tests for both the pretest and the post-test. Only those who completed all 5 pre-tests and post-tests were
included in the statistical analysis. Of the 16 subjects, 8 were starters, and 8 were
nonstarters. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05 for this study.
Vertical Jump
In the vertical jump, starters averaged 17.875 inches in the pre-test and 18 inches
in the post-test. Nonstarters averaged 16.75 inches in the pre-test and 17.6875 inches in
the post-test. The ANOVA test revealed no significant differences in vertical jump for
30
starters from the pre-test to the post-test (F = .007752, p = .9311), and no significant
differences for nonstarters from the pre-test to the post-test (F = .8140, p = .3822). The
ANOVA test also showed that the results from the starters were not significantly different
from the pre-test to the post-test (F = 2.2279, p = .1577) from the nonstarters. The results
produced by both starters and nonstarters are not significantly different.
Standing Broad Jump
For the standing broad jump, starters averaged 67.9375 inches in the pre-test and
76.9375 inches in the post-test. Nonstarters averaged 65.8125 inches in the pre-test and
75.5625 inches in the post-test. The ANOVA test revealed significant differences and in
this case, improvements in the standing broad jump for both starters and nonstarters
(starters: F = 5.7169, p = .03141; nonstarters: F = 6.566, p = .02256). Both starters and
nonstarters significantly improved in the standing broad jump. The ANOVA test also
showed that the results from the starters were not significantly different from the pre-test
to the post-test (F = .1428, p = .7111) from the nonstarters. Both starters and nonstarters
produced similar results.
Acceleration
In the 10m sprint, starters averaged 1.98 seconds in the pre-test and 1.94 seconds
in the post-test. Nonstarters averaged 2.02 seconds in the pre-test and 1.97 seconds in the
post-test. The team averaged 2.00 seconds in the pre-test and 1.96 seconds in the posttest. The ANOVA test revealed no significant differences in 10m sprint time for both
starters and nonstarters (starters: F = .7908, p = .3889; nonstarters: F = .2961, p = .5949).
Although many subjects experienced individual improvements in 10m sprint times,
31
neither starters nor nonstarters experienced significant differences in acceleration. The
ANOVA test also showed that the results from the starters were not significantly different
from the pre-test to the post-test (F = .02346, p = .8804) from the nonstarters.
Speed
In the 40m sprint, starters averaged 6.31 seconds in the pre-test and 5.81 seconds
in the post-test. Nonstarters averaged 6.46 seconds in the pre-test and 6.01 seconds in the
post-test. The ANOVA test revealed significant differences in 40m sprint times from pretest to post-test for both starters and nonstarters (starters: F = 35.9881, p = .00003260;
nonstarters: F = 7.4212, p = .01646). The speed significantly improved for both starters
and nonstarters, meaning that the 40m sprint times were lower during the post-test. The
ANOVA test also showed that the results from the starters were not significantly different
from the pre-test to the post-test (F = .265, p = .6148) from the nonstarter.
Aerobic Fitness
For the 150m shuttle, starters averaged 32.13 seconds in the pre-test and 30.97
seconds in the post-test. Nonstarters averaged 32.75 seconds in the pre-test and 31.02
seconds in the post-test. The ANOVA test revealed significant differences in 150m
shuttle times from pre-test to post-test for both starters and nonstarters (starters: F =
4.844, p = .04505; nonstarters: F = 11.5093, p = .004377). The aerobic fitness of both
starters and nonstarters significantly improved, meaning that the 150m sprint times were
lower during the post-test as compared to the pre-test. The ANOVA test also showed that
the results from the starters were not significantly different from the pre-test to the posttest (F = 2.9383, p = .1085) from the nonstarters.
32
Hypotheses
1. There will be no significant change in vertical jump height among starters. This
hypothesis was supported by the study.
2. There will be no significant change in vertical jump height among nonstarters.
This hypothesis was supported by the study.
3. There will be no significant difference between starters and nonstarters in vertical
jump height. This hypothesis was supported by the study.
4. There will be no significant change in standing broad jump of starters. This
hypothesis was not supported by the data for starters, meaning that the standing
broad jump distances were significantly longer at the post-test.
5. There will be no significant change in standing broad jump of nonstarters. This
hypothesis was not supported by the data for nonstarters, meaning that the
standing broad jump distances were significantly longer at the post-test.
6. There will be no significant difference between starters and nonstarters in
standing broad jump. This hypothesis was supported by the study.
7. There will be no significant change in 10 meter sprint time of starters. This
hypothesis was supported by the study.
8. There will be no significant change in 10 meter sprint time of nonstarters. This
hypothesis was supported by the study.
9. There will be no significant difference between starters and nonstarters in 10
meter sprint time. This hypothesis was supported by the study.
33
10. There will be no significant change in 40 meter sprint time among starters. This
hypothesis was not supported by the data for starters, meaning that the 40 meter
sprint times were significantly faster at the post-test.
11. There will be no significant change in 40 meter sprint time among nonstarters.
This hypothesis was not supported by the data for nonstarters, meaning that the 40
meter sprint times were significantly faster at the post-test.
12. There will be no significant difference between starters and nonstarters in 40
meter sprint time. This hypothesis was supported by the study.
13. There will be no significant change in 150 meter shuttle time among starters. This
hypothesis was not supported by the data for starters, meaning that the 150 meter
shuttle times were significantly faster at the post-test.
14. There will be no significant change in 150 meter shuttle time among nonstarters.
This hypothesis was not supported by the data for nonstarters, meaning that the
150 meter shuttle times were significantly faster at the post-test.
15. There will be no significant difference between starters and nonstarters in 150
meter shuttle time. This hypothesis was supported by the study.
Summary
There were no significant changes found in the vertical jump for both starters and
nonstarters. There were no significant differences between starters and nonstarter in
vertical jump in either the pre-test or the post-test.
34
There were significant improvements in the standing broad jump for both starters
and nonstarters. There were no significant differences between starters and nonstarter in
standing broad jump in either the pre-test or the post-test.
There were no significant differences in the 10m sprint for both starters and
nonstarters. There were no significant differences between starters and nonstarter in 10m
sprint times in either the pre-test or the post-test.
There were significant improvements in 40m sprint times for both starters and
nonstarters. There were no significant differences between starters and nonstarter in 40m
sprint times in either the pre-test or the post-test.
There were significant improvements in the 150m shuttle for both starters and
nonstarters. There were no significant differences between starters and nonstarter in
150m shuttle times in either the pre-test or the post-test.
35
Chapter 5
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to examine the change in the results of 5 physical
performance tests between starters and nonstarters after implementing a combined
strength and speed training program to a collegiate women’s soccer team over a
competitive season. The soccer team in this study played a total of 17 games in between
the pre-test and post-test while participating in the ten week strength and conditioning
program. During the season, each week consisted of two hour practices on Mondays,
Wednesdays, and Thursdays and games on Tuesdays and Fridays. The strength and
conditioning sessions were normally held on Mondays and Wednesdays. However,
depending on the opinion of the head coach, the second session was occasionally moved
to Thursdays. Each session of strength and conditioning included three lower-body
strength training exercises and a combination of three plyometric, speed, and endurance
activities.
Previous studies that examine the physical performance of athletes during a
competitive have produced varied results (Cajasus, 2001; Caterisano, Patrick, Edenfield,
& Batson, 1997; Dos Remedios et al., 1995; Hoffman & Kang, 2003; Schneider, Arnold,
Martin, Bell, & Crocker, 1998; Tavino, Bowers, & Archer, 1995). Research suggests that
while following the same in-season training regimen, male collegiate soccer players,
starters and nonstarters may experience contrasting results (Kraemer et al., 2004;
Silvestre et al. 2006). The wide variety of results found by these studies seems to be
directly related to the frequency and intensity of the strength and conditioning programs
36
and the subjects who participate in the programs. The ones that are involved in a program
more often produce improvements in physical performance than the subjects who neglect
the strength and conditioning program (Jensen & Larsen, 1993; Kotzamanidis et al.,
2005).
Lower Body Power
In the vertical jump test, the results showed improvement in the vertical jump
height for the starters and nonstarters between the pre-test and post-test, but the
improvement was not statistically significant. These findings compare to the results of
combined training groups of male soccer (Kotzamanidis et al., 2005) and baseball (Dodd
& Alvar, 2007) players whom demonstrated improvements in lower body power, yet their
improvements were not statistically significant.
There were significant improvements in the standing broad jump distance for both
starters and nonstarters. These results show that combined training improves standing
broad jump distance. Although not statistically significant, Dodd and Alvar (2007) found
that combined training improved the standing broad jump.
Acceleration
There were no significant differences in the 10m sprint for both starters and
nonstarters. The types of resistance training may be a hidden factor to the significance of
faster times. For this study, body weight exercises were utilized: squats, forward and
lateral lunges, kneeling step-ups, bleacher step-ups. Non-resistance sprint training was
also prescribed in this study: interval sprints and shuttle runs. Prior studies incorporated
exercises that provide more intensity and produced different results (Myer et al., 2007;
37
Spinks et al., 2007; Yetter & Mohr, 2008). Yetter and Mohr (2008) found that heavy
front and back squats can significantly increase speed in the 10-20m interval, or the start
phase of a 30-40m sprint. Myer et al. (2007) also found that ground based resistance
training, with partner band resistance techniques, can significantly decrease female soccer
players’ average sprint start time, or increase acceleration. In comparison, Spinks et al.
(2007) found resistance sprint training, with weighted tow sledding, showed significant
improvements in acceleration. Previous research indicated that in order to produce
significant results, the lower body needed a greater stimulus and a higher intensity than
body weight alone.
Speed
There were significant improvements in 40m sprint times for both starters and
nonstarters. The training for this study used the interval training method in order to
improve speed. Interval training has produced similar results (Dupont et al., 2004) in
regards to significantly faster 40 meter sprint times. Although not statistically significant,
Dodd and Alvar (2007) also found that a combined training program demonstrated a
higher percentage of improvement in 20 meter, 40 meter, and 60 meter sprint time.
Aerobic Fitness
Although the 150 meter shuttle does not directly relate to VO2max, it was used to
test the subjects’ aerobic endurance. Both starters and nonstarters showed significant
improvements in the 150 meter shuttle run, suggesting that the strength and conditioning
program helped to significantly decrease 150 meter shuttle times. In comparison, a study
by St. Pierre (2008), conducted without a training program, produced results that showed
38
a significant increase in aerobic fitness during the course of a competitive season.
However, results from studies done on athletes from other sports have produced
contrasting results. Schneider et al. (1998) found that football players experienced no
significant changes in VO2 max during the competitive season. In addition, Caterisano et
al. (1997) examined college basketball players and found that nonstarters decreased in
aerobic fitness (VO2 max).
Recommendations for Future Studies
Although there are many studies (Baker, 2001; Caterisano et al., 1997; Dos
Remedios et al., 1995; Groves & Gayle, 1993; Hoffman & Kang, 2003; Holmyard &
Hazeldine, 1993; Schneider et al., 1998; Tavino et al., 1995) that look at the effects of
strength and conditioning programs on athletes of different sports during a competitive
season, the effects are still too vague. Lower body power should be researched in
comparison to speed of female athletes in order to discover a link between lower body
power and higher levels of physical performance.
Further research is needed to create an effective set of performance tests that can
relate to almost every sport. There are still too many different physical performance tests
utilized. The wide variety of tests causes confusion when comparing results across
numerous studies. Research centered on the tests that can effectively be transferred into
on-field indicators of performance, meaning the tests should predict level of athletic
ability, will enhance in-season training of athletes.
More research is needed on females and specifically female athletes. With the
growing number of female participants at the collegiate and professional levels, much
39
attention is needed to ensure the success of those playing and training. Further research
on multiple female sports should be examined, and would definitely add to the existing
material that is available.
The next step in research would be to change the environment in which the
athletes completed the strength and conditioning program. The training was done on the
practice field, and without out the use of resistance equipment. Future research should
include implementing a resistance training program utilizing free weights and medicine
balls inside of a weight training facility. Since most of the athletes experienced
significantly positive changes in performance, the addition of resistant equipment could
change the degree of improvement. However, the vertical jump was one of the
performance tests that did not significantly change from pre-test to post-test. Introducing
Olympic style weightlifting or heavy back squats may help improve vertical jump
(Fatouros et al., 2000; Moore et al. 2005).
Another suggestion is to select resistance sprint training exercises that train for
improving acceleration. The 10 meter sprint was one of the performance tests that did not
significantly change from pre-test to post-test. Ground based resistance sprint training
exercises may help improve acceleration (Myer et al., 2007; Spinks et al., 2007). If there
is a way to supplement the workout with exercises that can improve acceleration, the
possibility should be examined.
40
APPENDICES
41
APPENDIX A
Strength and Conditioning Program
Table 1
Exercise Menu
Exercise Name
Abbreviation
Bleacher Step-Ups
BSU
Bodyweight Squat
BS
Forward Jumps
FJ
Forward Lunge
FL
Interval Sprint
IS
Jump Squat
JS
Kneeling Step-Ups
KSU
Lateral Lunge
LL
Shuttle
SH
Single-leg Bounds
SLB
42
Table 2
Strength and Conditioning Program Weeks One and Two
Day 1
Resistance
Exercise
Speed
Sets
Reps
Vol
KSU
3
6
18
BS
3
6
FL
3
6
Exercise
Sets
Yards
Vol
IS
6
10
60
18
SLB
4
8
32
18
SH
1
50
50
Day 2
Resistance
Exercise
Speed
Sets
Reps
Vol
KSU
3
6
18
JS
3
6
LL
3
6
Exercise
Sets
Yards
Vol
IS
4
20
80
18
FJ
2
15
30
18
SH
1
75
75
43
Table 3
Strength and Conditioning Program Weeks Three and Four
Day 1
Resistance
Exercise
Speed
Sets
Reps
Vol
KSU
3
8
24
BS
3
8
FL
3
8
Exercise
Sets
Yards
Vol
IS
5
20
100
24
SLB
2
8
16
24
SH
1
50
50
Day 2
Resistance
Exercise
Speed
Sets
Reps
Vol
KSU
3
8
24
JS
3
8
LL
3
8
Exercise
Sets
Yards
Vol
IS
4
30
120
24
FJ
2
7
14
24
SH
1
75
75
44
Table 4
Strength and Conditioning Program Weeks Five and Six
Day 1
Resistance
Exercise
Speed
Sets
Reps
Vol
KSU
3
10
30
BS
3
10
FL
3
10
Exercise
Sets
Yards
Vol
IS
4
30
120
30
SLB
4
8
32
30
SH
1
75
75
Day 2
Resistance
Exercise
Speed
Sets
Reps
Vol
BSU
3
10
30
JS
3
10
LL
3
10
Exercise
Sets
Yards
Vol
IS
6
20
120
30
FJ
2
12
24
30
SH
1
100
100
45
Table 5
Strength and Conditioning Program Weeks Seven and Eight
Day 1
Resistance
Exercise
Speed
Sets
Reps
Vol
BSU
4
6
24
BS
4
6
FL
4
6
Exercise
Sets
Yards
Vol
IS
3
40
120
24
SLB
4
8
32
24
SH
1
100
100
Day 2
Resistance
Exercise
Speed
Sets
Reps
Vol
KSU
4
6
24
JS
4
6
LL
4
6
Exercise
Sets
Yards
Vol
IS
4
30
120
24
FJ
4
10
40
24
SH
1
75
75
46
Table 6
Strength and Conditioning Program Weeks Nine and Ten
Day 1
Resistance
Exercise
Speed
Sets
Reps
Vol
KSU
4
8
32
BS
3
8
FL
4
8
Exercise
Sets
Yards
Vol
IS
12
10
120
24
SLB
4
8
32
32
SH
1
75
75
Day 2
Resistance
Exercise
Speed
Sets
Reps
Vol
BSU
4
8
32
JS
3
8
LL
4
8
Exercise
Sets
Yards
Vol
IS
4
20
80
24
FJ
4
10
40
32
SH
1
100
100
47
Table 7
Weekly Totals in Volume for Strength and Conditioning Program
Volume
Week
Strength
Plyometric
Yards
1
90
80
265
2
90
80
265
3
120
54
345
4
120
54
345
5
150
86
415
6
150
86
415
7
120
96
415
8
120
96
415
9
152
96
375
10
152
96
375
48
160
430
150
410
140
390
130
370
120
110
350
100
330
90
Yards
Repetitions for strength & foot contacts
Weekly Volumes
310
80
290
70
60
270
50
250
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Weeks
Strength
Plyometric
Conditioning
Figure 1. Weekly totals in volume for strength, plyometric, and conditioning exercises
throughout the ten week strength and conditioning program.
49
Session Volumes
220
200
85
75
180
65
160
55
45
Yards
Repetitions for strength & foot contacts
95
140
35
120
25
15
100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Session
Strength
Plyometric
Conditioning
Figure 2. Volumes of strength, plyometric, and conditioning exercises as they pertain to
each individual session of the ten week strength and conditioning program.
50
APPENDIX B
Consent to Participate in Research
You are being asked to participate in research which will be conducted by
Brandon Babcock, who is a graduate student in Kinesiology at California State
University, Sacramento. The purpose of this study will be to examine the change in the
results of 5 physical performance tests between starters and non-starters after
implementing a combined strength and speed training program to a collegiate women’s
soccer team over a competitive season.
After completing a health history questionnaire to assess your risk factors for
cardiovascular disease, you will be asked to perform exercise tests on the grass fields.
The tests will be conducted on one separate day on the sport practice fields at American
River College and will require up to one hour for completion of testing.
Performance testing involves a risk of possible injury with activities of this
nature. You will experience increased blood pressure, rapid breathing, increased heart
rate, sweating, muscular discomfort, and fatigue during the testing procedures for this
study. The 5 physical performance tests are listed below:

Standing Broad Jump: The subject will start with both feet on the ground
at hip width. The jump begins with a counter movement and a two-foot
jump straight forward, landing on two feet.

Vertical Jump: The subject will start with both feet on the ground at hip
width. The jump begins with a counter movement, followed by a two-foot
jump straight up in the air while extending the arms above the head to
reach a mark, and then landing on two feet.

10 meter Sprint: The subject will start with one foot forward on a line
drawn on the grass. On the subject's movement, he or she will sprint as
fast as possible through a line 10 meters from the starting line.

40 meter Sprint: The subject will start with one foot forward on a line
drawn on the grass. On the subject's movement, he or she will sprint as
fast as possible through a line 40 meters from the starting line.

150 meter Shuttle Run: The subject will start with one foot forward on a
line drawn on the grass. On the subject's movement, he or she will run as
fast as possible to a line 25 meters from the starting line and then turn and
run back to the starting line, repeating this until the distance of 150 is
covered by the subject. (down 25m and back 25m continuously, 3
consecutive times)
51
After completing the performance testing, you will be asked to participate in a 10week, 20 session, strength and conditioning program consisting of twenty sessions of
light resistance and speed training. The subjects will be under the supervision of NSCA
certified fitness professional. The strength and conditioning program involves a risk of
possible injury. You will experience increased blood pressure, rapid breathing, increased
heart rate, sweating, muscular discomfort, and fatigue during the procedures for this
study.
If you experience any adverse reactions including abnormal pain in the lowerbody, chest pain, tightness, or other abnormal discomfort during the testing procedures,
you should notify the researcher and the Athletic Training Staff immediately. The
researcher is trained in emergency procedures if the need should arise.
All results obtained in this study will be confidential. Information you provide on
the consent form and the health history questionnaire will be stored separately from data
for the exercise tests; the exercise test data submitted will contain no personal
information about you.
You will not receive any compensation for participating in this research. In the
event of an emergency, initial medical treatment would be provided by the Athletic
Training Staff at American River College. However, if you were to require any other
medical care as a result of participating in this research, you would need to contact your
personal physician at your own expense.
If you have any questions about this research, you may contact Brandon Babcock
at (530) 409-7575 or send e-mail to bfb777@yahoo.com, or call Harry Theodorides at
(916) 278-5051 or send e-mail to theodor@csus.edu, or call Daryl Parker at (916) 2786902 or send e-mail to parkerd@csus.edu. Your participation in this research is entirely
voluntary. You are free to decide not to participate, or to decide at a later time to stop
participating. The researcher may also end your participation at any time. By signing
below, you are saying that you understand the risks involved in this research and agree to
participate in it.
________________________________
Signature of Participant Date
____________________
________________________________
Signature of Witness Date
____________________
52
APPENDIX C
Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PAR-Q)
yes
no
1. Has a doctor ever said that you have a heart condition and recommended
only medically supervised physical activity?
___ ___
2. Do you ever experience chest pain or an irregular heart beat as a result of
exercise?
___ ___
3. Have you ever lost consciousness or fallen over as a result as of dizziness
during or after exercise?
4. Has a doctor ever said that you have high blood pressure?
___ ___
___ ___
5. Do you have a bone or joint problem that can be aggravated by the
proposed physical activity?
___ ___
6. Is there a good physical reason, not mentioned here, why you should not
participate in the proposed physical activity?
___ ___
7. Do you suffer from lower back pain, i.e., chronic pain or associated
numbness in a lower extremity?
___ ___
8. Have you had surgery as a result of an injury to the back or lower body
(ankle, knee, or hip) in the last 6 months?
___ ___
If YES, please specify
____________________________________________
9. Have you had a recent (within the last 6 months) injury to the lower body
that has received medical attention?
___ ___
53
I certify that the above statements are true and correct. I understand that a Doctor’s note
may be requested. If a note is requested, I should not proceed with this program until the
note is received.
Signature: ____________________________________________
Print Name:___________________________________________
Date:_________
54
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