ART
MICHELANGELO: The Creation of Adam
Fresco: Detail from The Sistine Chapel ceiling

`Those things are considered art which are made by human beings in any material medium where production requires a relatively high level of skill on the part of their maker, skill being measured where possible according to the standards traditionally used in the maker's society',
(Anderson 1979: Art in Primitive Societies )

ANGER by Michael
Michael is a gorilla
“Those things are considered art which are made by human beings”

Fractals made by computer

“production requires a relatively high level of skill on the part of their maker, skill being measured where possible according to the standards traditionally used in the maker's society'


The word art comes from the Old French - meaning skill
 Anderson’s definition also includes pottery, fish traps, boats, computers and so on, i.e. things that are not generally considered art.
 meaning is not required
 no sense of aesthetics
 context is required only in sense of skilfulness
Vladimir Madonna
12 th century

“Art is the process and the products of applying certain skills to any activity that transforms matter, sound, or motion into a form that is deemed aesthetically meaningful to a people in a society” Ferraro 2005
Transformation of matter? i.e. a representation
Aesthetically meaningful?
Culturally relative
Greyed Rainbow, 1953 Oil on canvas
Jackson Pollock American Abstract
Expressionist Painter, 1912-1956

 Human made things are usually categorized according to function.
 chairs are things that function as a seat,
 boats are things that float

Classifying according to function allows us to exclude other things
 sieves are neither seats nor boats because we can't sit on them or sail in them
 they have a different function

There is no functional criterion however, that allows us to exclude objects from the category of art

 art is an accepting category
 it can be extended to include sieves and boats.

In some sense you can consider boats and sieves as works of art
 some things fit more easily into the category than others
 paintings are easy, boats less so and sieves even harder.
Pottery Sieve from Headington,
Oxford: 3rd/4th century. It would have been used for draining boiled vegetables or shellfish;


We need to consider the attributes associated with works of art
 the conditions under which objects gain acceptance into the category are always changing.

Art of the 20 th /21 st century would not have been considered art in
18th century
Nigerian Moyo Okediji 1956 - The
Dutchman, 1995 acrylic on canvas
Joseph Wright of Derby 1734 –
1797 The Experiment with the
Air Pump

1.
 what is art is where it is displayed
 works of art are what are exhibited in art galleries (not museums)
 fine art sold at art auctions (not craft fairs, folk art, or ethnographic artefact)
 a cross-section of a cow is art if it is displayed in an Art gallery
 but not if it is seen in an abattoir.
Damien Hirst: Mother and Child Divided
Hirst won the Turner prize in 1995

 where displayed is linked to the market process
 primary function that links the items displayed --- $$$$
• a repository of value on the international art market
• supply and demand.
 definition often relevant to the production of objects by indigenous peoples who may intend to produce work that will be accepted by Western art market.

Much of what indigenous peoples produce is now considered art by the
West
 provides a means for integration within a wider world economic system sale of art to outsiders
Prowling Bear by Ashevak Tunnillie
$7,000.00 CAD


This has consequences for the use of art in indigenous cultures
 i.e. it is produced for a different meaning, for money, not so much for religious or symbolic (e.g. kinship) purpose, but to be sold to tourists, collectors, dealers.

Western art buyers are not interested in works on canvas directly comparable to those produced in the West.

This is one reason why African art contains very little that is pictorial, and is mostly cultural artefacts.

 art objects are objects intended to be works of art by their makers
 most other objects intention is subordinate to their function.
 eg. intention to build a boat is insufficient if it sinks
 but if it is intended as a work of art it doesn’t really matter if it floats

 designation as an artist, his or her creations are art
 i.e. art is what artists make
 a cross-section of a calf is art if artist so intends i
Hommage à Damien Hirst par Adrian Darmon, 2000
The Prodigal Son (1994)
A Damien Hirst sculpture of a dead calf cut in half and suspended in formaldehyde
Death, 2003. By
Jake & Dinos
Chapman
Shortlisted for
Turner Prize 2003

But then there are objects whose primary intention is not to be a work of art but which are generally considered to be art objects..
Thunderbird and
Orca totem pole
Royal B.C.
Museum in
Victoria
First and second definitions are of little utility for anthropology
Senufo buffalo mask

 usually associated with visual or interpretative properties rather than function
 function may be relevant to their interpretation but is not reason they are considered art
 eg. much early
European art was produced for religious reasons, had a religious function

 religious context is secondary to their definition as art.
Chalice 12 th century
 when originally produced their function in religious performance was central to the kind of objects they were. i.e. religious objects not art objects
Virgin and child
12 th century

 skill in manufacture

Emotional features
 aesthetic features
 semantic or interpretative features
 interrelation
Salish Ancestor Spirit Comb
 for example, early period artworks, skill, function and religious meaning integral to work of art, now expression of aesthetic factors.

 rare
 expensive
 college course subject
 made for the market
 artist is named
John Constable, Wivenhoe Park, Essex 1816
 product’s uniqueness valued
 produced by artists in
Western classical tradition
 not utilitarian - art for art’s sake

Baga (Guinea)
Maternity figure
Baga Guinea) fertility goddess
Mali mask


Artist has no formal training
 not produced for the market but primarily for some religious or functional purpose
 connected with ritual and myth
- not art for arts sake i.e. they are not seen to have any aesthetic sense
 artist is anonymous
Ashanti Shrine object

 creativity of natural man
 psychologically deep, instinctive, emotional
 in harmony with nature
 childlike
 allied with basic drives - sex and fertility
Akua-ba
Fertility Doll
Ghana
Name comes from the legend of a woman named Akua who was distraught about being barren, for Akan women desire above all to have children. A priest instructed her to carry a small wooden child on her back and care for it as if it were real. The other villagers teased her, and the wooden figure came to be known as Akua-ba (Akua's Child). Eventually she gave birth to a beautiful daughter, and her detractors began adopting the same measures to cure barrenness.

Leonardo Da vinci :
Mona Lisa C. 1503-06
 word ‘primitive’ tells us something about the Western concept of art and the role it plays in the positioning of other cultures.

Art is something that made its appearance on the higher rungs of the evolutionary ladder especially fine art.
 fine art is regarded as quintessentially civilized.
 fine art serves as a standard of comparison

 Or is this a Western classification of art.

The masks, chairs, figurines etc. may not be considered art by the people who made them.
Dogon mask (Mali)
 they were made for a purpose

Who actually decides what is art: them or us?
Baulé (Côte d'Ivoire) comb
Yemeni Ceremonial Dagger

Tami Mask Papua
New Guinea
 “Primitive” or “African” or “New Guinea” art is used to categorize, to distance non-Western peoples. I.e. primitive art is made by primitive people
 “Primitive” art is anonymous.
 the name of the ethnic group substitutes for the maker

'When I first went to the old Trocadero, it was disgusting…. The masks weren't just like any other pieces of sculpture. Not at all. They were magic things…. I too believe that everything is unknown…. I understood what the
Negroes use their sculptures for…. Les
Demoiselles d'Avignon must have come to me that very day Pablo Picasso Les Demoiselles d'Avignon - Picasso

 studies the role art objects play in people’s lives; for instance in their beliefs and rituals.

The things studied include sculpture, masks, paintings, textiles, baskets, pots, weapons, and the human body itself.
 the symbolic meanings encoded in such objects, as well as in the materials and techniques used to produce them.
The decorative scars are used to confer beauty, status, protection, and identity to the bearers.
Photograph copyright Bojan
Brecelj/CORBIS

 the social processes involved in making objects.
 the role and status of the artist in the wider community rather than the individual biography
 the form and function of objects and their relation to aspects of the wider society.
 the aesthetic value in different societies.
 the ways in which material objects made by indigenous people have come to have value in the tourist and art markets as well as of the role of museums


The Navajo create intricate sand paintings as part of a ritual act,
 destroyed once ritual over.
 the `doing' of the art is often of greater importance than the final product itself.
sand paintings created on plywood or particleboard intended for sale are incomplete.


Many languages have no word for art or artist.
E.g
Tewa, Balinese
 Balinese have no word for art, the beauty that they produce is considered part of everyday life, nothing special.
 does art exist in their society?
 How do we talk about someone else’s artefacts that we see as "art?”
Kertha Gosa (temple) batik


Objects from Tutankhamen's tomb were intended to guarantee the eternal life of the king and to protect him from evil forces that might enter his body and gain control over it.

They were not meant to be seen by anyone.

Is it Art?
 when objects that have particular religious/ protective/ ethnic/ meaning for one group can we consider them as "art“ from our perspective?
Tutankhamen's death mask

Anthropological Analysis of Art
The anthropology of art is not the study of objects of other cultures that Westerners have accepted as art. We look through sets of cultural filters that prepare us for an "aesthetic" experience.

An anthropology of art is not limited by the objects that are included in the Western category of art

The concept ‘art’ needs to be open to allow the analysis of objects from other cultures on their own terms

How do they define what is art - who defines art?
 values of objects in many different contexts are relevant to their meaning and to how they are understood.
 but do they consider them art?
Asmat shield


Art communicates significant meanings and feelings at different times, in different spaces, for different people.

In every society art provides much more than an expression of beauty; it also creates and maintains social values

Until recently in Western culture, only sailors, criminals and prostitutes got tattoos.

The Romans considered decorative tattooing barbaric, and used tattoos to mark slaves and criminals.

The negative connotations are still evident in the Latin word for tattoo: stigma.

Today, the tattoo is undergoing a renaissance reflecting a change in attitudes towards the body: seen as a canvas.

1. functional
 use of the object in ritual and religion
 in the making of value.
2. iconographic
 objects that encode meaning or represent something or that create a particular meaning
3. aesthetic
 from their aesthetic affect or expressive quality
 Any aesthetic or interpretative considerations must be those relevant to producers
Mosque lamp for
Sultan Hasan, Egypt
1347 and 1361,


One approach to understanding art is by looking at the form and function of objects.
 what the art aspect (semantic or aesthetic dimension) (eg decoration) does can be separated from other aspects of the object
 eg. Hopi potters typically spend a great deal of time and energy decorating their pottery
 designs are aesthetically pleasing

But there is no need to decorate them
 function well without the decoration

The function can be separated from the form.

The art aspect may either compliment or exist independently of other functional attributes and embellish the objects aesthetically and semantically.
 eg. a club has many attributes of art
 fine craftsmanship, aesthetic appeal, signs of status and religious symbolism
 but it is also used as a weapon.

Its functional attributes as a weapon have no necessary connection with its attributes as art.
 the design on a club or its aesthetic power may interact with its destructive capacity to make it more effective as a weapon.
 its design or form may supply it with power and ritual significance


A mask may function to obscure a person's face
 that is its function
 a paper bag would function in the same way
 but a mask also serves to create a new identity, or even transformed -spirit possession
 in this case the design is integral to the function of the mask
Tlingit mask

 representational assumes that it can be interpreted to mean something that is, or becomes, external to itself

For example a picture of a raven may simply be a picture of a raven to us
 to a Kwakiutl it may be a totem representing a social group.
 focus is on art as a system of meaning and communication
 how does art encode meaning.
The pole is carved with crest figures that relate to family lineages, status and rights,

Visual and aesthetic means of declaring status
 symbolic halo, (or crown) on the king's head.
 scarlet hunting jacket of English gentlemen
 eagle feathers of the Indian chief’s bonnet
 golden embroidered jacket of the Indian rajah.
 jewellery in the shape of the star of David, or the cross is used to indicate religious preferences.


In addition to satisfying aesthetic needs, body decoration may be used as a visual means to show social position, rank, sex, occupation, local or ethnic identity or religion within a society.

Maori tattoos or moko told about the bearer's rank, lineage, special skills and marriage status.
A revival in moko is linked to Maori identity

Decoration no referential meaning
Glastonbury Abbey
Ceramic jar with a style of decoration identified with the
Funnelbeaker Culture (3400-
2850 B.C.) (bog people)

Functions of Art
 psychological - helping people cope with tensions and aggressive feelings and understanding certain emotions
(emotional gratification);
 political by expressing political values and attitudes, showing allegiance to political leaders, and controlling behavior (social control);
 religious by various methods of communicating with supernatural forces and explaining what that communication means (social control, social integration)
 social by articulating and reinforcing relationships between members of the society (social integration);
 educational by passing on the cultural traditions, values, and beliefs from one generation to the next.


Lenin created the first truly modern propaganda machine from postage stamps and Mayday parades to monumental sculptures.

Perhaps its most colorful, dramatic and original form was the poster.
Liberation of the Eastern Peoples assures peace in the world, 1920s
Mikhail Dlugach
Wings of the Serf,
1925


Although posters were produced in Russia before the Revolution, they were overshadowed by the remarkable propaganda posters of the Soviets.

Through it, the greatest artists of the time proclaimed government policies, asked for support, and demanded greater efforts -- all with the goal of building Soviet power
Aleksandrs Apsit
The International,
1918/1919
Never buy in a Private
Shop - when you can buy in a cooperative,
1918


The ancestral beings gave the rights to occupy the land
 the paintings help to establish the right to occupy the land and maintain connections with the ancestral forces in the landscape.
 For this reason knowledge of paintings and the right to produce paintings is closely regulated.
 paintings can only be produced by those acknowledged to have the right to do so.
 the way in which art is produced is related to group identity and gender
 land and paintings are the property of clans

 For the Yolingu aborigines in Australia, art is associated with creating images of ancestral power
 and is itself sacred.
 referential meaning is integral to the system
 art is a part of encoding myth
 paintings are interpreted consistently by the initiated and can be associated with places, social groups and ancestral tracks.
 i.e their symbols have a particular meaning and can be interpreted by anyone if they know the key.

 objects appeal to the senses
 important properties include an object's form, texture, feel, smell and impact the nervous system irrespective of one's cultural background.
 many of the properties are recognized cross culturally, eg, weight, colour, shininess, symmetry and so on
 may also include non-material attributes associated with it e.g. age, or distant place, or magical substance


In the Yolngu the effect of shimmering brilliance is produced by covering the surface of a painting with fine crosshatched lines.
 paintings themselves are believed to be manifestations of the ancestral past
 shimmering effect is interpreted as the power of the ancestral beings shining out from the painting.

The image is reinforced by song and by an emphasis in myth on similar images of transformation between light and dark.
 the creation of a particular aesthetic effect is integral to the art
 aesthetics is part of the semantics of the art
 also of the way art is integrated within the cultural system as a whole.

 recognition of the nonmaterial aspects, however, requires cultural knowledge
 the properties of the object are not in themselves aesthetic properties,
 they become aesthetic properties through their incorporation within particular systems of value and meaning
 converts a physical property into an aesthetic property
Battle of Aughrim 11th
July 1691
The decisive battle in which the Irish lost to the British
7000 Irish were killed aesthetics involves not only how something looks and is appreciated but also how it is understood