Introduction to Qualitative
Research
Philosophical Assumptions
• Ontology: Metaphysical study of being and the
nature of reality
• Axiology: Study of nature of values and
judgements (overriding goal)
• Epistemology: Study of the nature of knowledge,
its presuppositions and foundations, and its
extent and validity
Positivistic
vs.
• Ontological – nature
of reality
– Objective
– Single
– Divisible
Interpretive
• Ontological – nature
of reality
– Socially constructed
– Multiple
– Holistics/Contextual
• Nature of social
beings
• Nature of social
beings
– Deterministic
– Reactive
– Voluntaristic
– Proactive
Positivistic
• Axiological
– Explanation via
subsumption under
general laws
Vs.
Interpretive
• Axiological
– “Understanding” based
on Verstehen
Positivistic
• Epistemological
• Knowledge Generation
– Nomothetic
– Time-free
– Context-independent
• View of Causality
– Real causes exist
• Research relationship
– Dualism, separation
– Privileged point of
observation
Vs.
Interpretive
• Epistemological
• Knowledge Generation
– Idiographic
– Time-bound
– Context-dependent
• View of Causality
– Multiple, simultaneous shaping
• Research relationship
– Interactive, cooperative
– No privileged point of
observation
Qualitative Inquiry
• Qualitative questions: why or how
• Fit of Question and Method
• Sampling and Saturation:
– Purposeful, convenience, nominated,
theoretical
– Data saturation
Methods
• Ethnography
– Focused ethnography (decision making)
– Critical ethnography (aids emancipation)
• Phenomenology
– Experience snapshots
– Describing the essence of human experience
• Grounded theory
– Highly inductive
– Iterative process – evolving theory
Methods
• Narrative
– Story that reveals person’s experiences
– Represents larger social experience
• Case Study
– Intrinsic (understanding 1 case)
– Instrumental (refining theory)
– Collective (several instrumental cases, looking
for broader context)
Methods
• Participatory Action Research
– Reflects needs of the people
– Group ownership of process (involvement of
participants from design to results)
– Conducted to solve social or community
problems
Data Collection
• Interviews (depth)
• Observation
• Field Notes
• Documents
• Video, photographs
Triangulation
Uses a combination of more than one research
strategy in a single investigation.
• Data: time, space, person
• Investigator: complimenting areas of expertise
• Theory: testing and comparison of theories
• Methods: simultaneous & sequential
implementation (separate analysis)
Depth Interviews
• Funnel Method
– let respondent do all the talking
– can be a diagnostic interview
– the idea is let the subject direct the interview
• Inverted Funnel: Specific to general
– You want to jog the interviewees memory
– You want to motivate a reluctant participant
– You want to get specific facts before general
impressions
Interview Technique
• silent probe
• encouragement probe
• immediate elaboration
• immediate clarification
• retrospective elaboration
• recapitulation probe
• retrospective clarification
Interview Technique
• echo probe
• reflective probe
• interpretive probe
• summary probe
• mutation
Interview Technique
• formulate question before speaking
• keep questions simple
– no preface
– do not give respondent your lit review
• note taking controls flow
Interview Issues
• avoid leading questions
• avoid ritual agreement
• monitor the universe of discourse
Universe of Discourse
Interview Issues
• avoid leading questions
• avoid ritual agreement
• monitor the universe of discourse
• observe body language
• convey expectation of cooperation
• avoid unprofessional statements
To Tape or Not to Tape
• Advantages
– more accurate and less distracting
– better than relying on your memory
– excellent training tool for interviewer
• Disadvantage
– one thing to tell you, another to go on permanent
record
– worry about sound of their voice
– worry who will hear tape
IF Using a Tape Recorder
• tell respondent who will have access to
tape
• erase tape as soon as transcribed
• place recorder in obvious place
– you can turn off/on; confirm working...
– no question of subterfuge
IF Using a Tape Recorder
• check recorder before you show up
– tape blank?
– bring extra tape
– check batteries
– confirm that it is working!
– move tape past leader
– check volume control
– practice with tape recorder
Who
• does this person have access to
information that you want?
• approaching interviewees & their
organizations
When
• schedule when no
competing demands
• approach with attitude
that their time is more
important than yours
• do not schedule too
closely together
– 45 minutes typical; 90 minutes
longest
• sequencing
Where
• respondent’s place of business
• respondent’s home
• neutral spot
What
• interview blueprint
– list research objective or research question,
actual question and sample prompts (listing
any specifics you would like to elicit) in
table/chart form
The interview blueprint should
guide you, not confine you
Sample Interview Blueprint
Research
Question or
Objective
Describe the
characteristics
of our current
customers
preferred
cookie?
Who is the “end
consumer” of
the purchased
cookie?
Interview
Question
Probes
Describe the
“perfect”
chocolate chip
cookie.
How big would it
be?
Hard? Soft?
Big chips or
little chips?
You bring the
cookies home
from the store.
Who eats them?
Who eats the
most ____ or
____? How old
is ____?
Research
Question
Interview
Question
You’re standing in
front of the
display of
cookies—tell me
what’s going
through your
mind?
Estimate
When I say
advertising recall “cookie ads” what
ours versus
is the first thing
competition
that pops into
your mind?
Who factors
influence the
purchasing
decision?
Probes
What else?
And then…
Check for $,
nutrition, family
preferences…
Can you give me
more details?
Why do you think
you remember it?
What
• interview guide
– questions simply worded
– listed in order
– key points of introduction & conclusion
– leave space for notes
Sample Interview Guide
Interview
Question
Probes
Describe the
“perfect”
chocolate chip
cookie.
How big would it
be?
Hard? Soft?
Big chips or little
chips?
Who eats the
most ____ or
____? How old is
____?
You bring the
cookies home
from the store.
Who eats them?
Notes:
Interview
Question
Probes
You’re standing in What else?
front of the
And then…
display of
Check for $,
cookies—tell me nutrition, family
what’s going
preferences…
through your
mind?
When I say
Can you give me
“cookie ads” what more details?
is the first thing
Why do you think
that pops into
you remember it?
your mind?
Additional comments:
Notes:
The interview blueprint and
interview guides should serve
as a road map. They can be
used when you feel you are
getting lost and to keep you
focused on your destination….
But, remember, that
sometimes the scenic route
provides surprising discoveries.
Interview Procedure
• phone ahead to confirm appointment
• when you arrive
– reintroduce yourself and your study
– explain how they were picked for study
– confirm use of tape recorder
– explain confidentiality and explain that they
can end interview at any point
– start tape (if using)
Interview Procedure
• when tape is rolling
– say, “I’ve prepared some questions, but if they don’t
seem to be hitting at the core of the issue, feel free
to correct me”
– start questions
• if ask tape be turned off for one question, remember to start
again after
– after last question, always ask “Is there anything else
you’d like to add? Anything you think I’m missing?”
Interview Procedure
• after interview is over
– don’t bolt….
– thank them for their participation
– say into tape recorder “the foregoing was an
interview with Jane Doe (D-o-e) for project 43, date,
time, location, by your name
– turn off tape, but hang around making small talk —
will often get best stuff yet, now that formal interview
is over
• once out of sight, debrief
Interview Procedure
• Debrief
– check that tape has recorded properly
• tape is blank
• background noise obscures portions of tape
• reconstruct missing data — but distinguish in transcript
between verbatim and reconstructed paraphrasing
– record details (such as body language) not recorded
on tape while still fresh in your memory
– note your own preliminary interpretations and ideas