A MENTOR NEEDS ASSESSMENT FOR PREGNANT AND PARENTING YOUTH
IN SACRAMENTO COUNTY
A Project
Presented to the faculty of the Division of Social Work
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK
by
Tara McKeeman
Lindsey Philpot
SPRING
2013
A MENTOR NEEDS ASSESSMENT FOR PREGNANT AND PARENTING YOUTH
IN SACRAMENTO COUNTY
A Project
by
Tara McKeeman
Lindsey Philpot
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Dr. Francis Yuen, DSW
____________________________
Date
ii
Students: Tara McKeeman
Lindsey Philpot
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University
format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to
be awarded for the project.
__________________________, Graduate Coordinator
Dale Russell, Ed.D., LCSW
Division of Social Work
iii
___________________
Date
Abstract
of
A MENTOR NEEDS ASSESSMENT FOR PREGNANT AND PARENTING YOUTH
IN SACRAMENTO COUNTY
by
Tara McKeeman
Lindsey Philpot
This study aims to examine factors related to strengthening existing programs and
highlighting services that are currently lacking for pregnant and parenting youth.
Specifically, researchers sought to identify if the use of a mentor would be beneficial in
supporting the continued education of adolescent mothers and determine where service
locations may be more accessible. Data was collected through a questionnaire survey of
36 Sacramento CalWORKs participants during their training meetings in Fall 2012. The
findings reflect what qualities individuals who were teen parents, or knew someone who
was, feel are important for a mentor to posses. Furthermore, that the use of a mentor
would be beneficial during pregnancy. Gaps in service included knowledge about
existing programs. Tangible and intangible resources were identified. Tangible resources
included assistance finding housing and welfare; whereas intangible resources included
instilling a sense of hope and modeling friendship in the young parent’s life. Location is
not necessarily important to the delivery of services however, ensuring accessibility is.
iv
Overall a high number of participants reported not knowing whether or not mentoring
services were available to them during their pregnancy. This speaks to the lack of
promotion for these services and the lack of coordination among service providers.
Decreasing stigma against teen parents may also be beneficial in increasing the delivery
of mentoring services. The data supports that having a mentor is important to pregnant
teens. The level of this importance may need to be explored by further research.
Information collected suggests that individuals of the CalWORKs program had prior
knowledge regarding mentorship and were able to define what a mentor was and
provided an in-depth understanding of their role and purpose. There was a lack of
awareness of current mentor services or programs in Sacramento County. Additionally,
participants overwhelmingly were unsure about which potential location for programs
would be best utilized, further presenting their lack of knowledge. Another significant
finding of the research was that majority of the participants were unsure if programs in
the Sacramento area even existed. It is the researcher’s hopes that the results from this
study will assist programs in better understanding the needs amongst this population. In
addition, program development and design can be tailored accordingly leading to more
successful delivery of services and outcomes.
_______________________, Committee Chair
Dr. Francis Yuen, DSW
_______________________
Date
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First off, both researchers would like to thank their families, significant others and
loved ones. Without their support this thesis would not have been possible. Their
sensitivity and understanding does not go unrecognized. It has been a tough process with
many ups and downs, thanks for sticking by our sides. We love you all!
Additionally, we would like to thank our dutiful thesis advisor, Professor Francis
Yuen. His efforts to assist us with the challenges and hurdles we were faced with in the
process of compiling data were monumental to our successful completion. His guidance
and knowledge made all the difference. Thank you!
Finally, we would like to extend our appreciations to the staff at the Stockton
Blvd CalWORKs site. Their willingness and commitment to the profession is apparent
throughout their work. Thank you for supporting students.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ................................................................................................................ x
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………….. 1
Teenage Pregnancy in the United States ......................................................... 1
Teenage Pregnancy and High School Dropout Rates .................................... 2
Purpose of the Study ....................................................................................... 3
Theoretical Framework .................................................................................. 3
Definition of Terms ........................................................................................ 5
Justification ..................................................................................................... 5
Statement of Collaboration .............................................................................. 6
2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ........................................................................ 7
Risk Factors of Teenage Pregnancy...................................................................8
Culture/Ethnicity ............................................................................................... 8
Poverty and Education .................................................................................... 10
Family Risk Factors ........................................................................................ 12
Violence .......................................................................................................... 13
Substance Abuse ............................................................................................. 15
Sexual Abuse .................................................................................................. 16
Evidence Based Interventions ......................................................................... 17
vii
Mentorship and School Based Interventions .................................................. 18
Group Parenting .............................................................................................. 23
Cultural Relevance .......................................................................................... 24
Conclusion of Literature Findings .................................................................. 25
3. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................... 27
Study Design ....................................................................................................27
Target Population and Sampling Procedures ...................................................28
Data Collection Procedure ...............................................................................29
Measure Instruments ........................................................................................30
Data Analysis Plan ...........................................................................................31
Human Subjects Protection ..............................................................................32
Limitations ...................................................................................................... 33
4. STUDY FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ........................................................... 34
Overall Findings.............................................................................................. 34
Specific Findings ............................................................................................ 38
Summary ......................................................................................................... 41
5. DISCUSSION ....................................................................................................... 43
Implications for Social Work .......................................................................... 48
Plan Development ............................................................................................48
Recommendations ........................................................................................... 48
Practice and Policy...........................................................................................48
viii
Limitations ...................................................................................................... 49
Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 50
Appendix A. Sacramento. County IRB Approval .................................................... 52
Appendix B. Consent Form ...................................................................................... 53
Appendix C. “Mentors Needs Assessment” questionnaire ....................................... 56
Appendix D.
Sacramento State IRB Approval ...................................................... 61
References ................................................................................................................... 63
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Tables
Page
1. Spearman’s Rho Correlations (r) for the Expectations of a Mentor……………….39
x
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Teenage pregnancy and child bearing is an area of study that has gained much
attention over the years. According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC) (2011), the social and economic costs of teenage pregnancy are often severe.
Costs are related to both parents and their children and can be immediate or long lasting.
More specifically, teen pregnancy contributes considerably to dropout percentages among
high school teens. It is reported that a mere 50% of teen mothers receive a high school
diploma by their early 20’s, compared with approximately 90% of women who did not
bear children during their teenage years (CDC, 2011).
Teen pregnancy and child bearing also has negative implications for U.S. tax payers
in the form of increased foster care rates, increased health care, higher number of welfare
recipients, as well as the lost revenue created by the teen mothers who earn less money
due to lower education (Hoffman, 2006). Understanding the issues related to teen
pregnancy as well as the assistance programs available to teen mothers, may help
researchers better facilitate ways to ensure teen mothers are receiving all the help they
need in relation to completing their education. Moreover, the ultimate goal is improving
the lives of teen mothers as well as their children.
Teenage Pregnancy in the United States
According to National Vital Statistics Reports collected in 2006, birth rates in the
United States have increased over the previous ten-year period. While the birth rate had
2
increased for all age groups, teen birth was among one of the largest of the groups to
increase ending a 14 -year decline in teen pregnancy from 1991-2005 (Martin et al.,
2009). This reversal from a decline in teen pregnancy to an increase is cause for concern
due to some of the negative outcomes associated with teen child rearing. According to
Healthy Teen Network (2009) The United States has the highest rates of teenage
pregnancy compared to all of the industrialized nations despite recent efforts to reduce
risky teenage sexual behavior. Accessibility to services and effectiveness of programs are
areas of concern when exploring this issue.
Teenage Pregnancy and High School Dropout Rates
The epidemic of teenage pregnancy has been associated with higher percentage of
high school dropout rates. Perper and Manlove (2009) state that of teen mothers who give
birth during their high school years, only 51% will receive their high school diploma
compared to 89% of non- teen mothers. Negative consequences surrounding not
completing high school include the risk of complimentary teen pregnancy (Klerman,
2004) as well as a diminished chance at obtaining a stable supportive job thus
contributing to a disadvantaged situation (Kerckhoff, 2002). Finally, higher parental
educational attainment is associated with improved cognitive and behavioral outcomes of
their children (Kirby, Leproe & Ryan, 2005). Consequently, not completing high school
is said to be a setback not only for teen mothers but for their children as well.
Teen pregnancy leads to dropping out of high school and many other negative
consequences, it is imperative that something must be done to address this issue. By
3
exploring reasons associated with teen childbirth and not completing high school, the
researchers can better understand ways to help facilitate the achievement of a high school
diploma despite pregnancy and/or childbirth. In other words, identification of risk factors
is essential to elevating number of high school diplomas. Furthermore, assessing the
services and the likely positive effects of having a mentor throughout teenage pregnancy
and childbirth is imperative.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to conduct a survey of men and women who were teen
mothers or that know someone who was a teen mother on the usefulness and design of a
program using mentors. With this assessment, researchers hope to identify if the use of a
mentor would be beneficial in supporting the continuing education of adolescent mothers.
The purposes of this research are as follows:
1.) To identify if former pregnant youth understand what a mentor is and/or had
access to a mentor through pregnancy.
2.) To identify if former pregnant youth would have benefitted from the use of a
mentor in continuing education.
3.) To identify where services provided through mentors supporting teen mothers
should be located as to assure accessibility.
Theoretical Framework
When investigating teenage pregnancy in correlation to educational attainment, it is
imperative to incorporate a foundation based upon systems theory. System theory studies
4
social groups and their interaction with one another, with an emphasis on the individual’s
additional unique environmental factors. By utilizing systems theory, we can better
understand individual problems in relation to larger social institutions and communities
and how these institutions can support or hinder the individual (Greene, 2008). In
particular how systems support or fail to support teenage pregnancy and what important
factors can assist with providing adequate support that may be lacking.
In addition, the focus of this research will also be based on an ecological
approach. Ecological approach suggests that the individual and their environment are
interrelated and one cannot be considered without the other (Greene, 2008). Ecological
perspective takes into account the individual on a micro, mezzo and macro level. Each
level contains set norms and rules that shape particular behaviors and impact
development (Greene, 2008). Viewing teenage pregnancy in relationship to educational
attainment, ecological perspective allows the researchers to investigate whether or not
certain individuals face predisposition to this outcome.
When studying teenage pregnancy and continued education, both theories
incorporate a necessity to explore the individual’s subsystems including institutions. In
these systems the researchers will be exploring individuals, schools and support systems
directly related to pregnancy. This includes, but is not limited to, the individual, their
family and friends, cultural influences, socioeconomic status, demographics, school
systems support or any other governmental support programs. Reviewing the preliminary
research reveals that pregnant teens are influenced by many outside systems and
5
institutions in their life. The directions they take in navigating these institutions have
shown to be related to their micro environment (Swedish et al. 2010.) These theories will
attribute to the theoretical lens the researchers will use when approaching this study.
Definition of Terms
This study focuses on challenges that pregnant teens encounter and aims to
explore education and its connection to support for pregnant youth, therefore, teens will
most likely be in some sort of school setting or environment that focuses on education.
In referring to certain terms throughout this work, the following definitions are assumed

Teen, adolescent and youth individuals between the ages of 13-19, unless otherwise specified.

Mentor- individual who acts
as a wise influential supporter with particular interest in aiding teen through
pregnancy while focusing on education.

Teenage mother – mother
under the age of 20

Teenage pregnancy –
pregnancy under the age of 20
Justification
This mentor needs assessment study was developed in order to strengthen existing
programs and highlight services that are currently lacking for pregnant youth. With this
assessment, researchers aimed to identify if the use of a mentor would be beneficial in
6
supporting the continued education of adolescent mothers, furthermore where services
should be located to insure accessibility.
Statement of Collaboration
All portions of this thesis were completed in collaboration between Lindsey
Philpot and Tara McKeeman. The collaboration included conceptualization, data
collection and documentation. All sections were completed with both researchers review
and consent.
7
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Teenage pregnancy remains widespread in the United States, with almost one
million teens becoming pregnant each year (Domenico & Jones, 2007). The frequency of
teen pregnancy in the United States remains the highest among western nations, with
close to 40% of pregnancies occurring in women younger than 20 (Domenico & Jones
2007). The issue of teen pregnancy is one that affects the community as a whole with
teen mothers becoming economically dependent as a result of their decreased educational
attainment. Teen pregnancy is a major reason females discontinue schooling, with 7 out
of 10 teen mothers dropping out and not earning a high school diploma (Rothenberg &
Weissman, 2002). Furthermore, becoming a teen mother is related to less formal
education, often leading to poverty and thus resulting in a lessened ability to be selfsufficient. There is no question that teenage pregnancy and birth can put significant
barriers on receiving education and the implications for this can be detrimental to not
only the mother’s well-being, but also the well-being of the child (Miller & Rodgers,
2005).
The review of the literature is broken up into two major headings (1) Risk Factors
for Teenage Pregnancy and (2) Evidence Based Interventions. Under these headings,
additional findings will be organized using the following themes: (1) Culture/Ethnicity,
(2) Education and Poverty, (3) Family Risk Factors, (4) Violence, (5) Sexual Abuse, (6)
Substance Abuse, (7) Mentorship and School Interventions, (8) Psychosocial and Health
8
Programs, (9) Partner and Father Relationships, (10) Cultural Relevance and (11)
Conclusion of Literature Findings.
Risk Factors of Teenage Pregnancy
Culture/Ethnicity. Culture and ethnicity do not predetermine teenage pregnancy;
however it is important to explore which cultures are more affected as to incorporate
appropriate intervention strategies. Hispanic and African-American teens have the
highest pregnancy rates when compared to other ethnicities (Nguyen, 2009).
Additionally, Hispanic teens ages 15-19 are twice as likely to become mothers as
Caucasian teens and are considerably less likely to complete high school (Johns, Moncloa
& Gong, 2000). Exploring ethnicity and culture relative to teenage pregnancy is crucial in
being able to implement culturally relevant services for teenage mothers.
The Census Bureau of the United States reports that the Latino population will
rise from 46.7 million to 132.8 million between the years 2008-2050. Taking this into
account, this specific population is projected to rise from 15% to 30% on a national scale
(U.S. Census Bureau, 2008). Conducted research has concluded to show that in
relationship to other populations in the United States, teenage mothers from this
population have a higher incident rate of pregnancy (Ventura et al. 2008) The teenage
pregnancy rates for this population are considerable, solidifying a significant need for
programs and services targeted for this growth (Ryan, Franzetta, & Manlove, 2005).
Before looking into intervention strategies, the Latino culture must be understood
and looked at from a variety of angles. Dogan-Ates and Carrion-Basham (2007)
9
examined incongruences and parallels amongst teens in the Los Angeles area, ages 15-19,
both with children and without. Out of the 94 teens surveyed, the findings revealed that
Hispanics had a greater likelihood to live in single-parent households, lower academic
scores, strained social support and fewer closer friends then the non-parenting teens
studied (Dogan-Ates & Carrion-Basham, 2007).
From an ecological view point, becoming a parent has merit and can lend respect,
giving a higher status in ones community (Benson, 2004). Control and self-esteem were
additional factors that added to the sense of accomplishment gained by becoming
pregnant as teens within the community (Shanok & Miller, 2007b). For some ethnic
minorities, motherhood can be viewed as a way for teens to gain status within their
particular community and be viewed as an adult (Deatrich, 1998; Hunt et al, 2005).
Research derived from Shanok and Miller’s study (2007b) uncovered parallel findings in
impoverished African-American and Latino/Hispanic communities. The research
concluded that teen pregnancy signified a pathway into adulthood without having reached
a particular age or established goal identified by the particular community.
Research conducted by Sherraden, Gonzalez and Rainford (2006) looked directly
at the Latina youth and the culture attached. Sherraden et. al. (2006) found that traditional
Latino families viewed abortion, birth control and education about sex negatively and
inappropriate. For these traditional Latino families, other approaches that are more
culturally appropriate can be the focus of intervention. Culturally relevant and sensitive
interventions should focus on providing resources and support for economic
10
opportunities, as well as structural assistance to educational attainment for Latina women.
The hope is that by providing these tools, the motivation to delay becoming a mother and
continue to attain self-derived goals will take place. The main focus to achieve this
should be in a family support driven model, which can be utilized as the primary unit of
intervention. “Programs can build upon the family sense of protective investment around
the young Latina in this way” (Sharraden et. al, 2006, p. 42). Sherraden et. al. (2006)
argues that quality education is the first step of intervention, but used as the only means
of intervention will fall short. Stressing the importance of family and marriage and a push
for “family education and support model” this strategy is projected to provide long
standing positive results in comparison to a typical case management model.
Understanding an individual’s cultural belief is also important. This stems from
the belief that teen-pregnancy very well may be an intentional act as opposed to the
common belief that the pregnancy was unwanted. Furthermore, it is crucial to know that
pregnancy may be an affirming life choice for teens from particular social or ethnic
backgrounds (Tripp & Viner, 2005) and a variety of minorities with ranging ethnic
backgrounds living in inner cities identified that becoming a parent is a fast way to bridge
the gap to adulthood (Nguyen, 2009).
Poverty and Education. Poverty and education are important to explore when
studying risk factors related to teen pregnancy. According to Coles (2005), adolescents
who become parents early on are often already experiencing difficulty in school, have
low anticipations regarding their education and are not assured they will graduate from
11
high school. Many adolescent teens that became pregnant in high school were currently
on the verge of dropping out and claimed becoming pregnant gave them valid reasoning
to discontinue there education (Domenico & Jones, 2007). Manlove et al. (2002)
concluded that adolescents with friends who had high educational goals were less likely
to become sexually active at an earlier age, thus decreasing the chance for teenage
pregnancy, when compared to adolescents whose peers did not have high educational
goals. Many adolescents viewed their completing education as an unattainable goal for
them. Identifying this, teen mothers viewed childbearing as a responsible act that gave
meaning to their lives (Domenico & Jones, 2007). According to Davies et al. (2004),
pregnancy is often linked to at-risk, low-income teens because they are more likely to
view motherhood as a better alternative to the expectations they have for their future.
When exploring the prevalence of poverty and teenage pregnancy, social
exclusion must also be explored. Hosie and Selman’s (2006) research explores the
disengagement and re-engagement pregnant teens take from the educational system based
upon social exclusion and socioeconomics. A focus on social exclusion raises questions
about the well-established relationship between poverty and teenage pregnancy. In their
exploration, they note that the solution to social exclusion for young parents and their
children is seen as education and training, ideally one that questions specific limitations
and various levels of exclusion experienced by pregnant youth. The foundation for this
study was based upon the outcome measurements given by the UK's newly reformed
Social Exclusion Unit SEU (Hosie & Selman, 2006).
12
The implications of teenage pregnancy on education can further perpetuate the
cycle of poverty. The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy (2010) reported that
teen mothers are less likely to attain the educational requirements necessary to qualify for
high earning jobs and that only 38 % of mothers who have children before age 18 obtain
a high school diploma. This gap in education, to no surprise, tends to affect income
levels. Furthermore, NCPTP (2010) reported that over the past 20 years the median
income for high school dropouts has decreased by 28 percent. With teen pregnancy
taking place in various communities, teens that give birth are more likely to come from
economically disadvantaged families and neighborhoods (Shore, 2003).
Family Risk Factors. Family plays a crucial role in impacting the risk of teen
pregnancy. According to Domenico and Jones (2007), a rising number of young females
live in comparatively unsafe and unstable families. Coupled with unstable conditions,
parental rejection and lack of warmth and affection, young females have been noted to
seek relationships outside of the home often leading them to become sexually intimate for
a brief feeling of security (Domenico & Jones, 2007). Johns, Moncloa and Gong (2000)
reported that teens who have parents with higher educational achievement, more parental
supervision and supportive family relationships (i.e. open communication) are less at risk
of becoming teen mothers. Families with parents who express strong disapproval of
sexual activity were less likely to engage in risk taking behaviors and were more likely to
abstain from sexual activity (Manlove et. al, 2002). Furthermore, teens from single
parent families are at greater risk of becoming pregnant as teens (Domenico & Jones,
13
2007). It is also noted that behaviors within the family often times are maintained and
continued throughout generations (Garnett & Burley, 2009). For example, female
children of teen mothers are considerably more likely to give birth themselves before age
18 (Teen Parent Child Care Quality Improvement Project, 2005).
Violence. The stress of teen parenting can manifest in many ways. The
association between domestic violence and teen parents shows a strong relation. The
correlation shows that a large percentage of teen mothers have been exposed to and or
experienced violence. Likewise, higher rates of these teen mothers have been involved in
abusive relationships themselves. Not only do teen mothers who reside in impoverished
communities have a higher rate of community violence, but also research suggests an
increased likelihood of domestic violence in their family and their partner (Kennedy,
2006). In the data presented in Kennedy’s (2006) study, it was indicated that partners
who had experienced or witnessed abuse, had a greater tendency towards violence.
Looking deeper into this association discovered through Kennedy’s research, children of
abusive teen parents are more likely to perpetuate the cycle and utilize violence
themselves. Kennedy (2006) also indicated that impoverished Hispanic and AfricanAmerican adolescents have a greater tendency and likelihood to be affected by violent
crimes. In another study conducted by Rosen (2004), the risks associated with teens that
choose to stay in abusive relationships were the basis of the qualitative work. The study
indicated that teens that continued with violent relationships showed a lower likelihood to
14
finishing school than teen mothers who had reported to never having been in an abusive
or violent relationship (Rosen, 2004).
In a study researching violence among teen mothers, 187 teen mothers were
sampled. Of the 187 participants, 17% reported having experienced physical assault at
some point in their lives and 25% reported suffering verbal abuse from a boyfriend or
domestic partner (Larson 2004). Larson’s (2004) study also looked into the long term
effects on teens that had experienced violence; he found that these teens showed a
significant risk for higher accounts of parenting related stress and negative parent-child
relationship. This correlation was additionally linked to teen mothers residing in low
income communities, showing more experience to witness violence exhibited increased
levels of mental health disorders, like PTSD and depression (Larson, 2004).
The implications and risks associated to violence and trauma the mother is
exposed to during pregnancy increases health risks not only for the mother but for the
unborn child (Shanok & Miller, 2005) Programs that focus on educating teens parents of
these risks show a higher positive outcome measure in teaching teens to use other means
rather than violence (Shanok & Miller, 2005). Shanok and Miller (2005) conducted a
study, which showed pregnant teens to be more receptive to education about violence and
other forms of interventions based upon an amplified drive associated with pregnancy
and the well-being of their unborn child. This conclusion was derived from their data
showing that nearly half the attendees identified that they were able to learn more
15
constructive and positive means of expression and to refrain from participating in violent
activities.
Substance Abuse. The risk for teen mothers to use and abuse drugs is growing
within the United States (Martin et al., 2006). In a report conducted by Kivisto (2001), it
was conveyed that teen mothers exhibit considerable risk, both during and after
pregnancy for substance and alcohol abuse. The descriptive analysis from a study of 145
pregnant teens, showed that 75 of the 145 sampled adolescents smoked during their first
trimester, more than 50% continued to smoke, and less 40% made an effort to quit
smoking (Kaiser & Hayes, 2005). Another finding of this study concluded that 65 of the
145 adolescents who used alcoholic beverages, only 1 reported continued use during
pregnancy. Additionally, 52 of the 145 participants reported using drugs, 9 reported a
continued use during their entire pregnancy (Kaiser & Hayes, 2005).
Teen father’s likelihood towards drug use is another key component to explore
when considering the needs and challenges of teen parents. In a study of 168 teen parents
conducted in a clinical setting serving youth in Los Angeles, only 10% of fathers and
15% of mothers reported no usage of alcohol; 17% of fathers and 31% of mothers
reported not using marijuana; 65% of fathers and 76% of mothers reported not using
cocaine; and 68% of fathers and 75% of mothers reported not using methamphetamines
(Lesser et al., 2007). The researchers concluded that a lack of successful drug awareness
and prevention programs targeted at youth may be a direct factor leading to a higher risk
16
of pregnancy (Lesser et al., 2007) All studies indicate that drug prevention is a very
necessary intervention and component to programs targeted to assist pregnant teens.
The risks for children with in utero substance exposure are experienced in a
multitude of fashions. Mothers the abuse substances while pregnant are almost 20% more
likely to have children with asthmatic based issues, 30% more likely to have auditory
difficulties and 70% more likely to have vision impairments (Connors et al., 2003). In
addition to medical conditions, in utero exposure may produce a risk for mental health
challenges along with a variety of physical, academic and social problems (Connors et
al., 2003).
Sexual Abuse. Sexual abuse is another issue to take into consideration when
exploring the risk factors associated with teenage pregnancy. Sexually abused children
are 30% more likely to become pregnant during adolescence and to become pregnant at
an earlier age (Domenico & Jones, 2007). A variety of studies have reported that victims
of sexual abuse are more likely to fail to use contraception, have multiple sexual partners,
and engage in substance abuse, all which are associated with a higher likelihood of
experiencing a pregnancy in adolescence (Logan et al.,2007). Furthermore, it has been
reported that the understanding of sexual behavior, including appropriate age of
initiation, may be skewed due to prior sexual abuse and results in females engaging in sex
at an earlier age (Saewyc, Magee & Pettingell, 2004). Given that a high number of child
sexual abuse cases go unreported, it should be assumed that childhood sexual abuse may
17
have even more of an association with teenage pregnancy than reported by the literature
(Logan et al., 2007).
Evidence Based Interventions
Teen pregnancy is a multifaceted problem with a significant necessity for
partnership among various organizations to achieve successful interventions and
development of specific programs among this population (Domenico & Jones, 2007).
The prevalence social programs can play a significant role in outcomes related to teenage
pregnancy. Solomon and Liefeld (2001) argue that early childbearing doesn’t have to
result in high school dropouts. In their research, they conclude that although having a
child while in high school does increase the risk of dropping out, social programs can
help. However, programs that provide support regarding education for pregnant and
parenting teen mothers continue to be lacking. According to Chrisler and Moore’s (2012)
evaluation of findings from 19 programs aimed at enhancing parent’s development and
providing education on effective parenting, only ten found at least one positive impact on
parent outcomes. More specifically, of the nine programs that were intended to impact
parental education including: enrollment in school, educational activities and/or
graduating; only three had a positive impact.
Referring to this limited success; more can be done in the way of ensuring
programs achieve higher levels of success for parental education. Chrisler and Moore
(2012) stress the importance of accountability that programs instill amongst its
participants. It is important to note that guidance from family members can play an
18
equally important part, but involvement from non-familial members provides a more
significant impact and success rate (Chrisler & Moore, 2012).
Mentorship and School Based Interventions
Various programs have sought to meet the needs of pregnant and parenting teens
through mentoring programs as well and school-based interventions. While these
programs seek to address education of the teen mothers, this is often times not the main
focus of the program. Furthermore, many of the existing programs limit accessibility
based on location as well as eligibility criteria.
The Minnesota Visiting Nurse Program. The Minnesota Visiting Nurse Agency
(MVNA) is one such program that seeks to provide services to pregnant and parenting
teen mothers’ through community-based and integrated school programs (Schaffer et.al,
2012). One of the main tiers of service provided through the MVNA includes the
development of a relationship between adolescent mothers and public health nurses
(PHN). The goal of the nurses is to provide support with health care, emotional
development, education, parent-child interactions, maternal self-sufficiency and
pregnancy spacing to the pregnant or parenting teen (Schaffer et.al, 2012).
Evaluation of the PHN program determined effectiveness of the program in the
following areas: identification of pregnant and parenting teens, birth outcomes,
enrollment in school, delay of subsequent pregnancy, maternal –infant relationship, use
of community support and infant growth and development (Schaffer et al, 2012). Of the
outcomes observed, school enrollment is of particular interest to the researchers.
19
Of the teens that participated in the program, and had more than 10 visits with a public
health nurse, 76% were more likely to remain in school. Recognizing this high
percentage, it is important to understand what specific services are being provided that
contribute to the school enrollment outcomes of this program.
The relationship between the PHN’s and the adolescent mothers has been described
as a mentorship. The mentor is seen as a social support that provides advice and
information to the mentee, in this case the teen mothers (Schaffer, 2009). Further
examining the tangible portion of service provided to these teens regarding education
plays a vital role in determining the most successful ways to implement service.
According to Schaffer et al. (2012), the mentoring relationship between the PHN’s and
the teen mothers was a significant piece of the program that could benefit from further
research. Furthermore, examining the relationship as it pertains to retention in the
program and completion of education for the teen parent. This mentoring program is
specific to the state of Minnesota and exploring broader implementation of these services
is necessary.
Nurse Family Partnership. A program similar to the one applied by MVNA, is
Nurse Family Partnership (NFP). NFP is a program that has been implemented across
various counties in 32 states across the U.S. (Nursefamilypartnership.org, 2011). NFP is
a maternal health program that delivers services to vulnerable first-time mothers through
child health nurses. The program aims to address the concerns of the first time mother
through the role of a home-visiting nurse (Olds, 2006). The goals of the NFP program are
20
to raise pregnancy results by assisting women with participation in health intervention
and prevention programs, increase awareness to children health concerns and
development measures, while improving the socioeconomic sufficiency of the family.
Services delivered by NFP are provided through a home visitation model and can begin
in the prenatal stage of development and last up to the child’s second birthday. While
NFP seeks to address the maternal life course including continuing education, high
school completion is a secondary goal to the major outcome of decreasing reliance on
public assistance (Olds, 2005). NFP encompasses a broad distribution of resources to first
time mothers, including mentorship services; however, this program is not specific to
teen mothers and the specific needs they may have as related to education. Additionally,
mothers who do not get referred before 28 weeks of being pregnant or do not meet the
eligibility requirements of low-income and first pregnancy are not eligible to be served
by NFP. Furthermore, this program is not available in every county or even every state.
Cal-SAFE. In addition to mentorship programs that have been implemented to
serve teen mothers, school based interventions have also been established. California, in
particular, has implemented the California School Age Children and Families (CalSAFE) program the serves pregnant and parenting teens through a case management
approach in various school districts. The goal of this program is to assist in assuring
graduation from high school and to help mothers and fathers form healthy familial
relationships with their children. Cal-SAFE programs offer services to teens in school as
well as childcare for their child, which focuses on growth and development. This
21
program is available on a volunteer basis to mothers and fathers under the age of 18 who
have not completed high school or obtained their GED (CDE, 2012).
According to Cal- SAFE’s 2010 executive legislative report, “over 73 percent of the
students left the Cal-SAFE program having successfully completed their high school
education” (CDE, 2012). While this program demonstrates ample success,
implementation of the Cal-SAFE program has only taken place in 39 out of 58 counties
and funding for this program continually remains in jeopardy with may programs already
being discontinued.
Similar intervention programs such as Psychosocial and Health Programs (Shanok
and Miller, 2007b) (Kaiser and Hayes, 2005) and Partner and Father Relationships
(Shanok and Miller, 2007a) (Berglas et. al., 2003) (Moore and Florsheim, 2008) have
shown positive outcomes and have helped involve a variety of hard to reach
communities. The importance of incorporating a variety of communities with a direct
relation to the expansion of school-based interventions that focus on mentoring can be
seen when reviewing the aforementioned programs.
Of the different targeted communities and cultures, a significant correlation to
spirituality and cultural norms must be addressed. This correlation can be seen in the
study conducted by Shanok and Miller (2007b). This qualitative study included 80 innercity expectant and parenting adolescents suffering from symptoms associated with
depression. The study showed that spirituality and cultural beliefs played an important
role related to motivation and likelihood for participants to pursue support and prolonged
22
utilization of services (Shanok & Miller 2007b). Additionally, the study gathered
evidence supporting that mental health screening and services were needed. Additionally,
the study strongly urged that mentors and programs offer support for pregnancy,
including group support, development of setting appropriate boundaries and development
of self-motivation and advocacy. Support of this nature does not take a skilled or licensed
professional and can be offered from peers and/or volunteers. This positive and
supportive foundation was shown to be necessary objectives in decreasing negative
feelings and symptoms of depression displayed by teens that are either pregnant or
currently parenting (Shanok & Miller, 2007B).
The risks associated to being raised by single teen mothers have shown alarming
reasons for concern. Single teen mothers with lack of support from the child’s father have
exhibited higher rates of children that are at risk for low educational success, substanceabuse, gang affiliation, legal issues and emotional/ mental health problems (Berglas et al.,
2003). Programs that focus on including fathers are of great importance and serve as a
primary means of helping to reduce a variety of potential associated risk factors for
mother and child.
The focus on dual parent programs, incorporating both teen mother and father, has
been the primary focus of research conducted by Moore and Florsheim (2008). They
suggest that new and already existing mentoring programs should advocate and
encourage more strongly involvement from fathers. This encouragement should focus on
healthy father-infant interactions and couple centered interventions, assisting in keeping
23
mother and father together. In their study, they sampled 154 African-American and
Latino teen parent couples that exhibited partner conflict and high risk for child abuse
(Moore & Florsheim, 2008). Preliminary data showed that teen parents who had a history
of abuse or exposure to violence were at risk for escalated forms of discipline and
potential child abuse . The core findings to the study showed high rates of aggression in
relationships demonstrated a direct correlation to significantly higher rates of negative
interactions between child and father. Conclusive findings resulted in positive outcome
measures for those of the study whom received group couple interventions. Key
intervention strategies focused on developing parental bonds, enhancing parenting skills
and communication skill building. Implementation of these strategies showed significant
decrease in aggression and the risk of child abuse (Moore & Florsheim, 2008).
Group Parenting
Involving communities with group based programs are an imperative piece to
participant retention rates and successful outcomes for teen parents (Bunting, 2004)
Research conducted in the United Kingdom by Bunting in 2004, showed that adolescent
parenting programs improved a variety of aspects within the lives of the teens served.
Some of these aspects that showed noted improvement: self-esteem, family interactions,
emotional responses and relationships with child. Bunting’s research also looked at the
effects that group parenting had on participant’s potential mental health challenges and
concerns. The statistical analysis provided from the studies showed that involvement in
group parenting classes helped to significantly lower stress exacerbating the effects of
24
depression. Bunting suggests that of these group type settings, normalization of
experiences is another key component to their positive outcomes and success. Knowing
that others share common concerns assists teens with their challenges and allows them to
continue to seek assistance without the fear of being judged or ridiculed. In addition to
group parenting classes being highly effective, they are also cost effective. This allows
for a variety of different agencies with modest budgets to implement group -centered
services to full fidelity (Bunting, 2004).
Cultural Relevance
The effectiveness of efforts to reduce teen pregnancy will increase when those
interventions are culturally appropriate (Johns, Moncola & Gong, 2000). According to
Johns et al. (2000), programs should pay particular attention to cultural and individual
needs of the population they seek to serve and incorporate these needs into the design and
implementation of the program. According to Healthy Teen Network (2009), while these
efforts have begun, they are not sufficient and difficulty remains in being inclusive of all
youth with regards to language, and cultural relevance. Furthermore, lack of cultural
relevance is continuously cited as a significant barrier when implementing traditional
science-based interventions. When considering adolescents who have the potential to be
marginalized, we see youth at risk for early parenting and potential life in poverty.
Incorporating ways to reach, engage and empower these youth is a necessary step
(Healthy Teen Network, 2009).
25
Conclusion of Literature Findings
From the conducted research, the conclusion can be drawn that, despite the
disagreements, correlations exist between pregnancy and educational attainment. Support
for pregnant teens is paramount to insuring successful parenting and additional
challenges faced by these individuals. From the disagreements, the areas of further study
emerge. In order to provide an accurate measure as to what extent pregnancy disrupts
education, a myriad of other factors must be considered in order to give a justified and
correct answer. Studies that examine existing programs are chief to furthering the
development of effective and supportive services.
The location of services plays a critical role in reaching target populations.
Programs that are supplanted within communities without establishing a relationship with
its constituents run an extreme risk of failing and underutilization of services. Programs
that create relationships and reach out to communities, aligning and asking them direct
questions regarding needed services or existing issues within the target areas, tend to
yield more favorable results, providing log-term positive results (Britner et al., 2006).
Cultural consideration, identified at-risk populations and researched assessments
of unmet needs for parenting and pregnant youth need to be the aim and priority for
program development (Johnson, 2003). Existing programs should be reevaluated sooner
rather than later due to the ever -changing needs of teens. By taking on a “whole person”
perspective, teens need to be supported from a variety of different viewpoints. Promotion
of life skills, health education, referral for additional supportive services in the
26
community, financial assistance, transportation and mental health are all areas that
programs should incorporate in order to provide long-term positive outcomes (Sarri &
Phillips, 2004)
There are many weaknesses in the research conducted. One of the weaknesses
being that many existing studies leave out imperative social and environmental factors as
prime contributions, which may assist in identifying strategies of intervention and
development of a mentorship program. The strength exhibited from existing research
gives light of where further research is needed and what environmental factors prove
critical for further analysis. Furthermore, the research portrays who is most vulnerable to
teenage pregnancy therefore helping to better target intervention efforts.
Mentorship is the main focus of this study, as it is believed to help alleviate teen
pregnancy and the risks associated with lack of continued education due to teen
pregnancy. Determining whether or not teens are aware of mentors, formal or informal,
who exist in their lives, is an imperative first step. If teen mothers are uncertain of the
role of a mentor, or unaware of the fact that they exist, they are less likely to receive help
from such a figure. This study aims to first, identify if the term mentor is understood
among this population, followed by exploring whether or not a mentor was available and
active through the early pregnancy and child- bearing experience. Lastly, exploring if the
use of a mentor may or may not be useful during teenage pregnancy and childbirth. If so,
implicating the need for such programs or accessibility to existing services.
27
Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
This “Mentor Needs Assessment for pregnant youth in Sacramento County” research
attempts to gather data both qualitative and quantitative data regarding the understanding
of what a mentor is and access to services for pregnant adolescents. This study aims to
identify areas/concerns that could be incorporated in the development of an effective
mentoring program for pregnant and parenting high school students. The researchers
intend to identify needs of the pregnant teen population as related to education.
Furthermore, if the presence of a mentor would be beneficial to meeting these educational
needs. Another main area of focus for this study is exploring individual’s knowledge of
existing programs and accessibility to services.
Study Design
The goal of this mentor needs assessment study is to determine if the previous teen
parents understand the purpose of a mentor additionally, if the presence of a mentor
would be beneficial to meeting teen parents’ educational needs.
When studying the correlation between teenage pregnancy and educational
attainment, the researchers find it appropriate to use descriptive research designs. A
descriptive study design utilizing the survey method with the help of a questionnaire to
collect study data was deemed necessary.
This descriptive study aims to further the development of pregnant teen mentoring
programs in Sacramento County. In order to do so, this study examines the perspectives
28
of Sacramento county CalWORKs “job club” participants regarding past experiences
regarding teenage pregnancy, support services and their service recommendations to
better serve this population. The information gathered from a population who may have
personal experience and is familiar on the subject matter will better represent the general
population. The descriptive study design facilitates the development of mentoring
programs that support teen’s well-being and educational outcomes. This study also will
help address implications that will further assist research and service development for
pregnant teens.
Target Population and Sampling Procedures
A convenience purposive sample of 50 adults from the Sacramento CalWORKs “job
club” program were participants for this research study. This sampling frame was chosen
to represent the larger population of potential pregnant teens in Sacramento County;
based upon most CalWORKs recipients being young adults with children. CalWORKs is
a mandated program that Sacramento County welfare recipients must attend in order to
keep their benefits. The program assists individuals with developing job skills and
addresses additional employment barriers. Current pregnant teens of teen mothers were
not sampled, as this is a high risk group that would have required extraneous consent
from the teen’s parents, as well as possible intrusion into their current situations. Instead,
researchers chose to take a retrospective approach to the experience of teenage mothers
though adults who either were teenage mothers or knew someone who was. The sample
29
size of 50 participants was chosen in order to collect enough data to support findings and
also to minimize the intrusion factor to the CalWORKs Stockton site.
Communication via email and telephone transpired between researchers and
CalWORKs Stockton site staff. Staff asked the researchers to give an outline of the
research they were hoping to gather and a brief description of survey protocol. In order to
obtain permission to sample the CalWORKs population in Sacramento County, the
researchers were asked to submit a Human Subjects Application to the Sacramento
County Review Board. This process involved gaining approval from a panel following a
detailed examination of the researchers’ application including all aspects of the research
to be conducted. Once this approval was granted (Appendix A), researchers contacted
CalWORKs “job club” supervisors to arrange data collection appointments.
Data Collection Procedure
Data collection was conducted following job readiness classes during regular business
hours set at the program site. Surveys were completed in the classroom at the CalWORKs
“job club” site in Sacramento County during two separate sessions. The data collection
took approximately 30 minutes. The first ten minutes consisted of study explanation and
directions; the latter 20 minutes were used by participants to complete the consent forms
and survey questionnaire. The help of the classroom facilitator was also utilized in
explaining surveys to participants as well as engaging participation. Researchers excused
themselves from the room while surveys were completed. Consent forms (Appendix B)
were distributed and explained by the researchers, signed by participants and then
30
collected. Participants were then given the “Mentors Needs Assessment” questionnaire
(Appendix C) developed by the researchers covering teenage pregnancy and the need,
understanding and use of a mentor. The consent forms and questionnaire were kept
separate to further protect the anonymity of the participants. The questionnaires required
certain demographic information along with the participants’ responses. At the
completion of the questionnaire, participants were asked to place the questionnaire in a
collection box at the end of the table. Participants were then thanked and reminded that
all information they provided will be kept confidential and their anonymity will be
protected.
Measure Instruments
This measurement instrument used for this study was a survey questionnaire titled
“Mentor Needs Assessment”. This development of this survey questionnaire was guided
by the purpose of the study and its key research questions and informed by current
literature and study findings. A table of specifications (Yuen, Terao, Schmidt, 2009) was
used to help develop this questionnaire. Research questions and key variables were
broken down into key domains and questionnaire items were developed. Key domains
consisted of; age, gender, knowledge of definition of a mentor, whether the participant
had a mentor in the past of currently, who is a good mentor, where should mentor
services be available, do they know of current services that are provided, what barriers
exist in obtaining services and are services needed. Significant effort was made to ensure
the measurement scales created were cohesive and properly structured to accurately
31
reflect the questions asked. The questionnaire was targeted to gather information on the
programs available teen mothers throughout and following their pregnancy. Questions
were also related to support they did receive, personal perspectives of mentors, and ways
they feel additional support would be necessary. Examples of potential questions were as
follows:
1)
What is a mentor to you?
2)
What should mentor’s help
with?
Participant’s answers were recorded in both the qualitative and quantitative form.
The questions on the survey were close ended with provided Lickert style answers. The
researchers did this in order to streamline the time in which to complete the survey. The
individual’s environmental context, for instance, family structure was also explored with
the potential given answers. The questionnaire was aimed to gather barriers to service and
stigmas that may have been present before pregnancy. This allows the research to see
areas of risk leading to pregnancy and impaired education.
Data Analysis Plan
After data collection, the researchers cleaned and organized the data using
Microsoft Excel. Researchers used descriptive statistics to manage the quantitative data
and to better understand what the data was presenting. The descriptive statistics provide a
summary of the sample and measures. Researchers also used inferential statistics to
measure correlations among the data reported that may be generalized to a larger
32
population of teen mothers. Both quantitative and qualitative data were reported and
analyzed.
Human Subjects Protection
Participant’s right to privacy and safety was protected by the assurance that no
personal information was solicited (i.e., address, phone number, or other demographic
info). Participants were asked to sign the consent form that explained voluntary
participation, confidentiality and the risks and benefits of the study. The study was
deemed exempt from risk by the Institutional Review Board; however, participants were
informed of what steps they could take if negative feelings arose from their participation.
The benefits of participating in the research included contributing information to help
better assist future teen parents. If participants chose, they were able to assign a
pseudonym to protect their identities. Consent forms will be shredded upon completion of
the study and only group data will be reported. Participants were informed they could
discontinue participation at any time without consequence and that their participation was
completely voluntary. Some ethical considerations included the location of participants.
Participants were in a structured environment and have felt pressure to consent to
research based upon their surroundings. Surroundings included other member’s
participation and CalWORKs staff perceptions. Researchers were required to obtain
approval through California State University, Sacramento’s Human Subjects Review
Committee (Appendix D), as well as through Sacramento County’s Institutional Review
33
Board (Appendix A). Both Human Subjects Applications were approved as exempt from
risk prior to the initiation of the data collection.
Limitations
The limitations of this study include the use of a small sample size. By using a
small sample data can be limited and less generalized to the larger population. Data was
collected from only one site in Sacramento County, which may also be considered a
limitation to the study, as the sample was specific to a certain location. In addition, the
data collected was self-reported. While individual’s were asked to complete the study
truthfully and informed the information they provided would be confidential, there is a
chance that they many have not disclosed information honestly. Furthermore, by using
CalWORKs clientele, experiences may be limited to the program specifications set by
aforementioned program.
34
Chapter 4
STUDY FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to gather research from men and women who were
teen mothers or that knew someone who was a teen mother on the usefulness and design
of a program using mentors. With this assessment, researchers aimed to identify if the use
of a mentor would be beneficial in supporting the continuing education of adolescent
mothers, furthermore, where the services provided by a mentor should be located to
ensure accessibility. The goal of this study was to gather information in order to
strengthen existing programs and highlight services that are currently lacking for
pregnant youth. Researchers sought insight from individuals who have direct experience
with the issue and whose opinions and insight were valuable based on experience. The
findings from the survey include the amount of support former teen parents had during
pregnancy, what services mentors should provide and whether or not location is
important.
Overall Findings
A total of 36 respondents completed the “Mentor Needs Assessment”. The average
age of participants that completed the survey was 31.6 years (SD = 10.5). Of the 36
participants who completed the survey, only six reported that they were not teen mothers
themselves. This suggests that majority of the participants had experience related to the
specific questions they were answering. The average age that participants became a
mother was 19 years old (SD = 9.31). Ninety-two percent (n = 33) of the individuals
35
surveyed reported having a relative of close friend who was a teen mother. The above
statistics are noteworthy in that the individuals surveyed were representative of the larger
population whom researcher seek to gather information about. The data collected
suggested that participants are able to express what services they would like to see
provided by a mentor and whom they feel is ideal to provide mentoring services.
Furthermore the information provided by the participants seems to reflect the idea that it
doesn’t matter where services are provided as long as they are being delivered. Fischer’s
Exact Test (p values ranged from .32 to .85) demonstrated the lack of statistical
significance correlation between a mentor being someone who provides life skills and the
location of where the services are provided showing the varied responses related to
service delivery. Participants did not know whether or not mentoring services were
available but said that they would have used the services had they been available to them.
When participants were asked why they felt teen parents did not seek out mentoring
services, stigma and hesitation to ask for help from others was noted. The above claims
are supported with the data described below.
According to the data analysis, 83% (n = 30) of participants felt that a mentor was
someone who would help a teen learn how to manage school during their pregnancy.
Thirty out of 36 (86%) respondents felt that a mentor was someone who should help
provide a sense of “hope” to a teen mother as well as help them identify health and social
service resources.
36
When asked who should ideally provide mentoring services to a teen mother, 72%
(n=26) felt that the mentor should be female, 77% (n=28) reported that the mentor
should be a mother and 69% (n = 25) agreed that the mentor should be a friend. Another
significant number to note is that 69% (n = 25) also agreed that the grandmother should
ideally be a mentor. This may reflect of who was the caregiver in the respondents own
life. Researches did not incorporate a response that included “male” or “father” which
may reflect the way traditional Western society views who conventionally is a care taker
in a child’s life. Participant’s seemed to identify that it does not matter who is a mentor
in the teen’s life, as long as they are a trusted individual and can offer the support the teen
needs. Programs need to take into consideration who is going to make a teen mother feel
most comfortable to ensure the participation in services.
When respondents were asked if mentoring services were currently available for
pregnant teens over half (55%, n = 20) reported that they did not know. This is
noteworthy in the sense that services do exist, but there is clearly a lack in promoting
services appropriately and ensuring accessibility.
In response to the question of where mentoring services should be located, answers
varied: 63% (n = 23) agreed that these services would be best located at a school where
pregnant teens attend, 69% (n= 25) felt services should be provided at a health clinic and
67% (n = 24) reported that services would best be provided in churches. Further research
may explore why these locations were deemed the best to provide services. In relation to
this study, providing services at school ranked third highest (after health clinics and
37
churches) on where services should be provided. Thirty eight percent of respondents (n =
14) strongly agreed that they would have used mentoring services during pregnancy
through their school if they had been provided while 41% (n = 15) said they did not
know. Of the 36 participants, 30 agreed (83%) that a mentor should help a teen parent
learn how to manage schoolwork while being pregnant. All of the above statistics were
relevant to the interest of researchers in determining ways to promote continuing
education.
While determining what services are important to incorporate is vital, it is also
important to explore what hinders individuals from seeking out services. When asked
reasons why pregnant teens do not want to receive services, 75% (n = 27) agreed that it
was because “they hesitate to seek help from others” and 50% (n = 18) felt that it was
due to the “stigmas attached to teen parents”. Twenty out of 36 (55%) respondents
reported that they disagreed with the statement that pregnant teens are doing fine and are
not in need of services. This suggests that over half of the participants feel that teen
parents are in need of services and could benefit from them.
Attitudes and perceptions of teen parents by larger society tend to be negative.
Breaking down the stereotypes and stigma is imperative to increasing involvement in
programs because a program can influential and beneficial if it has participants. In
regards to what a good mentoring program should include, 58% (n = 21) of participants
agreed that the program should include self-care, budgeting techniques and counseling.
Fifty- two percent of participants (n = 19) felt that the mentoring should be one on one
38
and should include tutoring related to school- work. This is important in that group
mentoring and services may not be as sought after which is an idea programs should
consider when designing curriculum.
Specific Findings
Understanding the amount of support former teen parents had during pregnancy was
an essential piece of this study. Thirty-eight percent of participants (n = 14) reported that
they did have support during their pregnancy while 61 percent of participants (n = 22)
reported that they did not have or were neutral regarding support received during their
pregnancy. This is significant to note in that over half of the participants did not feel that
they had support during a crucial and possibly intimidating time in their lives.
Another interesting statistic to note is that 47% of participants (n = 17) stated that
they received support from the baby’s father during pregnancy. This is important in that
often times programs are created around providing support for the mother and little
attention is paid to the father. This study reflects that almost half of the teen mothers had
support from the baby’s father and programs and should reflect this in their design.
Furthermore, 38 % (n = 14) of respondents said that they had support from the baby’s
father’s family during pregnancy. It may be crucial to implement programs that
encompass all supports in the teen’s life.
Spearman’s Rho statistics was used to explore the correlations among several
responses and several mild correlations were identified. When analyzing what subjects felt
a mentor should consist of the expectation for a mentor to point out mistakes is correlated
39
to tutoring with schoolwork (r = .464), helping with higher education goals (r = .463),
helping find resources in the community (r = .445) and showing life skills (r = .442). The
belief that a mentor should show life skills is correlated to helping find employment (r =
.461), tutoring with school- work (r = .458) and budgeting (r = .417). The expectation that a
mentor would help find employment is highly correlated to the belief that they would help
tutor with schoolwork (r = .423). Correlations are presented in Table 1.
The belief that a mentor should be a friend was moderately correlated with the
mentor being a parent (r = .400). This is interesting in that it reinforces the idea that a
mentor needs to possess characteristics that make individuals feel comfortable with them
such as a friend might possess. As previously mentioned, location was not found to be
significantly important; however, accessibility to service was a large factor in determining
barriers to receiving help.
40
The Mentor Needs Assessment allowed for participants to make open-ended suggestions for what services they would like to see provided by a mentor. The
information sections researchers received emerged into two major themes. The first was a
theme of tangible resources and the other theme consisted of intangible services.
The most common suggestion related to tangible resources a mentor should
provide was connecting individuals to resources in the community including employment
help, housing assistance and continuing with education. This is important to note because
these suggestions reflect basic life skills and assets everyone needs to survive. In
addition, researchers had a specific interest in continuing education and participants
mentioned this service repeatedly.
The intangible resources participants suggested are offered by a mentor included
compassionate and nurturing traits such as providing hope and modeling a stable
friendship. Furthermore, when asked if a mentor should be someone who provides hope,
participants overwhelmingly agreed (n = 34, 94%). This information is important in that
it suggests the importance of the human compassion and understanding in times of need.
This section of the survey may perhaps be the most telling in that individuals were able to
respond freely with their thoughts instead of being constricted to the survey questions.
Furthermore, any bias in the research questions contained could be avoided by the
participants and anything additional that was not brought forth in the survey questions
could be addressed with the open-ended responses.
41
Summary
Information from this study can be used to strengthen existing programs as well as
when designing new programs for implementation. The information received by using a
purposeful sample should be considered valuable, as it is the direct opinion of consumers of
services. Based on knowledge of existing programs, services do not seem to be lacking
however, connecting clients with available services seems to be deficient. Levels of support
during pregnancy varied as well as who was providing these services. The want for services
was consistent and the types of services sought after were distinguished.
The data received from the participants reflects what qualities individuals who
were teen parents, or knew someone who was, feel are important for a mentor to possess.
Furthermore, that location is not necessarily important to the delivery of service but
ensuring accessibility is. Overall a high number of participants reported not knowing
whether or not mentoring services were available to them during their pregnancy. This
speaks to the lack of promotion for these services and/or the lack of coordination between
institutions that provide the services and the locations services can be delivered (i.e. high
schools). Decreasing stigma against teen parents may also be beneficial in increasing the
delivery of mentoring services.
Another major point brought forth by the analysis includes the fact that a mentor
can provide both tangible resources and intangible resources. The data reveals that
majority of respondents agreed that a mentor who provides a sense of hope is important
and is something that service providers may not be keeping in mind when developing
42
programs. Understanding how to measure outcomes from intangible resources may be
important on the service provider side to reinforce the importance of providing these
resources. Further exploring which of the two resources, tangible or intangible, has more
of an impact on improving the quality of life for young families is imperative and
program design may reflect the results of such examination.
The data examined by researchers supports that having a mentor is important to
pregnant teens. The level of this importance is something that may need to be explored by
further research. Overall, mentoring seems to be a beneficial resource that can assist
teens with a variety of services including the aforementioned tangible and intangible
resources. In addition, the research suggests that a mentor may include family members,
relatives, friends, etc. and that the underlying factor is trust. Future programs may benefit
from incorporating mentor training to the adolescent’s family members, friends, or
whoever the young parent sees as a mentor, to ensure the vital resources are being
delivered.
43
Chapter 5
DISCUSSION
In the process of conducting this study the researchers uncovered the need to
bridge fragmented gaps in programs for pregnant and parenting teens. As a result of the
survey, the researchers discovered that individuals of the CalWORKs program had prior
knowledge regarding mentorship and were able to give a similar definition to that of the
researcher, along with an in-depth understanding of their role and purpose. The
deficiency exhibited through the survey by participants was the lack of awareness of
current mentor services or programs in Sacramento County. Additionally, participants
overwhelmingly were unsure about which potential location for programs would be best
utilized, further presenting their lack of knowledge. More significant to the findings of
the research, majority of the participants were unsure if programs in the Sacramento area
even existed.
Based on the aforementioned points, it seems that psycho-education is a prevalent
need for teen pregnant mothers. Services that do exist may not be being promoted in a
way that is reaching target population. Furthermore, it is possible that services are being
delivered by individuals who do not encompass the target population whom they are
seeking to deliver services to. It is necessary to promote services using individuals whom
are past consumers with an understanding of the community needs and the struggles that
are being exhibited by the potential utilizers of services.
44
In addition, the survey allowed for participants to make suggestions for what
services they would like to see provided by a mentor. The information was reflective of
past challenges that the participants had faced and further supported by the statistical data
outcomes of the survey. Statements ranged from single words to full descriptive
paragraphs that echoed struggles and lack of support. Of all the answers given a common
suggestion surfaced amongst a majority of answers given, that answer was simply;
education.
Of all 36 surveys, only three participants left the comment portion void of any
additional suggestions. The researchers organized the responses in two separate
categories: tangible and intangible. Once organized in these two categories, the answers
were grouped by repeat responses. Some groupings in the tangible category were: welfare
help, employment and other support agencies. The other themes found in the intangible
category were: providing a sense of hope and a positive surrounding for the young
parents. Both of these types of resources are of extreme importance however, intangible
resources may not be valued as highly based upon their inability to display concrete
outcomes. This however, should not underestimate their importance and the desire of this
population to receive them.
A key tangible resource identified was education. Education was identified as a
primary key to prevention and success when developing the skill set of a potential
mentor. Forms of education varied from response to response. The primary base of
education most emphasized was social skills that would support the pregnant teen or
45
parent to be self-sufficient, with the proper knowledge of potential resources available in
the community. One participant’s response stated: “assistance with identification of
resources that will encourage me to make better choices such as places that will assist
with children while I continue my education, gives hope for setting goals and know that
although my life has changed, that doesn't mean it’s over.” Eloquently stated, we can see
that pregnant teens are forced to become adults despite their actual lived experience,
which is often lagging and still developing. Mentors can assist in this identified need and
quickly step in and acclimate teens to resources and services that will support and provide
necessary accommodations. The quality of this statement mentioned by the respondent is
reflective of the dire need of support and nurturing and echoes the sense of lost teens may
experience when transitioning into parenthood.
Support and nurturing are directly related to the feeling associated with hope.
Hope is a necessary identified mentor quality specified through the findings of the study.
A high percentage of participants noted in the narrative portion of the survey that they
often felt “unheard” and “misunderstood”. It is assumed that this lacking piece plays a
critical role in the need to pursue intimate relationships that lead to unplanned pregnancy.
This is further understood as an attempt to fulfill void in the teen’s life. Also, in light of
service providers, participants noted that they were less likely to seek out services from
someone that they did not trust or felt “judged by”. Although mentioned by nearly the
majority of study participants, measuring success of mentoring programs based upon
“listening” and “trust” are tricky and not easy to evaluate. Because these qualities are
46
mentioned by nearly all participants, it is paramount that security and clients general
feelings towards service providers be accounted for in some way when developing
criteria for programs and its providers.
Additional feedback showed close to 25% of study participants experienced
isolation and limited family involvement. One participant’s response stated, “being a
mom made me feel like my life was over, I lost myself.” This commonality amongst the
sample resulted in many responses illuminating the need for normalization, community
and the instillation of hope. As stated previously, measuring these qualities present a
significant challenge. Communities can be provided by potential participants. A common
practice of mentorship programs is to hire peer mentors that have previously been
consumers of the services provided by the program. Seeing those with similar histories in
positive situations can provide hope and guidance.
Supplementary comments provided insight to adjunctive services that mentoring
programs have lacked based upon past experiences. The researchers devised from these
comments a potential need for board committees/meetings within programs. Committees
should be comprised of participants, allowing concerns and ideas to be shared and
considered with the program facilitator’s awareness to issues currently being
experienced.
A good number of participants mentioned suggestions for what a mentor should
do and useful qualities: “explain what happens during pregnancy”, “help encourage them
that it's going to be okay and counseling, life skills”, “help with appointments”, “help
47
with clinics and places to go for help”. From these suggestions, mentors are equated with
case managers that provide support and advocacy. With case management services it is
necessary to provide support to the direct service workers assisting clients. This is
imperative due to high susceptibility of job related fatigue and stress resulting from the
client and providers direct relationship and closeness. Direct services, like case
management, also necessitates firm boundaries and appropriate service descriptions
during initial meetings in order to establish parameters of services.
As hypothesized by researchers, a need for mental health and counseling services
was a noted concern amongst participants. One participant stated, “counseling for
domestic abuse”, “counseling for mother and father” and “postpartum depression
support.” Through the study of current research, the researchers were able to see the
significant need for mental health services and counseling. Many individuals reported the
need for counseling prior to pregnancy. With the additional stresses associated with
parenthood, mental health concerns may escalate, stressing the need and concern.
Counseling services can be provided on a referral basis and do not need to be on-site.
Mentors should have ancillary knowledge and be aware of services available in the event
of a crisis or expressed concern.
48
Implications for Social Work
Plan Development
When discussing the development of programs, it is vital to include having
consumers involved in the process. Program developing and program execution in social
services are proposed to eradicate the concerns of at risk communities, and effective,
well-organized programs should increase the quality of life for the individuals with a
significant emphasis on evidence-based practice. Evidence-based conducted research
detects result oriented intervention strategies and assertive program development that
employ positive participant outcome measures and best practice policies (Walsh, 2009).
Expansive research provided from literature review allowed the researchers to
identify the target population of pregnant and parenting teens show significant need for
social support, parenting skill development, counseling and mental health services, abuse
prevention, domestic relationship skills, education support, employment services,
childcare and mentorship. The researchers acknowledged that the area of focus,
Sacramento, CA, has a significantly high prevalence of teen pregnancy, low graduation
rates and low service utilization rates comparatively in California.
Recommendations
Practice and Policy
Teen parents have significantly more struggles during their lifetime, along with
their children. This is primarily due to a lack of lived experience and support systems.
The results from the conducted survey are imperative in assisting potential teen parents in
49
breaking the cycle of teen pregnancy. Teen parents are a marginalized population that
shows a vital need for specific services and attention.
Inaccessibility seems to be a significant barrier that could benefit from future
exploration. Public relations have been reported as a lacking component contributing to
inaccessibility. Often times, programs are developed with no measures taken to promote
the services available. When programs are funded, proposals should include the measures
in which the services will be promoted and disseminated to potential consumers. Funding
should be allotted for this expenditure with specified individuals designated for this
purpose.
Further policies that mandate consumer panel members would help to insure
participant satisfaction. Satisfaction rates for existing services and programs show
alarming concerns that individual needs are not being addressed to the level of attention
required. By implementing consumer based recommendations, the consumers are insured
services that are appropriate and needed.
Limitations
Suggestions for future research include generating a larger and more random sample.
With a larger randomized sample, the results would be more accurate and greater
generalization to the larger population could be made. With a more randomized sample,
biases derived from the CalWORKs program regulations may be better avoided.
In addition, by collecting data from various target sites, cultural and socioeconomic
factors would be more heavily weighted in the statistical analysis. This would allow for a
50
broader potential to identify risk factors specific to certain locations and various cultural
backgrounds. Interventions surrounding specific risk factors can be implemented to allow
for greater potential success. Further research would need to be completed to follow up
with this suggestion. It is imperative to point out that we expect cultural factors to
influence research findings greatly.
Conclusion
The results of this study include the determination of qualities needed for individuals
providing mentoring services for pregnant and parenting teens. It is the researcher’s
hopes that the findings will assist researchers in ways to better understand needs amongst
this population and program development leading to more successful services and
outcome measures. The compiled literature review supports the evaluation of needed
interventions to assist in furthering self-sufficiency and reaching potential goals during
and after pregnancy. In addition, programs need to encompass cultural competency
related to clients served. For example, teenage pregnancy is often viewed as unintended
when researcher gathered from studies like Sherradon et. al. (2006) suggests a variation
of views based on cultural identification. As suggested by the research, student’s
academic standings prior to pregnancy are projected to weigh heavily on continuing
education. Interventions need to be implemented as soon as possible; therefore
identification of risk factor is paramount.
Based on the research, implications for social workers at the micro level include
investment in the community and knowledge of cultural patterns and norms. In addition,
51
awareness of risk factors as related to identified individuals is necessary. Implications on
the macro level include specific program design implementations to target specific risk
factors related to the discontinuing of education. Appropriately identifying these risk
factors will assist in intervention prior to withdrawing from continued education with an
ultimate potential goal of preventing pregnancy all together.
52
Appendix A
53
Appendix B
INFORMED CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN A RESEARCH STUDY
TITLE: Mentor Needs Assessment for Pregnant Youth in Sacramento County
INVESTIGATOR: Tara McKeeman & Lindsey Philpot
SPONSOR: Francis Yuen - fyuen@csus.edu
PURPOSE: The purpose of this study is to identify the needs of pregnant teens as to
develop a program to support education. Another purpose is to determine if the presence
of a mentor would be beneficial to meeting these educational needs.
POPULATION: Potential participants are approximately 50 adult Sacramento County
Cal-Works Job Club consumers. Job Club participants represent a population with
knowledge that will support the aim of this study.
PROCEDURE: Participants will complete a 17 question “Mentor Needs Assessment for
Pregnant Youth in Sacramento County”. Participants will answer questions like “what is
a mentor?” and “what should mentors help with?” The questionnaire will take
approximately 10-15 minutes. After completing the survey, participants will be asked to
place it the assigned envelope. Participants will not be asked for any additional
information after they complete they survey. Researchers will not contact participants for
any follow-up information.
RISKS: In the judgment of the Researchers, there is minimal risk to participants. It is
considered minimal risk because some participants may have traumatic life events which
could be remembered when answering questions. If you feel any emotional discomfort
during or immediately after filling out the survey, please let us know and we will connect
you immediately to a counselor on site. If at a later date you feel emotional discomfort,
you may contact us at the number at the conclusion of this form, or contact the DHA
counselor on site at (916) 875-0933. Participation in this study is voluntary and there are
no penalties, such as the loss of services or eligibility, for choosing not to participate or
withdrawing participation at any time after starting. Please note that whether you decide
to fill out the survey or not, your services with Cal Works will not be affected in any way.
BENEFITS: There is no direct benefit to you, but the information may benefit society at
large.
54
COST/COMPENSATION: This is a voluntary study, with no cost or compensation
provided to participants.
CONFIDENTIALITY: Participants right to privacy and safety will be protected by the
assurance that no personal information will be solicited (i.e., address, phone number, or
other demographic info). Participants will be asked to sign the consent form if they
choose to participate. These consent forms and any written data will be shredded after the
completion of the study. Participants can sign a pseudonym (fake name) on the consent
form if they choose to keep their actual name private.
In addition, if we learn about abuse of a child, an elderly person, or a dependent adult, or
that you intend to harm yourself or someone else, we will report that to the proper
authorities.
QUESTIONS: Any questions or concerns can be directed towards the investigators of
the study during the course of the study. Additional questions that occur after the study
can be directed towards Tara McKeeman at (xxx) xxx-xxxx.
RESEARCH STUDY PARTICIPANT’S BILL OF RIGHTS
1. To be told what the study is trying to find out.
2. To be told what will happen to you and whether any of the procedures, drugs, or
devices are different from what would be used in standard practice.
3. To be told about the frequent and/or the important risks, side effects, or discomforts
of the things that will happen to you for research purposes.
4. To be told if you can expect any benefit from participating and, if so, what the benefit
might be.
5. To be told of other choices you have and how they may be better or worse than being
in the study.
6. To be allowed to ask any questions concerning the study, both before agreeing to be
involved and during the course of the study.
7. To be told what sort of medical treatment is available if any complications arise.
8. To refuse to participate at all, or to change your mind about participating after the
study has started. This decision will not affect your right to receive the care you
would receive if you were not in the study.
9. To receive a copy of the signed and dated consent form.
10. To be free of pressure when considering whether you wish to agree to be in the study.
55
CONSENT: I have read and understand this consent form and the Bill of Rights for
Experimental Subjects. I have had a chance to ask questions about this research study. I
also understand that when I sign my name below, I am agreeing to volunteer for this
research study. I have signed this informed consent prior to any and all study-related
procedures being performed. I have received my own copy of this form.
___________________________________
Signature of Participant
______________________________
Date
56
Appendix C
Mentoring for Pregnant Teens Survey: A mentor needs assessment in Sacramento
County
Directions: This is a study of mentor qualities that would benefit and assist in the
sustained improvement in the lives of teen mothers.
1.
2.
3.
4.
How old were you when you became a mother?
Please check if you are not a mother 
Do you have a relative or close friend who is a teen
mother?
During your (or your relative or friend’s) pregnancy,
who was (were) your support person(s)? (Check all
apply)
 Yes
 No
 mother  my
father
 sibling
 my
friend
 baby’s father
 the father’s family
 no support
1- Strongly Agree, 2- Agree,3- Disagree, 4- Strongly Disagree, 5- Neutral/Don’t
Know
A mentor is someone who will do the following
a. Lend money
b. Listen
c. Point out mistakes
d. Babysit kids on a night out
e. Buy things individuals need
f. Show important life skills
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5






57
g. Help with budgeting
h. Help find employment
i. Assist in finding stable housing
j. Tutor individuals with school work
k. Find resources in the community
l. Help individuals attain higher educational goals
5.

 1,  2,  3,
4,  5
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5







A mentor is the same thing as a
a. Teacher
b. Social Worker
c. Tutor
d. Friend
e. Coach
f. Parent
g. Other:________________________
6.
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5
I had support from a mentor throughout and after my
pregnancy4





 1,  2,  3, 
4,  5
1- Strongly Agree, 2- Agree,3- Disagree, 4- Strongly Disagree, 5- Neutral/Don’t
Know
 1,  2,  3, 
4,  5
7.
I have someone who is a mentor to me
8.
For a pregnant teen, a mentor could be helpful in the following areas
58
a. Explain to me what to expect in pregnancy
b. Make arrangement for prenatal care
c. Learn how to manage school work while
pregnant
 1,  2,  3, 
4,  5
 1,  2,  3, 
4,  5
 1,  2,  3, 
4,  5
 1,  2,  3, 
4,  5
e. Give me hope
 1,  2,  3, 
4,  5
f. Assist with parenting skills
 1,  2,  3, 
4,  5
Ideally, a mentor for a pregnant teen should be someone who is a
d. Identify health and social service resources
9.
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5
b. Teen-mom herself
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5
c. Grandmother
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5
d. Friend
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5
e. Mother
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5
f. Anyone
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5
Currently, mentoring service for pregnant teen is
 1,  2,  3,
available.
4,  5
Mentoring service is best located in the following locations

 1,  2,  3,
4,  5
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5
 1,  2,  3,
4,  5

a. Female
10.
11.
a. High School where the pregnant teens attend
b. Local health clinics
c. Churches
d. Neighborhoods









59
 1,  2,  3, 
4,  5
If a mentoring program was available through my
 1,  2,  3, 
school, I would have used it during my pregnancy1
4,  5
Pregnant teens do not want to seek services, including mentoring because…
e. Location is not important
12.
13.
a. They don’t want to be bothered
b. They already have support from family and
friends
 1,  2,  3, 
4,  5
 1,  2,  3, 
4,  5
 1,  2,  3, 
4,  5
d. They already have all the services needed
 1,  2,  3, 
4,  5
e. They are doing fine and no need for service
 1,  2,  3, 
4,  5
f. Stigmas attached to teen parents
 1,  2,  3, 
4,  5
14. A good mentoring program for pregnant teens should include the following
services
a. One on one mentoring, not group mentoring
 1,  2,  3, 
4,  5
b. School work tutoring
 1,  2,  3, 
4,  5
c. Stress reduction activities (i.e. exercise, yoga)
 1,  2,  3, 
4,  5
d. Counseling
 1,  2,  3, 
4,  5
e. Budgeting skills training
 1,  2,  3, 
4,  5
f. Self-care
 1,  2,  3, 
4,  5

If I were to be in charge of a mentoring program for teen-moms, I will be sure
to include the following services:
15.
c. They hesitate to seek help from strangers
60

16.
Your Age
_________________

17.
How many children do you have?

Thank you for taking the time to complete this questionnaire.
Your participation is greatly appreciated
61
Appendix D
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO
To: Tara McKeeman & Lindsey Philpot
Date: 10/24/2012
FROM: Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects
RE: YOUR RECENT HUMAN SUBJECTS APPLICATION
__X__ has been approved with the following conditions: (Discuss your next steps with
your thesis/project advisor and after making the necessary changes, please submit your
changes in writing to Dr. Teiahsha Bankhead. Be sure to address the specific issues
noted above and specify your changes). Be sure and attach a copy of this letter when
you return your application with changes noted. You must have your thesis advisor
sign-off on this letter before you submit your changes to the committee. The conditions
specified must be satisfied and approved by the Committee for the Protection of Human
62
Subjects before final human subjects approval of your research and before you can
initiate contact with research participants:
Conditions:
Condition 1: Please state on the protocol that after the site program staff members
explain the study they must leave the room.
Condition 2: The contact information for the researchers and thesis advisor should be on
the consent form.
Condition 3: Please provide a letter of authorization for Sacramento County when
available and prior to beginning the study.
Recommendations:
As stated above, you are not authorized to begin work on your data collection for your
research until final review is completed and Human Subjects approval is granted.
Professors: Maria Dinis, Jude Antonyappan, Teiahsha Bankhead, Serge Lee, Kisun Nam,
Maura O’Keefe, Dale Russell, Francis Yuen
Cc: Yuen
63
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