EXERCISE, LEISURE AND MOOD IMPROVEMENT
Emily Salzano Guthrie
B.A., California State University, Sacramento, 2002
THESIS
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
in
PSYCHOLOGY
at
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO
FALL
2009
EXERCISE, LEISURE AND MOOD IMPROVEMENT
A Thesis
by
Emily Salzano Guthrie
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Dr. Lisa M. Bohon
__________________________________, Second Reader
Dr. Kelly Cotter
__________________________________, Third Reader
Dr. Lisa Harrison
___________________________________
Date
ii
Student: Emily Salzano Guthrie
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University
format manual, and that this thesis is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to
be awarded for the thesis.
_______________________________________________ ___________________
Dr. Lisa M. Bohon, Graduate Coordinator
Date
Department of Psychology
iii
Abstract
of
EXERCISE, LEISURE AND MOOD IMPROVEMENT
by
Emily Salzano Guthrie
The effects of exercise and leisure activity on positive mood, anxiety and depression in
college age women was investigated. Individuals participated in a 30-minute activity,
either exercise or reading, performed indoors or outdoors. Variables were measured using
the MAACL to assess mood, the STAI to assess anxiety, and the CESD to assess
depression. Participants were 100 female undergraduate students with a mean age of
22.09 (SD = 5.19). The sample was multi-ethnic with a majority of European Americans
(56%). Contrary to the hypotheses, results indicated that participants who performed
activities outdoors reported higher levels of state anxiety F(1, 98) = 10.75, p = .002 and
depression F(1, 98) = 3.98, p = .050 than those who performed activities indoors. Further
analyses indicated that those in the outdoor condition were higher in trait anxiety, thus
random assignment did not minimize individual differences across conditions, and could
account for the unexpected findings.
, Committee Chair
Dr. Lisa M. Bohon
______________________
Date
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
It is a pleasure to thank those who have supported me through this process and those who
have made my thesis project possible. This adventure would not have been possible
without the support of many people. I owe my deepest gratitude to Dr. Lisa M. Bohon
who was abundantly helpful and offered invaluable assistance, support and guidance. I
would also like to thank the members of my thesis committee, Dr. Kelly Cotter and Dr.
Lisa Harrison, who without their knowledge and assistance this study would not have
been successful.
I would also like to show my gratitude to my loving parents who have supported and
encouraged me for many years. Your love and continued guidance has made an impact
on me forever. Finally, I would like to thank my loving husband, Damian. I am grateful
for your everlasting support and love, and for always being in my corner.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgments..........................................................................................................v
List of Tables ............................................................................................................. vii
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 1
2. METHODS ............................................................................................................. 6
3. RESULTS ............................................................................................................. 12
4. DISCUSSION ....................................................................................................... 22
References ................................................................................................................... 28
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Page
1. Table 1
Chronbach’s Alpha………………………………................
2. Table 2
Descriptive Statistics for All Variables…………………….. 14
3. Table 3
Descriptive Statistics for Activity………..............................
4. Table 4
Descriptive Statistics for Setting…………………................ 17
5. Table 5
ANOVA for Activity and Setting………..............................
19
6. Table 6
Correlations for all Variables…………………….................
21
vii
12
15
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
There are many different approaches to treating the most common of today’s
mental illness. Among the most frequently treated are symptoms associated with
depression, anxiety and overall mood state. Many of these current treatments include
medication and talk therapy. However, for some who do not suffer from symptoms at a
clinical level, perhaps, there are alternative ways for an individual to self manage these
indicators of depression and anxiety. Looking at physical activity, leisure activity, and
exposure to light, there may be an alternative approach to treating common symptoms
associated with poor mood state, depression and anxiety.
Physical activity is related to positive gains in both physical health and mental
health (CDC, 2007a). In recent years, the fitness industry has been booming due to the
benefits of physical activity. Research shows a decrease in risk factors for several
diseases (e.g. coronary heart disease, hypertension, different types of cancer, obesity,
osteoporosis) and an overall increase in life span (Rocheleau, Webster, Bryan, & Frazier,
2004). It is also commonly known that regular exercise can result in improved mental
health (Hansen, Stevens, & Coast, 2001).
Based on the Surgeon General’s statement in 2007, the recommended amount of
exercise is 3-5 times a week in 30-minute bouts of moderately intense activities such as
brisk walking (CDC, 2007a). The Center for Disease Control additionally states that 30
minutes of exercise can be broken down into 10-minute bouts repeated three times a day
(2008). The Surgeon General reports that exercise does not need to be strenuous to
2
achieve wanted benefits (CDC, 2007a). In addition, the Surgeon General also states that
60% of adults in the United States do not participate in the recommended requirement of
physical activity and that 25% of adults living in the United States are completely
inactive (CDC, 2007a). There are individuals who may not comply with the CDC
regulations of healthy physical activity. These individuals are missing a critical
opportunity to being physically and mentally healthy. Rocheleau et al. (2004) suggests
that the non-compliance in the adult population may be because immediate health and
physical benefits of exercising are not always apparent. That is, it may take an extended
period before individuals begin to perceive changes in their physical health (e.g. weight
loss, muscle tone) that would motivate them to continue the regime of physical activity.
Rocheleau et al. (2004) showed that the psychological benefits of exercising could
be immediate. In addition, it has been said that psychological benefits, such as mood
improvement, can result from a single bout of exercise or continued physical activity
(Russell et al., 2003). Yueng (1996) showed that an overall increase in positive mood is a
very likely result of physical activity. The relation between exercise and mood elevation
has been well established and often used widely as an effective treatment for depression
and anxiety (Rocheleau et al., 2004). Thus, it is important to view exercise as an ethical
treatment for individuals who suffer from these ailments (Bryne & Bryne, 1993).
Exercise is not the only contributor to the improvement of mood states.
Participating in leisure activities (e.g. reading, knitting, etc.) can lead to an increase in
positive mood (Hull, 1990). While this may be true for many individuals, this area of
research lacks significant investigation. Hull (1990) suggests that the relation between
3
leisure activities and mood is commonly accepted but not understood due to lack of
research. The CDC (2007b) reports that in 2004 there has been an overall decline of
leisure-time physical inactivity in men and women. They state that adults are increasingly
becoming more active and not remaining sedentary in order to participate in leisure
activities. There is lack of research in looking to find any differences between physical
activity and leisure activities and their contribution to mood improvement and decrease in
depression and anxiety. Pagano, Barkhoff, Heiby, and Schlicht (2006) suggest that there
has not been sufficient attention to the area of leisure research and its effect on health.
Another factor that could affect exercise and leisure activity in relation to mood
improvement is the environment. There is an astounding lack of research on the benefits
of indoor compared to outdoor activities, whether leisure or exercise (Dubbert, 2002;
Plante et al., 2007). In addition, Tarrant, Manfreedo and Driver (1994) also suggest that
there is limited research surrounding leisure and exercise in an outside environment.
However, there has been a great deal research related to sunlight and Seasonal
Affective Disorder (SAD) in relation to overall general health. Effects of seasons on
individual’s mood and levels of depression have been well documented. Putilov and
Danilenko (2005) stated that the deprivation of light was a major factor for depressive
symptoms during the winter. In addition, they suggest that these symptoms of winter
depression could be remitted after a one-hour walk outside (Putilov & Danilenko, 2005).
Sato (1997) suggests that SAD is related to a deficiency of light in the environment and
phototherapy may be used to reduce depressive symptoms. Lack of sunlight affects
everyone, and some at a clinical level. In addition to the outside environment, Light
4
Therapy (LT) is an established treatment for SAD. Because of the benefits established
with real light, artificial light has been replaced with LT for a more effective and
controlled treatment. Rohan et al. (2007) state that LT involves exposure to artificial
bright light in order to reduce symptoms of depression.
Gender can also play in issue in mood improvement. Past research states that
there has been “stronger association between exercise and mood stated in women than in
men” (Hansen et al., 2001; Rocheleau et al., 2004). In addition, it has been suggested that
women report higher levels of depression and anxiety than men do when their levels are
tested before exercise (Rocheleau et al., 2004). As stated before, there is a lack of
research in leisure activity and this is also true when looking specifically at gender.
However, it has been suggested that women who participate in leisure activity and had
positive associations with leisure activity showed improved mental health and increased
overall life satisfaction (Ponde & Santana, 2000). In addition to exercise and leisure in
women, it has been also stated that SAD occurs more often in females than in males
(Rohan, Sigmon, & Dorhofer, 2003).
The present study was designed to assess mood enhancement, level of depression
and level of anxiety and their relation to exercise and leisure activities performed indoor
or outdoors. In this study, I investigated these conditions for a period of thirty minutes,
followed by mood inventories. The following five hypotheses were explored.
1. After a single bout of exercise or leisure activity, positive mood will
increase in all conditions, while depression and anxiety will decrease
5
in all conditions (CDC, 2007a; Rocheleau et al. 2004; Hansen, et al.
2001; Hull, 1990).
2. Exercise, whether performed indoors or outdoors, will produce higher
levels of positive mood and lower levels of depression and anxiety
than leisure activities performed either indoors or outdoors (CDC,
2007a; Rocheleau et al. 2004; Hansen et al. 2001; Hull, 1990).
3. Both exercise and leisure activities performed outdoors, versus
indoors, will yield higher levels of mood improvement and lower
levels of depression and anxiety (Putilov & Danilenko, 2005; Sato,
1997).
4. Exercise performed indoors will result in higher mood elevation and
lower levels of depression and anxiety as compared to leisure activities
performed indoors (Putilov & Danilenko, 2005; Sato, 1997).
5. Exercise performed outdoors will result in higher mood elevation and
lower levels of depression and anxiety as compared to leisure activities
performed outdoors (Putilov & Danilenko, 2005; Sato, 1997).
6
Chapter 2
METHOD
Participants
The participants in the study were gathered from northern California State
University and included 100 female undergraduate psychology students. Participants
were solicited to participate in this study and received one hour of credit towards their
psychology class requirement. The participants in this study were between the ages of 18
and 45 (M = 22.09, SD = 5.19).
Fifty-six participants identified their ethnicity as European American/White
(56%) while 13 participants reported themselves as Asian or Pacific Islander (13%).
Eleven participants identified their ethnicity as Black and/or African American (11%)
while 9 identified as Hispanic/American Latino (9%). Five participants identified as
Multi-Ethnic (5%) while four participants reported that they fell into a category of Other
(4%). Both Middle Eastern and Native American or Aleutian Islander/Eskimo categories
each had one participant identify with these ethnicities (1%).
Thirty-six participants reported they had completed 1-2 years of college with no
degree (36%) while 30 participants reported they had completed three or more years of
college with no degree yet (30%). Seventeen participants had graduated from a 2-year
college or vocational school or have an Associated Degree (17%) while twelve have a
high school diploma (12%). Four participants stated they have graduated from a 4 or 5year college or have a Batchelor’s Degree (4%) while one participant reported having
attended some graduate school (1%).
7
Twenty-five participants reported having zero household income (25%) while
thirty-three individuals reported having a combined household income that ranged from
$1,000 to $25,000 (33%). Fourteen participants stated that they fell in the household
income range of $28,000 to $50,000 (14%) while thirteen individuals reported they have
an income that ranges between $55,000 and $75,000 (13%). Six participants stated they
have a household income between $80,000 and $100,000 (6%) while nine participants
stated they were in the range of $100,000 or above (9%).
Fifty-three participants identified themselves as Middle Class (53%) while
twenty-nine individuals reported being part of the Working Class (29%). Twelve
individuals stated they were part of the Upper Middle Class (12%) while four participants
identified with accepting Public Assistance (4%). Two individuals identified themselves
as Upper Class (2%).
Forty-four participants reported to be single (44%) while thirty-four participants
identified themselves as being single and in a committed relationship (34%). Thirteen
individuals identified themselves as single and in a casual relationship (13%). Seven
participants stated they were currently married (7%) while two identified as being
divorced (2%).
Measures
Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PAR-Q) is a health questionnaire that
screens for health issues that may limit participation in research. This measure is solely
used for screening purposes and discriminated participants who need medical clearance
from a physician from those who are adequately fit to participate in the different
8
conditions. The PAR-Q includes 10 items that screen for health concerns. The PAR-Q
assesses participants ability to sit or exercise for 30 minutes and includes questions such
as: Do you frequently have pains in your heart and chest?, Has your doctor ever told you
that you have a bone or joint problem(s), such as arthritis that has been aggravated by
exercise, or might be made worse with exercise?, Is there a good physical reason, not
mentioned here, why you should not follow an activity program even if you wanted to?
Participants can respond as Yes or No. If participants answered yes to any questions, they
were not asked back to participate in phase two of the research.
Multiple Affect Adjective Checklist (MAACL) is a scale that consists of “five
factor analytically derived scales” (Lubin, Grimes, & Van Whitlock, 1997) that measure
participant’s mood. This measure consists of 132 adjectives, which are scored by tallying
the items from each subscale that are marked by participants (Lubin, Van Whitlock,
Reddy & Petran, 2001). The scales consist of: Anxiety (A), Depression (D), Hostility (H),
Positive Affect (PA), and Sensation Seeking (SS), in addition to two composite scales
which are titled dysphoria (DYS) and well-being (PASS) (Lubin et al., 1997). The
subscale DYS is the sum of A + D + H, where as the subscale for PASS is derived from
the sum of PA + SS (Lubin et al., 1997). The MAACL asks individuals to circle
adjectives that represent how they are currently feeling. Items include: active, afraid,
forlorn, shy, steady, outraged, energetic. The alpha coefficient for internal consistency of
seven scales are reported as: A = .86, D = .83, H = .88, PA = .91, SS = .60, DYS = .93,
and PASS = .91 (Lubin et al., 1997).
9
The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) is a measure
that assesses current symptoms of depression in the general population (Radloff, 1977).
This measure contains 20 symptoms, “any of which may be experienced occasionally by
healthy people: a seriously depressed person would be expected to experience many but
not necessarily all of these symptoms” (Radloff, 1997, p. 391). The CES-D asks
participants to rate how often they have felt or behaved in certain ways during the past
week. Participants can choose from: rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day), some or
a little of the time (1-2 days), occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3-4 days), or
most or all of the time (5-7 days). Items include: I felt that I was just as good as other
people, my sleep was restless, I was happy, people were unfriendly, I had crying spells
(Radloff, 1997). The internal consistency of the measure is estimated to be very high with
and alpha coefficient of .85. Radloff (1977) suggests, “in a healthy population, positive
and negative affect are expected to co-exist, with a low (negative) correlation” (p. 391).
In addition, Radloff (1977) proposes that “severely depressed patients are characterized
by absence of positive as well as presence of negative affect, so that positive and negative
affect would be more highly (negatively) correlated” (p. 391).
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) is a measure that consists of 40 self-report
items divided into two scales used to assess an individual’s state anxiety and trait anxiety
(Gros, Antony, Simms, & McCabe, 2007). The inventory is based on Spielberger’s model
of state and trait anxiety (Gros et al., 2007). This model suggests that an individual’s
experience of anxiety can be triggered by external or internal cues. STAI State evaluates
how the participant feels this very moment, whereas the STAI Trait evaluates how the
10
participant generally feels (Gros et al., 2007). Items include: I feel at ease, I feel upset, I
am a steady person, I lack self-confidence which participant’s rate themselves on a 4point Likert scale ranging from not at all to very much so (State), and from almost never
to almost always (Trait) (Gros et al., 2007). Gros et al. (2007) report an internal
consistency of >.89 for the STAI. In addition, the STAI Trait is reported to have a testretest reliability of .88 and the STAI State is reported to have a .70 for the test-retest
reliability (Gros et al., 2007).
Procedures
Paper and pencil questionnaires were used to measure all variables in this study.
Participants agreed to complete the required questionnaires and activities In addition,
each participant was asked to complete a questionnaire related to their demographic
characteristics (e.g. age, sex, ethnicity, education level.) All participants were treated in
accordance to the American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines during this
research.
Participants initially signed the consent to participate in the research project and
completed the PAR-Q. If individuals were not cleared using the PAR-Q to participate in
physical activity and answered No to being able to withstand sunlight for 30 minutes at a
time, they were excused from the research project and credited for 1 hour of their time.
The individuals that were cleared to using the PAR-Q to participate in physical activity
and answered Yes to being able to withstand sunlight for 30 minutes at a time, continued
on to the second phase of research. Participants were then randomized into one of the five
11
conditions: exercise outdoors, exercise indoors, leisure activity outdoors, leisure activity
indoors, or the control group.
Exercise is operationally defined as using an “easy cycle,” which is a modified
stationary bike for 30 minutes at a time. Leisure activity is defined as reading sedentary
for 30 minutes at a time. The control condition is defined as individuals not participating
in either exercise or leisure activity, however responding only to the MAACL, CES-D,
and the STAI. Participants in the outdoors conditions were required to be in direct
sunlight for the duration of the activity. Sun block, sunglasses, water and hats were
provided to those in this condition. The participants who were in the conditions that are
indoors were required to be in indoors the absence of the sun for the duration of the
activity.
At the end of the thirty minute bout of exercise or leisure activity participants met
with the researcher and completed the MAACL, CES-D, and the STAI. At the
completion of these inventories, participants received one hour towards research credit.
After the completion of the second phase of research, participants were debriefed about
the full nature of the research.
12
Chapter 3
RESULTS
Reliability analyses were run on all scales to test for internal consistency. All
scales were examined using Chronbach’s alpha and found to be acceptable (see Table 1).
For all the analyses, an ANOVA was run to look at all main effects and interactions.
Table 1
Chronbach’s Alpha
Variable
MAACLpa

.85
MAACLss
.72
MAACLh
.83
MAACLa
.68
MAACLd
.78
STAIstate
.92
STAItrait
.92
CESD
.88
___________________
13
Hypothesis 1: After a single bout of exercise or leisure activity, positive mood will
increase in all conditions, and depression and anxiety will decrease in all conditions
(CDC, 2007a; Rocheleau et al., 2004; Hansen et al., 2001; Hull, 1990). Partially
consistent with the hypothesis, individuals who participated in exercise indoors (M =
31.40, SD = 7.30) showed significantly lower levels of state anxiety than those who
completed a questionnaire indoors (M = 39.05, SD = 13.90), F(4, 95) = 2.71, p = .034.
Inconsistent with the hypothesis, no other significant differences were found. See Table
2.
Table 2
DESCRIPTIVE STASTICS FOR ALL VARIABLES____________________________________________________________________
Control
Group
Exercise
Outdoors
Exercise
Indoors
Leisure
Outdoors
Leisure
Indoors
Variable
MAACLpa
Mean
6.70
SD
4.77
Mean
7.55
SD
4.60
Mean
9.85
SD
5.12
Mean
7.10
SD
5.49
Mean
7.10
SD
4.45
MAACLss
1.25
1.62
2.00
1.74
2.25
1.80
1.65
4.49
1.50
1.39
MAACLh
0.65
1.49
1.10
2.22
0.75
1.65
1.30
2.53
0.55
1.27
MAACLa
1.55
2.35
1.65
1.89
0.95
1.05
1.40
1.53
0.85
1.18
MAACLd
1.10
1.71
1.05
2.11
0.35
0.74
0.60
1.42
0.15
0.36
STAIstate
39.05a
13.90
39.30
10.75
31.40a
7.30
40.85
11.20
34.60
8.81
CESD
36.45 10.09
36.10 10.32
32.10 9.40
36.55 10.32
32.35
Note. N = 100, a=significant lower level of state anxiety of those who participated in exercise indoor than those in the control group.
6.01
15
Hypothesis 2: Exercise, whether performed indoors or outdoors, will produce
higher levels of positive mood and lower levels of depression and anxiety than leisure
activities performed either indoors or outdoors (CDC, 2007a; Rocheleau et al., 2004;
Hansen et al., 2001; Hull, 1990). Table 3 presents the means and standard deviations for
activity main effect. No significant effects were found.
Table 3
DESCRIPTIVE STASTICS FOR ACTIVITY___ _
Leisure
Exercise
Variable
M
SD
M
SD
MAACLpa
7.10
4.93
8.70
4.94
MAACLss
1.57
1.99
2.12
1.75
MAACLh
0.92
2.01
0.92
1.93
MAACLa
1.12
1.38
1.30
1.55
MAACLd
0.37
1.05
0.70
1.60
STAIstate
37.72 10.44
35.35 9.91
CESD
34.45 8.60
34.10 9.95
__________________________________________
Note. N = 100
16
Hypothesis 3: Both exercise and leisure activities performed outdoors versus
indoors, will yield higher levels of mood improvement and lower levels of depression and
anxiety (Putilov & Danilenko, 2005; Sato, 1997). Table 4 presents the means and
standard deviations for the setting main effect. In relation to the CESD, individuals
reported a significantly higher level of depression (M = 36.33, SD = 10.19) when in the
outdoor condition than in the indoor condition (M = 32.23, SD = 7.79), F(1, 98) = 3.98, p
= .050, , η2 = .05. Likewise, individuals reported higher levels of depression outside
rather (M = 0.83, SD = 1.80) than inside (M = 0.25, SD = 0.59) on the MAACLd, F(1, 98)
= 3.67, p = .059, , η2 = .05. In addition, individuals reported a significantly higher level of
state anxiety while outside (M = 40.07, SD = 10.87) than inside (M = 33.00, SD = 8.15).
F(1, 98) = 10.75, p = .002, , η2 = .13. In keeping with these findings, individuals reported
a higher level anxiety outdoors (M = 1.53, SD = 1.71) than indoors (M = 0.90, SD = 1.10)
on the MAACLa, F(1, 98) = 3.69, p = .058, , η2 = .05No other significant differences
were found.
17
Table 4
DESCRIPTIVE STASTICS FOR SETTING____ _____________
Indoors
Outdoors
Variable
M
SD
M
SD
MAACLpa
8.48
4.94
7.33
5.01
MAACLss
1.88
1.64
1.83
2.14
MAACLh
0.65
1.46
1.20
2.36
MAACLa
0.90c
1.10
1.53c
1.71
MAACLd
0.25d
0.59
0.83d
1.80
STAIstate
33.00a
8.15
40.08a
10.87
CESD
32.23b
7.79
36.33b
10.19
______________________________________________________
Note. N = 100, means with superscripts that are the same are significantly
different from each other at the .05 level.
18
Hypothesis 4: Exercise performed indoors will result in higher mood elevation
and lower levels of depression and anxiety as compared to leisure activities performed
indoors (Putilov & Danilenko, 2005, Sato, 1997). Inconsistent with the hypothesis, no
statically significant effects were found (See Table 5).
Hypothesis 5: Exercise performed outdoors will result in higher mood elevation
and lower levels of depression and anxiety as compared to leisure activities performed
outdoors (Putilov & Danilenko, 2005, Sato, 1997). Inconsistent with the hypothesis, no
statically significant effects were found (See Table 5).
19
Table 5
ANOVA FOR ACTIVITY AND SETTING
Sum of
Source
Squares
df
Mean
Square
F
p
51.20
26.45
26.45
1
1
1
51.20
26.45
26.45
2.10
1.09
1.09
.151
.301
.301
6.50
.050
.800
1
1
1
6.05
.050
.800
1.67
.014
.221
.200
.907
.640
.000
6.05
.800
1
1
1
.000
6.05
.800
.000
1.53
.204
1.00
.219
.653
.612
7.81
.113
1
1
1
.612
7.81
.113
.289
3.70a
.053
.592
.058
.818
2.11
6.61
.313
1
1
1
2.11
6.61
.313
1.17
3.67b
.174
.282
.059
.678
Activity
Setting
Activity*Setting
112.81
1001.11
13.61
1
1
1
112.81
1001.11
13.61
1.21
10.75**
.146
.274
.002
.703
Activity
Setting
Activity*Setting
189.11
599.51
25.31
1
1
1
189.11
599.51
25.31
3.19
10.10**
.426
.078
.002
.515
Activity
Setting
Activity*Setting
2.45
3336.20
.200
1
1
1
2.45
3336.20
.200
.029
3.98*
.002
.865
.050
.961
MAACLpa
Activity
Setting
Activity*Setting
MAACLss
Activity
Setting
Activity*Setting
MAACLh
Activity
Setting
Activity*Setting
MAACLa
Activity
Setting
Activity*Setting
MAACLd
Activity
Setting
Activity*Setting
STAIstate
STAItrait
CESD
Note. * p < .05, **p = .02, ap = .58, bp = .59
20
These reported results were contrary to past research (CDC, 2007a; Russell et al, 2003;
Hull 1990; Dubbert, 2002; Plante et al, 2007). Further analyses were performed on the
data to in an attempt to understand these findings. In order to test whether groups were
comparable in baseline levels of anxiety, a 2-way ANOVA was conducted using activity
and setting as independent variables and trait anxiety as the dependent variable.
Individuals reported significantly higher levels of trait anxiety while outside (M = 41.90,
SD = 10.87) than inside (M = 36.43, SD = 7.13), F(1, 98) = 10.10, p = .002. This would
indicate that groups were not comparable in trait anxiety, thus random assignment was
not successful in minimizing individual differences across conditions. In addition, a
bivariate correlation showed that trait anxiety was significantly correlated with CESD
depression (r = .77, p = .01), state anxiety (r = .70, p = .01), MAACL depression
(r = .36, p = .01) and MAACL anxiety (r = .53, p = .01) (see Table 6).
21
Table 6
Correlations for all variables
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
STAItrait
MAACLpa
STAItrait
MAACLpa
MAACLd
MAACLa
MAACLh
MAACLss
CESD
STAIstate
1.00
-.23*
.36**
.53**
.20**
-.17
.77**
.70**
1.00
-.18
-.11
.05
.64**
-.28**
-.39**
1.00
.60**
.58**
-.03
.49**
.61**
1.00
.61**
-.02
.52**
.71**
1.00
.24**
.25*
.47**
1.00
-.21*
-.21*
1.00
.69*
MAACLd
MAACLa
MAACLh
MAACLss
CESD
STAIstate
1.00
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Note. N = 100, *p < .05, **p < .01.
22
Chapter 4
DISCUSSION
The first hypothesis, that those who performed an activity, regardless of setting
would experience improved overall mood and decreased depression and anxiety
compared to those who did not participate in an activity, was partially supported in the
present study. Individuals who performed exercise indoors showed significantly lower
levels of state anxiety than the control group who filled out questionnaires. However,
there were no significant differences between the control group and those who
participated in exercise outdoors, leisure activity indoors or leisure activity outdoors.
Previous research suggests that physical activity is related to positive gains in both
physical health and mental health (CDC, 2007a). In addition to recommendations by the
CDC (2007a), Russell et al, (2003) found that physiological benefits, such as mood
improvement, can result from a single bout of exercise.
The second hypothesis, that performing exercise would yield a higher overall
mood improvement and decrease depression and anxiety in comparison to participating in
a leisure activity, was not supported by the present study. Mood did not increase and
anxiety and depression did not decrease across all exercise conditions, regardless of
setting. This finding was inconsistent with past research that suggests an overall increase
in positive mood is a very likely result of physical activity (Yueng, 1996). Likewise, the
relation between exercise and mood elevation has been well established and is often used
as an effective treatment for depression and anxiety (Rocheleau et al., 2004).
23
The third hypothesis stated that either exercise or leisure performed outdoors
would yield higher levels of mood improvement and decrease anxiety and depression
than activities performed indoors. Results showed that individuals who were in the
outdoor conditions showed significantly higher levels of state anxiety and depression
than those who were in the indoor conditions. These results are also contrary to past
research, which suggests that sunlight can improve mood (Putilov & Danilenko, 2005).
Even though random assignment was used to account for individual differences, an
ANOVA showed that participants with higher trait anxiety were placed in the outdoor
condition than in the indoor condition. In addition, trait anxiety was significantly
correlated with state anxiety and depression.
It is also possible that individuals in the outdoor conditions were reporting higher
trait anxiety due to their elevated levels of state anxiety. All conditions completed the
measures after the exercise or leisure activity. Therefore, individuals could have been
reporting their level of trait anxiety when in a state-activated condition, which could
account for the high correlation between state and trait anxiety. A T-test was performed
comparing the control group with the outdoor conditions. There were no significant
differences between these groups, suggesting that trait anxiety was not dependent on
activity outdoors.
The fourth hypothesis suggested that those who performed exercise indoors would
experience higher levels of positive mood and decreased anxiety and depression than
those who engaged in leisure indoors. The hypothesis was not supported when looking at
the interaction of activity and setting. These results are contrary to past research, which
24
stated that psychological benefits, such as mood improvement, could result from a single
bout of exercise, or continued physical activity (CDC, 2007a; Russell et al, 2003).
The fifth hypothesis, that exercise performed outdoors would result in higher
levels of mood and decrease anxiety and depression than leisure performed outdoors, was
not supported by the data. This finding is also contrary to past research, which suggested
that psychological benefits, such as mood improvement, could result from a single bout
of exercise or continued physical activity (CDC, 2007a; Russell et al., 2003).
Furthermore, past research with regard to SAD suggests that light can increase positive
mood (Putilov & Danilenko, 2005).
There could be several alternative explanations as to why these hypotheses were
not fully supported. Participants in this study had different levels of anxiety and
depression that were not neutralized by random assignment. These baseline differences,
could have affected the outcome of the study and presumably, random assignment would
account for this individual difference. However, as seen by significant differences in trait
anxiety across treatment groups, this is not always the case. These trait differences in
anxiety could account for the significant levels of negative affect that were reported in the
outdoor conditions. Moreover, individuals who were intrinsically higher in levels of trait
anxiety could have experienced higher levels of state anxiety when placed in a social
setting for their activity. Participants in this study were required to ride an exercise bike
or read the school newspaper on campus when in view of other students. If the
participants perceived themselves to be judged or evaluated while participating in these
activities, they could have had a negative emotional reaction. These possible explanations
25
could also account for the high levels of depression in the outdoor conditions, as
depression and anxiety are highly correlated (Yueng, 1996; Rocheleau et al., 2004).
Another reason for these unexpected results could be the type of exercise
participants were asked to perform. As stated before, individuals were instructed to sit on
a chair and ride a modified exercise bike. It is possible that the exercise itself was not
strenuous enough to elicit changes in mood, anxiety and depression. In addition, past
exercise behavior of the individual was not accounted for. It is possible that those with a
history of working out may not have exerted enough energy to increase mood and
decrease anxiety and depression. Additionally, because participants were assigned to ride
a bike as their form of exercise rather than to make a choice to do so, they may not have
seen this as an enjoyable activity. Perhaps future studies could give participants a choice
of physical activities that would allow them to express their personal preferences.
Another limitation of the study could be the type of leisure activity chosen for the
current study. The leisure activity chosen for this particular study was to read the school
newspaper. It is possible that participants did not find this type of leisure activity
enjoyable. Perhaps students had already read that particular issue of the college paper or
they did not view reading the newspaper as leisurely or enjoyable. Having participants
choose a leisure activity that would be enjoyable to them (i.e. knitting, word puzzles, own
choice of reading material) would address this issue.
In addition to the type of exercise and leisure activity required for this study, the
environment was also another type of limitation in this experiment. There was a potential
confound in that for many of the outdoor participants, there were a number of bystanders
26
who could have observed the experiment. This might have heightened social anxiety for
those in the outdoor conditions. Perhaps in the future, the researcher could control for
this by having all participants in the outdoor conditions remain either completely alone,
or in the presence of the experimenter alone. This procedure would be matched in the
indoor condition.
Another limitation to this present study is examining females only. It is possible
that when including both male and female participants a difference in mood improvement
would be found. In addition, it is important to include both men and women in order to
further examine gender differences. Such differences in gender could include change in
mood improvement, levels of anxiety and level of depression when looking at exercise,
leisure activity, and environment.
Although this study did not confirm results that are consistent with past research,
there are many areas still left to explore. It is possible that with a larger sample and
different design, the expected results will be found.
It would be helpful to continue to explore the relation between exercise and
leisure activity on mood improvement, anxiety and depression. There is lack of
investigation surrounding leisure activity in the research community that could
potentially aid in the treatment of anxiety and depression in the clinical sample of
individuals. In addition, it would be useful to continue to address the environment and its
role in decreasing depression and anxiety and improving overall mood. For some
individuals, being outside is helpful in increasing positive mood and decreasing negative
27
feelings. It would be interesting to know if there are certain activities performed outside
that could further increase the positive mood and decrease anxiety and depression.
28
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