Repressed Memories
Elizabeth Loftus
“Derepressed memories”
• Loftus opens with several examples of court
cases that involve “derepressed memories”
• What is a repressed memory?
• What is a derepressed memory?
Loftus’ position in this article
• Loftus does not reject the notion of
repressed memories
– 18% - 59% of abuse survivors report having
regained access to previously repressed
memories
Loftus’ position in this article
• Loftus does not reject the notion of
repressed memories
– 18% - 59% of abuse survivors report having
regained access to previously repressed
memories
• What does Loftus challenge?
Loftus’ position in this article
• Loftus does not reject the notion of
repressed memories
– 18% - 59% of abuse survivors report having
regained access to previously repressed
memories
• What does Loftus challenge?
…That all “de-repressed” memories are accurate memories.
High Stakes
• Survivor of real abuse
might struggle for years
or decades with
consequences and need
to confront the
repressed memory in
order to recover
emotionally
• False accusation could
tear family apart and
send an innocent person
to jail
What’s the issue?
• What does Loftus express concern about
regarding the derepression of memories?
What’s the issue?
• What does Loftus express concern about
regarding the derepression of memories?
– reality of the memory is in question if it is
recalled under certain circumstances
What’s the issue?
• What does Loftus express concern about
regarding the derepression of memories?
– reality of the memory is in question if it is
recalled under certain circumstances
• What is the course of events that Loftus
finds worrisome?
What’s the issue?
• What does Loftus express concern about
regarding the derepression of memories?
– reality of the memory is in question if it is
recalled under certain circumstances
• What is the course of events that Loftus
finds worrisome?
Therapist or Popular
Book suggests that
patient consider
possibility of abuse
Patient engages in
intense effort to recall
An explicit
episodic memory
is achieved
What’s the issue?
• So we potentially have a situation in which
someone who is having troubles in life and
is seeking answers is told to determine
whether or not memories for abuse exist
• What are some techniques that are used to
“assist” recollection?
What’s the issue?
• So we potentially have a situation in which
someone who is having troubles in life and
is seeking answers is told to determine
whether or not memories for abuse exist
• What are some techniques that are used to
“assist” recollection?
– hypnosis, imagery, dream analysis, story telling
False Memories
• Could these techniques or the mere
suggestion of abuse insert a false memory in
a patient?
False Memories
• Could these techniques or the mere
suggestion of abuse insert a false memory in
a patient?
• We talked about laboratory examples of
false memories and memory distortions, but
do false memories occur for real-world
events?
False Memories
• What are some examples of false memories?
False Memories
• What are some examples of false memories?
– Piaget’s attempted kidnapping
– Challenger explosion
False Memories
• What are some of the investigations Loftus
cites?
– Laurence & Perry (1983) - Suggested to
subjects under hypnosis that they had been
woken up by a loud sound
• 13/27 ultimately recalled being woken up !
False Memories
• What are some of the investigations Loftus
cites?
– Loftus & Coan - family member is enlisted to
discuss a fictitious episode in which subject
was supposedly lost in a shopping mall
• subjects can develop surprisingly vivid recollection
of this fictitious event
What’s the issue?
• Why might a well-meaning therapist or
author suggest abuse?
What’s the issue?
• Why might a well-meaning therapist or
author suggest abuse?
• Symptoms:
–
–
–
–
low self-esteem
suicidal/self-destructive thoughts
depression
sexual dysfunction
What’s the issue?
• What problem does Loftus point out is
inherent in diagnosing symptoms?
What’s the issue?
• What problem does Loftus point out is
inherent in diagnosing symptoms?
• Confirmatory Bias: people often look for
the presence of symptoms to confirm a
suspected diagnosis rather than absence of
symptoms to disconfirm a diagnosis
Conclusion:
• We cannot know with certainty (without corroborating
evidence) whether a derepressed memory is true
Conclusion:
• We cannot know with certainty (without corroborating
evidence) whether a derepressed memory is true
• Therapists should engage in probing this possibility very
carefully
– avoiding suggestive questions
– remaining unconvinced without corroborating evidence
– being “gently confrontational” to encourage patient to
consider the possibility that the events didn’t happen
Implicit and Explicit Memory
• Yet another distinction
Implicit and Explicit Memory
• The successful recall of episodic memory
entails a conscious awareness for the
contents of the memory
Implicit and Explicit Memory
• The successful recall of episodic memory
entails a conscious awareness for the
contents of the memory
• Explicit Memory is any memory that is both
available and accessible by consciousness
Implicit and Explicit Memory
• Are all memories explicit? Is all
information stored in the brain subject to
conscious scrutiny?
Implicit and Explicit Memory
• Are all memories explicit? Is all
information stored in the brain subject to
conscious scrutiny?
• Implicit Memory refers to encoded
memories that are not part of the “contents”
of awareness
Implicit and Explicit Memory
• How can we know whether memory is
stored/recalled implicitly or explicitly?
Implicit Memory
• Consider the following distinction in recalling
items from a list of words:
Implicit Memory
• Consider the following distinction in recalling
items from a list of words:
• Free Recall - subjects can be asked to simply
recall and report as many items as possible - these
items are accessible as explicit memory
Implicit Memory
• Consider the following distinction in recalling
items from a list of words:
• Implicit Recall - subjects can be asked to complete
a word stem with any word that comes to mind
after reading a list of words (no mention of testing
memory!)
__ack
Implicit Memory
• Consider the following distinction in recalling
items from a list of words:
• Implicit Recall - subjects can be asked to complete
a word stem with any word that comes to mind
after reading a list of words (no mention of testing
memory!)
But how do you know that information is stored/recalled
implicitly? Couldn’t it be explicit?
Implicit Memory
• Consider the following distinction in recalling
items from a list of words:
• Twist - require subject to complete stem with a
word that wasn’t on the list - if a word from the
list is used preferentially, it was remembered
implicitly
Implicit Memory
If some “processing” that happens in your brain
occurs without consciousness…consider the
implications regarding the nature of
consciousness and the connection between
neural activity and awareness
Next Time:
• Oliver Sacks: The Lost Mariner and a
discussion of amnesia