Group #5 – Summary
Agriculture Studies 1000 Section B: The Evolution of Agriculture
Presentation #1: Thursday September 25, 2003
Report Due: Wednesday September 24, 2003
For: Stavroula Malla
Completed By: Kyla Jamieson
Dana MacMillan
Lee Markert
Tovah Marr
Jarred Minke
Jay Penner
Contents:
Introduction
p. 3-4
Medieval Europe
Overview
p. 4
Changes in Agricultural Production
p. 4-6
Changes in Rural Society
p. 6-7
Setting the Stages for the Agricultural Revolution
Overview
p. 7-8
The Metropolitan Economy
p. 8-9
National Economy and Agriculture
p. 9
The Enclosure Movements / Agrarian Revolution
The Agricultural Revolution
p.10-12
Appendix
p.13
Defined terms from pages 125 - 140
2
Introduction
This topic area is to cover the time period from Medieval 14th Century times right
through the agricultural, economic, and social developments that lead into the
Agricultural Revolution which seen its beginnings in the mid 17th century. This is a
continuation of the past report which uncovered much of the developments of the 11th to
13th century in Medieval Europe. The topic starts with a recession and many catastrophes
which caused changes in the agricultural production and the structure of farms and newly
developing urban centers. There were formal innovations introduced in order to fairly and
properly run the rural economy. We are starting to see a loss of power by the landlords.
Next, there was social unrest due to increases technology which now saved on labor and
promoted individualism, thus hurting the lower classes lacking in land and capital.
Taxation was on a rise and with this came many classic revolts from the lower classes,
but a lack of true leadership did not allow any of the revolts to persevere. There was a
growth in commerce and development of metropolitan centers starting in the 15th century.
With population on the rise there were improvements in transportation and finance, and
markets were developing as a means for the farmers to sell all products. Mercantilism
and exports were now common though they got too extreme and more emphasis was put
back on agriculture. As the lords became increasingly filled with greed, the land was
now being referred to as enclosures as there was a transition period between collective
and individualistic farming. The enclosures were responsible for some revolts, though
they also contributed to better organization and better farming practices. The agricultural
revolution brought on better farming techniques and a growth in technology. This was an
interesting part of history that includes four phases and many great industrial pioneers
3
who left their mark. The farms became bigger, more efficient and better organized.
There were more development in livestock, fertilizer, and machinery. Some saw huge
gains through these developments, but they came at a cost of the livelihood of others.
Medieval Europe: 14th century
Overview
Two centuries prior, Europe had been in an economic expansionary period. With such a
long, great expansion, recession was inevitable. The economy fell, increasing population
with no adjustments lead to political and social consequences.
Changes in Agricultural Production
Changes in the structure of agricultural production also occurred. Food shortages, war
and epidemics were all reasons contributing to a century of recession. Food shortages
resulted from depletion of soil nutrients and climatic conditions.
Population was
increasing peasants were forced to cultivate on poor agricultural lands. These lands only
produced for a few years. Another devastating impact was soldiers. They pillaged
through the countryside, taking what they wanted and destroying what was left. The loss
or destruction of draft animals and vineyards was most devastating. Epidemics ravaged
through Europe. The Black Death (bubonic plague) was the most prominent. Towns and
cities suffered the most.
Rural areas had a massive depopulation that was a long
duration. Abandonment of homes and farms, cultivated areas were shrinking. With all
the population decline there was a return to the most productive soils. All of these events
lead to the formation and growth of nation states with prince rulers. The transition of
nation states from lords was painful.
Wars resulted, redistribution of wealth and
4
instability causing economic activity to go to contract. The decline of the manor in rural
Europe manifested the recession.
Economic pressures slowly eroded at the manorial establishment.
Two movements
occurred which resulted in a retreat of direct cultivation by manorial lords. The first was
‘farming out’ of the whole demesne. The demesne was leased and payment of the lease
was partially in cereals and the rest in money. The second was contraction. In which the
lord would carve off peripheral land to be rented out. Peasants paid high rent for the
land. Renting was the most destructive to the manorial system; it reduced the size of the
demesne. These innovations developed because of grain prices and the rise in wages due
to the slow thinning ranks of rural proletariat.
With these problems demesne
administrators turned away from direct management. Managerial cares were then past on
to the peasants who were less affected by the wage levels and agricultural prices.
Manorial budgets were devastated by the sudden wage increases.
With all the trouble in manorial cultivation, new farming and contractual arrangements
were revealed. There were four main types of arrangements. The first was rent-paying,
where agricultural lands were leased on hereditary basis. The second was similar to the
first with rent- paying, but this had a limited periods. Some cases were life use was
agreed upon, but most were short-term of a few years. The third was share- cropping.
This agreement required the owner of the land to provide half the seed, pay part of the
labor costs, contribute to tool upkeep and sometimes advance grain and food for the
cultivator and his family the first year. The fourth was that the size of parcels of land
grated could be modified. Lords wanted to maintain their demesne of their ancestors.
When financial difficulties arose, the demesne had to be scaled down and portions were
5
offered to farmers which resulted in share- cropping. Lords became less involved with
their land and most revenue was directly related to payments from rental agreements.
The end of the 14th century left landlords with a significant power loss over the rural
economy. In the 15th century lords no longer conducted agriculture rather the peasantry
did, in most cases.
Changes in Rural Society: Social Unrest
Economic and social unrest brought lasting social changes to the structure of agricultural
production. Much of this change was a result of technological change. Technology was
a driving force in social change and more importantly it was fueling individualism and
the quest of personal ownership. There was much discontent among all classes due to
this change, but the peasants were hit the hardest by it. The poor were the first to suffer
when their masters were facing financial difficulties. Peasants were at the mercy of the
lords with there escalating demands. For instance there was a lot of devastation and
pillage done to the manors during war. It was up to the peasants to repair the manors
using their own savings. The lords of the manor would also collect tax money from their
tenants when they themselves owed money to the tax collectors.
Many uprisings occurred all over Europe directed against taxation, abolition of serfdom
and forced labor, and the reduction in rents. The first revolt was the Revolt of West
Frisia, which took place in Holland from 1254-88. The peasants were noted for love of
freedom and persistent refusal to submit to princes. They revolted wanting further
concessions; as well they feared having feudal society in the future. The Count of
Holland restrained them and forced them to pay taxes and do forced service.
6
The revolt of West Flanders from 1323-28, the tenant farmers revolted against the nobles
who rented out their estates to them for reason unclear. The tenants were defeated and
had to pay large amounts of money for pardons. The third revolution discussed in the
text is the Jacquerie of 1358, which was a brutal and violent revolt. Due to England
invading France, brigades were plundering the country and many French nobles joined
forces and were raping, burning, and plundering the countryside.
In retaliation the
peasants did the same to the nobles. They would go into their castles and houses
murdering whole families, raping the women and children, and even burn some men
alive. Over one hundred castles and houses were destroyed before the peasants were
defeated.
Last there was the Social Revolt of 1381. England began losing the war to France and
the English peasants problems came to the forefront.
Peasant leaders were Wat Tyler,
John Ball and John Wraw. At the height of the revolt, the peasants marched into London
burning and plundering similar to the previous revolt. Once again the peasants were
defeated. This time it was because their leader, Wat Tyler, who was beheaded by the
militia.
Setting the Stage for the Agricultural Revolution
Overview
It came about that economic and social factors were the basis for the Agricultural
Revolution. These economic and social factors were made up of three critical points.
First of all, the development of infrastructure and the growth of the markets that involved
agriculture were key central factors. These markets became known as the Metropolitan
economy.
Second, there was a rising concern about the need to feed a growing
7
population. Finally, there was the issue that the continuation of individual growth and the
demise of feudalism.
Metropolitan Economy in England
The development of a marketing system, manufacturing sector, transportation and a
method of financial exchange were key to the development of England's economy.
Market participants were required to shape the economy in their own way through the act
of becoming retailers, brokers, advertisers and stock companies. However, this type of
economy could only develop when agriculture reaches a point were farmers were able to
clothe and feed the mass of the population. This type of economy began to take shape in
the 15th century and was working in full force by the 18th century.
Manufacturing began to develop by replacing the cottage industry through improvements
in power machinery. The best example of these improvements is probably best displayed
in the textile industry. Industrialization made supply to a vast number of consumers
possible and more convenient, which stirred on the economy.
Improvements to transportation were very important. The need for better roads, canals
steamship lines and railroads became more important as goods were now needed to be
transported over greater distances. The farmer really benefited from improvements to the
methods of transportation, which was reflected onto the rest of society.
Finally, it was evident that financial progress had to take place. Because of this, more
efficient methods of banking were developed. Loaning and exchanging money became
more fluent and possible. It was at this time that paper money came into effect in a sense
through the use of drafts and the act of making economic transactions evolved into a
much easier process. At this time we start to see the formation of a business
8
cycle. This cycle was demonstrated through increased activity and speculation. The
cycle developed into one of prosperity, inflation, and crisis.
The metropolitan economy was a network of private and public business that contained
no written constitution and the presence of the farmer was contained around the outskirts
of the metropolitan. This gave the farmer easy access to a market were he could sell his
goods.
National Economy and Agriculture
The state that these metropolitans existed in were formed based on the principals of
nationality and conquest and were older that the metropolis or towns. The development
of the nation depended significantly on the growth of the metropolis. It was through the
development of a national economy that we begin to notice the use of mercantilism.
Mercantilism emphasized the development of foreign trade to bring in gold and silver.
Also, this emphasized the importance of self-sufficiency. Despite these principals, it
would be wrong to relate this type of trade to our world today. For the most part, nations
remained quite protectionist of their goods.
Other policies were proposed at this time. The most significant to our area of study
would be that of the physiocrats. The physiocrats stressed the development of agriculture
as opposed to mercantilism and trade. These physiocrats believed that there should be
free commerce; however the development of a strong agricultural sector was the main
focus of their debate. The state never really paid much attention to these people but in
most cases, the economy of a nation has incorporated a form of agricultural policy to a
certain extent.
9
The Enclosure Movement & the Agrarian Revolution
Enclosure was the process by which unoccupied land or land that was subject to common
control passed into individual use. It was seen as the transition process of passing from
collective and self sufficient manorialism to individual commercial agriculture. This was
dubbed the 'agrarian revolution'.
There were three phases of the revolution:
1) It began as a rational development and was started by lords and tenants to provide for
better cultivation.
2) Was called the Tudor Enclosure Movement (Late 1400's to 1600). It was instituted by
the lords to get rid of the tenants who were unprofitable and paying low rents. The lords
became greedy and turned much of the land over to sheep production. The old tenants
became peasants and drifters who sometimes vandalized their old farmland by tearing
down fences and filling in ditches.
3) Was called the final enclosure movement (1700's to 1845). At this time over half the
land was enclosed and was carried through by the rich and greedy and the practiced the
NEW agriculture with scientific rotations. The Government backed them because they
had great political influence. This led to greater production of grain and livestock but
terrible hardships for the peasants and small farmers who used to work the land.
The enclosure movement permitted freedom and opportunity to practice better farming,
which led to better drainage, rotation, cross cultivation, better manuring and restricted
breeding.
The Agricultural Revolution
This revolution was dealt with the technical aspect of cultivation and the growth in
technology.
10
The Revolution led to:

A decline in legume rotations

A disappearance of a naked-fallow system

More careful management decisions like:
o Choice of seed
o Use of Capital
o Machinery use
o Livestock breeding
People Responsible for Innovations and ideas
-Jethro Tull (1674-1741) invented the drill which eliminated the hand broadcasting of
seeds and eventual pulverization of the soil. It conserved moisture and created greater
germination as well as a more uniform crop. But he was not praised until years after he
passed on.
-Charles Townsend (1647-1738) improved turnip production
-Arthur Young (1741-1820) was interested in tillage.
-William Marshall (1745-1818) published treatises on agriculture and suggested having a
board of agriculture.
-Robert Bakewell (1725-1790) was a pioneer of selective livestock breeding
-Duke of Bedford, Lord Somerville, & Sir John Sinclair played major parts as well but
were gentlemen first and farmers second.(hobby farmers)
The Revolution in the long run resulted in:

Greater labour and overall economic efficiency

Larger farms
11

Elimination of agricultural middle class
The new system involved three people:
1) Landlord who provided the land and machinery
2) Farmer who provided the management
3) Laborer who provided all he had which was really just a strong back
The growth in literary culture and the invention of the printing press was important for
the spreading and adoption of new and improved farming practices and technology. Now
more people could read about what farmers in distant land were practicing.
12
Appendix
Defined terms from pages 125 - 140
Manor: an estate that a lord held. Their vassal (a peasant working for protection) lived,
and farmed this land for their own and the lords benefits. The term manor includes all
land, taxes and other specifics.
Lay lord: who a peasant owed their primary duty to.
Ecclesiastical manor: a manor having to do with the church.
Demesne: the part of the manor that was cultivated for the lord of that manor.
Metayage: share cropping, the owner of the land split all of the costs and profits.
Serfs: Classes below peasants almost like slaves. They owned nothing, worked for
someone else, and could be bought and sold.
Feudal system: a system that involved contracts, usually between peasants and lords
granting something valuable in return for services. This was almost always land and
labor. Main example was that many peasants farmed a lords estate, and it return the lord
provided them with protection.
Mercantilism: the idea of close government control of the economy that wanted to
maximize exports and accumulate as much precious metal as possible to enable the state
to defend its economic and political interests.
Physiocrats: 18th century French thinkers that attacked mercantilism, advocated a
limited economic role for the government, and thought that all economic production
depended on sound agriculture.
Enclosure: fencing of common unoccupied land by British landlords to increase
production and create commercialized profits. This term also includes reclamation of
waste land and the conversion from strip farming to farming blocks of land.
Agrarian reforms: developments of property rights, tenure and freedom.
13