CULTURAL ADAPTATION OF
INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS IN THE U.S.
A Thesis
Presented to the faculty of the Department of Psychology
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
in
Psychology
(Counseling)
by
Amandeep Gill
FALL
2012
CULTURAL ADAPTATION OF
INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS IN THE U.S.
A Thesis
by
Amandeep Gill
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Phillip D. Akutsu, Ph.D.
__________________________________, Second Reader
Marya Endriga, Ph.D.
__________________________________, Third Reader
Kelly Cotter, Ph.D.
____________________________
Date
ii
Student: Amandeep Gill
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University
format manual, and that this thesis is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to
be awarded for the thesis.
__________________________, Graduate Coordinator
Lisa Harrison, Ph.D.
Department of Psychology
iii
___________________
Date
Abstract
of
CULTURAL ADAPTATION OF
INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS IN THE U.S.
by
Amandeep Gill
The current study examined the ethnic differences in acculturative stress between nonEuropean and European international students. In addition, the relationships between
perceived discrimination (race/ethnicity-based and foreigner-based), social support from
five sources (family in home country, co-nationals, other international students,
American friends, and online ethnic support groups), and acculturative stress were
examined. Data were collected from international students at California State University,
Sacramento. Results revealed that race/ethnicity-based discrimination, foreigner-based
discrimination, social support from family in home country, and social support from
American friends were significant predictors of acculturative stress in international
students.
_______________________, Committee Chair
Phillip D. Akutsu, Ph.D.
_______________________
Date
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Foremost, I would like to express my deepest appreciation towards my thesis
committee chair and advisor, Dr. Phillip Akutsu, for his continued support and advice
during this project. His valuable support and guidance have greatly assisted the
completion of this thesis.
I would also like to extend my sincere appreciation towards Dr. Marya Endriga
and Dr. Kelly Cotter for joining my thesis committee and providing helpful feedback
during this project. Also, I would like to thank Eric Merchant, Associate Director, Office
of Global Education, CSU Sacramento, for his valuable assistance not only during this
project, but throughout my academic career at CSU Sacramento.
In addition, I would like to thank my husband, parents, and parents-in-law for
their tremendous love, support, and encouragement throughout this educational process.
Finally, I would like to thank all the international students who took part in this study.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. v
List of Tables ................................................................................................................... viii
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1
Adjustment Difficulties of International Students in the U.S. ................................. 2
Literature Review ..................................................................................................... 6
Negative Outcomes of Acculturative Stress ........................................................... 32
Purpose of the Study............................................................................................... 37
2. METHOD ................................................................................................................... 42
Participants ............................................................................................................. 42
Measures ................................................................................................................. 43
Procedure ................................................................................................................ 50
3. RESULTS ................................................................................................................... 53
Preliminary Findings .............................................................................................. 53
4. DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................... 110
Summary and Interpretations of Findings ............................................................ 110
Limitations of the Present Study .......................................................................... 119
vi
Implications for Researchers ................................................................................ 121
Future Directions in Research .............................................................................. 125
References ...................................................................................................................... 127
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Tables
1.
Page
Summary of Means and Standard Deviations for Demographic
Variables…………………………………………………………. 55
2.
Means and Standard Deviations of Perceived Discrimination,
Social Support, and Acculturative Stress………………………...
3.
56
Estimated Marginal Means of Non-European and European
International Students for Perceived Discrimination, Social
Support, and Acculturative Stress………………………………
4.
58
Multiple Hierarchical Regression Results with Ethnicity and
Length of U.S. Residency Predicting Race/Ethnicity-Based and
Foreigner-Based Discrimination…………………………………
5.
60
Multiple Hierarchical Regression Results with Race/EthnicityBased and Foreigner-Based Discrimination Predicting
Acculturative Stress……………………………………………… 67
6.
Multiple Hierarchical Regression Results with Social Support
from Family in Home Country and American Friends Predicting
Acculturative Stress……………………………………………… 69
viii
7.
Multiple Hierarchical Regression Results with Interaction
between Social Support from Family in Home Country and
Perceived Discrimination (Race/Ethnicity-Based and ForeignerBased) Predicting Acculturative Stress…………………………
8.
90
Multiple Hierarchical Regression Results with Interaction
between Social Support from Co-nationals and Perceived
Discrimination (Race/Ethnicity-Based and Foreigner-Based)
Predicting Acculturative Stress…………………………………..
9.
94
Multiple Hierarchical Regression Results with Interaction
between Social Support from Other International Students and
Perceived Discrimination (Race/Ethnicity-Based and ForeignerBased) Predicting Acculturative Stress…………………………..
10.
98
Multiple Hierarchical Regression Results with Interaction
between Social Support from American Friends and Perceived
Discrimination (Race/Ethnicity-Based and Foreigner-Based)
Predicting Acculturative Stress…………………………………
11.
102
Multiple Hierarchical Regression Results with Interaction
between Social Support from Online Ethnic Support Groups and
Perceived Discrimination (Race/Ethnicity-Based and ForeignerBased) Predicting Acculturative Stress…………………………..
ix
106
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
The United States has been the number one destination of choice for higher
education for large numbers of students from foreign countries across the world.
According to the Institute of International Education (IIE, 2011), the number of
international students enrolled in U.S. higher education institutions was estimated to be
540,000 in the 2000-2001 academic year. This number has increased significantly by
32% over the past decade and there were about 723,277 international students enrolled at
U.S. higher education institutions in the 2010-2011 academic year (IIE, 2011). Notably,
international students from Asia made up nearly 60% of the total number of foreign
student enrollment in the U.S. with Mainland China supplying the largest number of
international students (157,558), followed by India (103,895), South Korea (73,351),
Taiwan (24,818), and Japan (21,290). The highest numbers of international students
from non-Asian countries in the U.S. were from Canada, Mexico, Turkey, Germany, and
the United Kingdom (IIE, 2011). The majority of international students at U.S. colleges
and universities are majoring in a few select fields of study: Business and Management
(21.5%), Engineering (18.7%), Physical and Life Sciences (8.8%), and Mathematics and
Computer Sciences (8.9%) (IIE, 2011). Considering these statistics from the IIE (2011),
international students not only bring diversity and internationalization to U.S. college
campuses and surrounding communities, but they also make contributions to the
advancement of research in the U.S. universities and colleges.
2
Adjustment Difficulties of International Students in the U.S.
Beyond the many rewards of pursuing a higher education in the U.S., there are
some major challenges that international students must face to achieve their academic
goals of completing a U.S. college education. Even though international and American
students are confronted with similar challenges in having to adapt to a new college
campus and lifestyle, international students must deal with a unique set of challenges in
adjusting to a new culture. For example, Rajapaksa and Dundes (2002) found that
international students were less content, lonelier, and more homesick than their American
classmates, suggesting there may be qualitative differences in the demands of being an
international student compared to a national student. Unlike their American counterparts,
international students must adjust to cultural issues and additional cultural stressors such
as learning to communicate in a foreign language, becoming accustomed to a new
education system, being away from their families and social support networks in their
native homelands, and facing experiences of racism and discrimination in the U.S.
(Poyrazli, Kavanaugh, Baker, & Al-Tamimi, 2004; Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007; Yeh &
Inose, 2003). Due to these cultural adjustment issues, Leong and Chou (1996) noted that
an estimated 15% to 20% of international college students may be at risk for developing
psychological problems.
While previous studies report mastering the English language as the most
significant stressor for international students in the U.S. (Mori, 2000; Yeh & Inose,
2003), other factors have also been studied to understand this often difficult acculturation
process of international students. These cultural adjustment factors include the loss of
3
social support from friends and family in their native homelands and the difficulty of
developing new social support networks in the U.S. (Duru & Poyrazli, 2007; Hayes &
Lin, 1994; Lee, Koeske, & Sales, 2004; Misra, Crist, & Burant, 2003; Poyrazli et al.,
2004; Rajajapaksa & Dundes, 2002; Sandhu, 1994; Sumer, Poyrazli, & Grahame, 2007;
Yeh & Inose, 2003). In addition, international students are often confronted with
experiences of prejudice and discrimination based on their race, ethnicity, and foreignstatus in the U.S. (Constantine, Anderson, Berkel, Caldwell, & Utsey, 2005; Lee & Rice,
2007; Poyrazli & Grahame, 2007; Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007; Yeh & Inose, 2003; Ying,
Lee, & Tsai, 2003). Other factors that have been linked to acculturation difficulties of
international students in the U.S. were length of residency in the U.S. and the ethnicity of
the international students (Constantine, Okazaki, & Utsey, 2004; Poyrazli et al., 2004;
Yeh & Inose, 2003).
The difficulties and challenges that arise out of the immediate experience of
encountering a range of cultural differences between native homelands and the United
States can lead to acculturative stress for international students. Acculturative stress
refers to a particular type of stress that is associated with difficulties experienced from
cross-cultural encounters, which can manifest in physical, psychological, and social
aspects (Berry, Kim, Minde, & Mok, 1987). The key point of this definition is that
moving to and living in a new cultural environment can produce physical, social, and
psychological discomfort in the acculturating individuals. Berry et al. (1987) stated that a
particular set of stress behaviors and consequences such as a decrease in mental health
status (specifically confusion, depression, and anxiety), increased feelings of marginality
4
and alienation, and heightened levels of psychosomatic symptoms may occur for
individuals in response to this acculturation process.
Although these symptoms of distress are similar to other stress responses,
acculturative stress has been identified as specifically resulting from cross-cultural
transitions (Berry et al., 1987). For example, in Rajapaksa and Dundes’s (2002) study of
international and American students who were living away from home at U.S. college
campuses, the authors found that international students consistently reported greater
adjustment problems than American students. Specifically, more international students
reported feeling lonely (29%) and homesick (30%) than American students (14%, 9%
respectively). In another study, Cemalicilar and Falbo (2008) examined the
psychological well-being of international students before and after their move to the U.S.
to pursue a college education. These authors reported a significant decline in the
psychological well-being of the international students within the first three months of
their move to the U.S.
Summary
Research shows that international students encounter unique stressors related to
their transition from their home countries to the U.S. These unique stressors, termed as
acculturative stress, can have a detrimental effect on the psychological well-being of
these international students. With the projected increases in the international student
population in the U.S. for the future (IIE, 2011), it is important to develop a better
understanding of contemporary stressors and buffers that may be significantly associated
with the acculturation experiences of international students.
5
In the following sections, I will summarize and review the psychology literature
on the major concepts related to acculturative stress in international students in the U.S.
The literature review is organized as follows:
a) An overview of acculturation and acculturative stress as it is related to the
experiences of international students in the U.S. Specifically, I will focus on
studies on acculturative stress and provide a critical analysis of acculturative
stress measures that were used in past research.
b) I will critically analyze the role of perceived discrimination in acculturative stress
for international students in the U.S. Specifically, I will examine different forms
of discrimination (e.g. race/ethnic-based, foreigner-based) as perceived by
international students in the U.S. In addition, I will explore the contribution of
demographic factors such as ethnicity and length of residency in the U.S. to
reported levels of perceived discrimination for international students.
c) I will critically examine the role of social support in the acculturation process of
international students. Specifically, I will focus on different sources of social
support networks and their relationship to acculturative stress in international
students in the U.S. Moreover, I will focus on the direct and moderating effects
of social support on acculturative stress. Besides, I will examine the role of
demographic factors such as ethnicity and length of residency in the U.S. in
relation to perceived social support.
d) Finally, I will explore the negative impact of acculturative stress on the
psychological well-being of international students in the U.S. Specifically, I will
6
focus on whether acculturative stress has serious consequences on mental well
being of international students.
Literature Review
International students come to the United States in hopes of receiving a better
education and expanding their knowledge, which will allow them more opportunities in
their future careers (Wadsworth, Hecht, & Jung, 2008). However, with these
opportunities come the challenges of adapting to a new culture and educational system.
Empirical studies on international graduate students in the United States have indicated
that adjusting to another culture can have a negative impact on the psychological and
emotional well-being of these students (Fritz, Chin, & DeMarinis, 2008; Hyun, Quinn,
Madon, & Lustig, 2007; Lee et al., 2004; Mori, 2000; Sumer et al., 2008; Ying, 2005).
The following discussion will provide a comprehensive summary of various empirical
studies related to acculturative stress reported by international students in the U.S.
Although the majority of this literature review will focus on the experiences of
international students in the U.S., some of the studies of international student groups in
colleges abroad will be examined to provide additional information that is relevant to this
discussion.
Acculturation and Acculturative Stress
The process of acculturation takes place when a person from one society or
culture travels to another country for a prolonged period of time for work, adventure,
study, immigration, or refuge (Ward, Bochner, & Furnham, 2001). Redfield, Linton, and
Herskovits (1936) proposed the term “acculturation” to explain the process of how
7
individuals from different cultures experience their lives in their new cultural
environment. These authors described that “acculturation comprehends those phenomena
which result when groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous
first-hand contact, with subsequent changes in the original cultural patterns of either or
both groups” (p. 149). Such changes may be observed in a number of different domains
such as attitudes, behaviors, values, and a sense of cultural identity (Ryder, Alden, &
Paulhus, 2000). This definition of acculturation emphasizes the changes that occur in
both groups that come into first-hand contact with each other. However, cross-cultural
literature on international students shows that it is the international students, not the
members of the host country, that undergo major changes related to cross-cultural
transitions to the U.S. For instance, in a review of over 30 years of research, Church
(1982) reported that international students confronted “language difficulties, financial
problems, adjusting to a new educational system, homesickness, adjusting to social
customs and norms, and for some students, racial discrimination” (p. 544).
To better understand the acculturation issues of international students, individual
aspects of this dynamic process should be emphasized. Graves in1967 was the first to
consider the individual in the acculturation process which he referred to as
“psychological acculturation” (as cited in Miller, 2007, p. 118). Psychological
acculturation was described as the process by which an individual undergoes cultural
change as a result of continuous exposure to a second culture (Miller, 2007). A strongly
associated aspect of the process of adjusting to a new culture is a consideration of the
stressors that accompany these changes. These stressors, termed as “acculturative
8
stressors,” may be viewed as stressful life events that arise due to significant physical,
cultural, social, and political differences between the sending and receiving nations
(Ying, 2005). Ying (2005) defined acculturative stressors as “stimuli or sources of
acculturative stress the migrant encounters during the acculturation process” (p. 60).
The research on international students’ acculturation process implies that they
encounter a number of acculturative stressors which induce acculturative stress in these
students. Berry (1997) stated the level of acculturative stress that may be experienced in
a new culture and environment is assumed to be influenced by a number of factors that
function on both personal and societal levels. For example, Sandhu and Asrabadi (1994)
identified six stressors that could significantly contribute to acculturative stress among
international students. These stressors were: 1) perceived discrimination, 2)
homesickness, 3) perceived hate, 4) fear, 5) culture shock, and 6) guilt.
Mori (2000) also identified language barriers, financial difficulties, cultural gap,
and racial/ethnic prejudice and discrimination as significant stressors related to
acculturative stress for international students. Similarly, Chen (1999) identified common
stressors such as language anxiety, cultural shock, social alienation, and racial
discrimination as being linked to the acculturation process of international students. In
sum, there are quite a number of stressors that are suggested to be related to acculturation
difficulties in international students.
Before a discussion on different acculturative stressors can be initiated, it is
important to understand whether the association between acculturative stressors and
acculturative stress has been validated in the past studies. Empirically, many studies
9
have tried to identify possible acculturative stressors that might be related to adjustment
difficulties of international students in the U.S. (Cemalcilar & Falbo, 2008; Chavajay &
Skowronek, 2008; Chen, 1999; Constantine et al., 2004; Duru & Poyrazli, 2007;
Hartshorne & Baucom, 2007; Lee et al., 2004; Lin & Yi, 1997; Misra et al., 2003; Mori,
2000; Poyrazli et al., 2004; 2010; Rajapaksa & Dundes, 2002; Sandhu & Asrabadi, 1994;
Wei et al., 2007; Wilton & Constantine, 2003; Ye, 2005; Ye, 2006a; Yeh & Inose, 2003;
Ying, 2005; Zhang & Goodson, 2011). However, only few of these studies have
specifically examined the relationship between acculturative stressors and acculturative
stress in international students in the U.S. (Chavajay & Skowronek, 2008; Constantine et
al., 2004; Duru & Poyrazli, 2007; Lee et al., 2004; Poyrazli et al., 2004; Poyrazli et al.,
2010; Sandhu & Asrabadi, 1994; Wilton & Constantine, 2003; Ye, 2006a; Yeh & Inose,
2003). In addition, only few studies have clearly validated the relationship between
certain acculturative stressors (e.g., academic pressures, language difficulties, and length
of residence in the U.S.) and acculturative stress.
Another limitation of previous research on acculturative stress is the
inconsistencies in the conceptualization and operationalization of acculturative stress.
For instance, Berry and his associates (1987) have used generic measures of stress to
measure acculturative stress and it is possible such measures may not accurately evaluate
acculturative stress. Other researchers, primarily those who have used international
students as their unit of analysis, have conceptualized acculturative stress based on
constructs that reflect the acculturation process such as the Index of Life Stress (ILS)
(Yang & Chum, 1995), the Cultural Adjustment Difficulties Checklist (CADC:
10
Acculturative Distress Subscale) (Sodowsky & Lai, 1997), and the Acculturative Stress
Scale for International Students (ASSIS) (Sandhu & Asrabadi, 1994). Among these
measures, the most widely used is the ASSIS (Chavajay & Skowronek, 2008;
Constantine et al., 2004; Duru & Poyrazli, 2007; Poyrazli et al., 2004, 2010; Ye, 2005;
Ye , 2006a; Yeh & Inose, 2003; Wei et al., 2007). The ASSIS was first developed by
Sandhu and Asrabadi (1994) to measure the overall adjustment problems of international
students to the U.S. The ASSIS is a 36-item survey, which utilizes a 5-point Likert-type
scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) that assesses adjustment problems of
international students. The ASSIS is used to assess five areas of stress, including
perceived discrimination, homesickness, perceived hate, fear, and stress due to
change/culture shock, guilt, and non-specific concerns.
Besides ASSIS, Index of Life Scale ILS is also used in few studies with
international students to measure acculturative stress. The ILS is a 30-item measure that
is used to assess five areas of stress, including concern about finances and desire to stay
in the United States, language difficulties, interpersonal stress, stress from new culture
and desire to return to one’s own country, and academic pressures (Yang & Clum, 1994).
A major limitation of these scales is that even though they were designed to
measure overall adjustment problems of the international students in the U.S., they did
not incorporate concerns that reflect overall adjustment difficulties of the international
students. For example, the ASSIS primarily focuses on the interpersonal stressors like
perceived discrimination, fear, and perceived hate. The functional and cultural stressors
such as academic pressures, language difficulties, financial concerns, and stress from
11
living in a new culture are not broadly accentuated in this 33-item scale. Even though,
the ILS emphasized on these stressors, it overlooked the emotionally taxing stressor for
international students in the U.S., which is homesickness for the country and family left
behind. Considering these measures, it is apparent that international students experience
acculturative stress from a number of stressors in the U.S. and that no single measure
fully captures these stressors.
In the development of the ASSIS, Sandhu and Asrabadi (1994) reported that
perceived discrimination was the strongest predictor of acculturative stress in
international students in the U.S. Perceived discrimination as a possible predictor of
acculturative stress in international students in the U.S. has been suggested by other
researchers as well (Chen, 1999; Hayes & Lin, 1994; Mori, 2000). Unfortunately, the
relationship between perceived discrimination and acculturative stress in international
students in the U.S. has not been clearly examined by researchers. The following
paragraphs will focus on perceived discrimination as it is related to reported acculturative
stress in international students.
Perceived Discrimination
Jackson, Brown, and Kirby (1998) defined discrimination as “intentional acts that
draw unfair or injurious distinctions, that are based on ethnic or racial biases, and that
have effects favorable to in-groups and negative to out-groups” (p.110). Jackson et al.
(1998) pointed out that discrimination practices originate from ethnocentrism and racial
prejudice. The authors explained that ethnocentrism refers to both generally held positive
attitudes about one’s own group and a negative view of other groups that differ ethnically
12
and racially from one’s own group. In addition, racial prejudice refers to negative
attitudes towards racially categorized members of a group. Perceived discrimination is
therefore a subjective perception of being a target of prejudice and discrimination (Dion,
2002). Sandhu and Asrabadi (1994) defined perceived discrimination as “experiences of
discrimination based on race or color, receiving mistreatment, and feeling socially
isolated” (p. 440).
Existing literature has supported the possibility that perceived discrimination
might be related to acculturative stress in international students in the U.S. (Chen, 1999;
Hayes & Lin, 1994; Mori, 2000; Sandhu & Asrabadi, 1994). However, only limited
studies have investigated the role of perceived discrimination in international students’
acculturation process and related stress. Also, previous research has not clearly identified
possible sources of perceived discrimination (e.g., race/ethnicity and foreign-status).
International students are a diverse group in terms of belonging to different ethnicities
and different countries. Thus, it is important to understand whether these students face
prejudice and discrimination in the U.S. because of their race or ethnicity or because of
their foreign-status. Even though perceived discrimination based on foreign-status has
been debated in some of the studies with international student samples in the U.S., this
construct has not been clearly identified and explored in research with international
student populations. Thus, it may be useful to further explore the types of perceived
discrimination (e.g., racial/ethnic-based, foreigner-based) and their relationship to
acculturative stress in international students in the U.S. to bridge this gap in literature.
13
Foreign-status and perceived discrimination. In some cases, international
students in the U.S. have reported experiencing discrimination from both U.S.-born
ethnic majority and minority students (Constantine et al., 2005; Sodowsky & Plake,
1992). For example, Constantine et al. (2005) stated some international African students
in the U.S. reported they experienced discriminatory treatment from African Americans.
Lee and Rice (2007) described that such experiences of discrimination in international
students can be attributed to their foreign-status, limited English proficiency, different
English accents, and lack of familiarity with the host culture’s rules and norms.
In comparison to previous definitions of racism which were directly linked to race
or ethnicity, neo-racism is viewed as discrimination that is based on reported differences
in culture and national order (Lee & Rice, 2007). Spears described that “neo-racism
rationalizes the subordination of people of color on the basis of culture, which is of
course acquired through acculturation within an ethnic group, while traditional racism
rationalizes it fundamentally in terms of biology” (as cited in Lee & Rice, 2007, p. 389).
Lee and Rice (2007) explained that in neo-racism, discrimination is justified by cultural
differences due to nationality and cultural beliefs, norms, values, and practices rather than
physical characteristics or biological differences alone. These authors have suggested
that international students’ experiences of neo-racism may include negative campus
social interactions, interactions with faculty and administration, and off-campus
interactions. For example, several international students in Lee and Rice’s (2007) study
reported direct insults about their home country and culture by other students and their
professors. The study elaborated further on the concept of perceived discrimination by
14
international students in the U.S., but the authors found that it was difficult to determine
if such instances of perceived discrimination were due to race/ethnicity or foreign-status,
or both.
So far, one study has investigated perceived discrimination that is based on
foreign-status in international students in the U.S. (Schmitt, Spears, & Branscombe,
2003). Schmitt et al. (2003) measured perceived discrimination based on foreign status
or nationality on responses to the following two items: “I feel like students at the
University of Kansas look down on me because of my nationality” and “Students at the
University of Kansas have discriminated against me because I am not from the United
States”. The authors reported that foreign status is a significant source of perceived
discrimination for international students in the U.S. This study further revealed that
perceived discrimination based on foreign-status also increased international students’
identification with other international students. The authors believed this increased
identification with other international students might be a symbol of empathy because of
shared common experiences of being treated as an “outsider” or “foreigner”.
The importance of foreign-status as a contributor to perceived discrimination for
foreigners has also been studied by other researchers with international students in the
U.K. and Germany (Krahe, Abraham, Felber, & Helbig, 2005). These researchers have
operationalized perceived discrimination that is based on foreign status as “discrimination
of increasing severity, comprising antilocution (verbal derogation), avoidance, behavioral
discrimination, and physical assault” because the perpetrator clearly assumed the target of
the discrimination was a foreigner (Krahe et al., 2005, p. 263). The findings of this study
15
revealed that participants who were identifiable as foreigners by their appearance
reported more discrimination than others who were not as easily identifiable as
foreigners. This study helped to facilitate a broader scope of discrimination for
foreigners in a new culture. However, this scope of perceived discrimination and its
direct relation to acculturative stress has not been explored in international student
samples in the U.S.
One reason for the lack of more research on perceived discrimination based on
foreign-status may be attributed to the lack of available measures that have separately
assessed this construct. For example, some measures that have identified discrimination
based on foreign-status have identified it under a single category and have not
distinguished it from other forms of discrimination, such as discrimination based on
race/ethnicity (e.g., ILS). Krahe et al. (2005) have taken the initiative in developing a
measure to assess foreigner-based discrimination. The measure known as the Experience
of Discrimination Scale (EDS) is a 22-item scale with four sub-scales, including physical
assault (5 items), (active) behavioral discrimination (6 items), (passive) avoidance (7
items), and antilocution or verbal discrimination, (4 items). The scale utilizes 5- point
Likert-type scale ranging from 1= never to 5= very often. The authors reported high
reliability of the EDS with alphas of .91 in a German students’ sample, .86 in a U.K.
students’ sample. The reported reliability coefficients for the four sub-scales were
moderate to high ranging from .68 to .87.
Ethnicity and perceived discrimination. The studies on perceived racial and
ethnic discrimination for international students reported that students from different
16
ethnicities and geographic regions experience discrimination to varying degrees (Lee &
Rice, 2007; Poyrazli & Grahame, 2007; Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007; Yeh & Inose, 2003).
Poyrazli and Lopez (2007) noted that a student’s race or ethnicity helped to predict the
level of perceived discrimination that was experienced by international students. In a
comparative study, these authors examined possible group differences in perceived racial
and ethnic discrimination in a sample of international college students and American
college students in the U.S. The international college student sample was composed of
students from European, Asian and Pacific Island, Middle Eastern, Latin American, and
African countries and the American college student sample was composed of African,
Asian, Latino, and White American students. The results first indicated that international
students experienced higher levels of racial and ethnic discrimination than U.S. students.
In addition, international students from Europe reported less racial discrimination than
international student from Asia, Africa, and Latin America. The authors posited that nonEuropean international students tend to be a part of a visible racial or ethnic group and
thus may be subjected to more discrimination that is due to race or ethnicity.
Yeh and Inose (2003) reported that greater levels of racial discrimination and
prejudice are likely to occur among international students who are from countries that are
racially the most different from host countries such as Africa, Asia, etc. These authors
explained that European international students face less discrimination because they are
racially White, which helped them ‘fit in’ more easily to American society than
international students from Asia, Africa, and Latin/Central America. Studies on ethnic
group differences in perceived discrimination among international student population in
17
the U.S. are limited. Nonetheless, the few studies that are available signify that ethnic
group differences do exist in the experiences of racial/ethnic perceived discrimination in
international students in the U.S. Thus it may be useful to explore ethnic group
differences in perceived discrimination for international students not only for reported
discrimination based on race/ethnicity, but also based on foreign-status.
Length of residence in the U.S. and perceived discrimination. In addition to
the impact of race/ethnicity and foreign-status on perceived discrimination reported by
international students, length of residence in the U.S. may work with immigrant or
foreign-status to contribute to the experiences of perceived discrimination. In the
majority of studies on the length of residence for international students, this construct was
used to measure the amount of time (often in months or years) after the arrival of
international students to the U.S. for their college studies (Klomegah, 2006; Poyrazli &
Lopez, 2007; Sumer et al., 2008; Wei et al., 2007; Wilton & Constantine, 2003; Ying,
2005).
One documented study on international students reported on the relationship
between perceived racial/ethnic discrimination and the length of residency in the U.S.
(Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007). The authors reported that length of residence in the U.S. (in
years) predicted 19% of the variance of perceived discrimination reported by
international students. That is, international students who had lived in the United States
for a longer duration reported experiencing more discrimination than the students who
lived for a shorter duration. This is not a surprising finding because the longer time
period in the U.S. would merely expose international students to more situations where
18
discrimination could take place. Based on this possibility, it may be important to control
for years of U.S. residency when studying reported experiences of discrimination by
international students because higher reported discrimination may actually be better
explained as an artifact of this extended time factor.
Perceived discrimination and acculturative stress. Empirically, preliminary
studies have examined the association between perceived discrimination and
acculturative stress. However, the relationship between these two variables has not been
clearly established. Zhang and Goodson (2011), in a systematic review of the predictors
of psychosocial adjustment for international students in the U.S., reported only a limited
number of studies have examined perceived discrimination or prejudice as a distinct
predictor or part of acculturative stress. These authors stated that much research is
needed to address macro-level factors that may be associated with acculturative stress for
international students such as perceived discrimination.
So far, few studies have examined the direct relationship between perceived
discrimination and acculturative stress in international students in the U.S. (Chavajay &
Skowronek, 2008; Sandhu & Asrabadi, 1994; Sullivan, 2011). These studies revealed
somewhat conflicting results on the role of perceived discrimination in acculturative
stress for international students. For example, Sandhu and Asrabadi (1994) reported that
perceived discrimination accounted for the highest variance (38.3%) in acculturative
stress in international students in comparison to homesickness (9%) perceived
hate/rejection (7.2%), fear (6.10%), cultural shock (3.2%), and guilt (3.1%).
19
Similarly, Sullivan (2011) found that perceived discrimination was significantly
related to acculturative stress in international students. In contrast, Chavajay and
Skowronek (2008) reported that perceived discrimination was not correlated with
acculturative stress in 130 international students when discrimination and acculturative
stress were both being measured quantitatively. However, responses to four open-ended
questions in this study revealed that students were experiencing acculturative stress in
response to perceived discrimination. These contrasting findings might be attributed to
the differences in the approaches used to assess perceived discrimination. Nevertheless,
these studies suggest that perceived discrimination may be related to acculturative stress
and should be examined in future studies.
Previous literature offers limited documentation about the specific source (e.g.,
foreign-status, race/ethnicity) of perceived discrimination in international students in the
U.S. Given that international students are racially and ethnically diverse and from
different geographic world regions, they may face discrimination based on their foreignstatus alone, race/ethnicity alone, or both. Some researchers have questioned whether
this perceived discrimination is based on race/ethnicity or foreign-status. However, this
difference between perceived discrimination based on foreign-status or race/ethnicity has
not been clearly investigated. Hence, it may be important to measure perceived
discrimination based on multiple levels including discrimination that may be linked to
race/ethnicity and foreign-status to bridge this gap in the literature.
Furthermore, even with the theoretical importance of perceived discrimination as
an acculturative stressor, only limited studies have actually investigated the relationship
20
between perceived discrimination and acculturative stress in international students in the
U.S. Consequently, more studies are needed to explore the relationship between
perceived discrimination and acculturative stress in international students in the U.S.
Also, comparative investigation of perceived discrimination may help in clarifying how it
may vary across ethnically different international student groups.
Ethnicity
Research on the effects of ethnicity and the adjustment to a new culture indicated
that the adjustment process becomes more stressful as the differences between the two
cultures increase (Poyrazli et al., 2004; Yeh & Inose, 2003). Existing research has found
strong correlation between ethnicity and acculturative stress in international students
(Constantine et al., 2004; Poyrazli et al., 2004; Poyrazli et al., 2010; Wilton &
Constantine, 2003; Yeh & Inose, 2003). For example, Asian international students were
found to experience higher levels of acculturative stress than European international
students (Poyrazli et al., 2004; Yeh & Inose, 2003). In a comparative study, Yeh and
Inose (2003) examined possible ethnic differences in acculturative stress in a sample of
European, Asian, Latin American, and African international students. The results
indicated that non-European (Asian, Latin American, and African) international students
experienced higher levels acculturative stress than European international students.
In contrast, another study with a sample of Asian and Latin American
internationals students, reported that Latin American international students experienced
higher levels of acculturative stress than Asian international students (Wilton &
Constantine, 2003). Yet, another study involving Asian, African, and Latin American
21
internationals students found that African international students experienced higher levels
of acculturative stress than Asian and Latin American international students.
Furthermore, the study revealed that Latin American students experienced higher levels
of acculturative stress than Asian international students (Constantine et al., 2004).
Overall, past literature seems to support possible ethnic differences in the levels of
acculturative stress in international students, however only limited studies have examined
ethnic differences in the levels of acculturative stress between European and nonEuropean international students. Further research is needed to examine ethnic group
differences in acculturative stress experienced by international students.
Social Support
Another important construct of interest in the acculturation process of
international students is social support. The American Psychological Association (2007)
defined social support as “the provision of assistance or comfort to others, typically in
order to help them cope with a variety of biological, psychological, and social stressors”
(p. 869). Elaborating further on the definition of social support, American Psychological
Association (2007) stated, “social support may arise from any interpersonal relationship
in the individual’s social network, involving family members, friends, neighbors,
religious institutions, colleagues, caregivers, or support groups” (p. 869). This is a broad
definition of social support which highlights two key points: the importance of social
support in dealing with various stressors and the different types of social support that may
come from family, friends, support groups, etc. Mallinckrodt and Leong (1992) stated,
‘‘not only is social support crucial in itself for positive well-being, but social support also
22
provides a powerful coping resource for persons experiencing stressful life changes,
including the stress of adjusting to an unfamiliar culture’’ (p. 71).
Empirical research on the acculturation process of international students suggest
that social support is absolutely critical for these students during the adjustment process
as they not only deal with the loss of close familial support who will remain back in their
home countries, but also must extend the energy and effort to create new social support
networks in the U.S. (Hayes & Lin, 1994; Mallinkrodt & Leong, 1992). For example, a
number of studies have indicated that social support is an influential factor in helping
international students to overcome a stressful situation (Duru & Poyrazli, 2007; Lee et al.,
2004; Misra et al., 2003; Poyrazli et al., 2004; Rajajapaksa & Dundes, 2002; Sumer et al.,
2008; Yeh & Inose, 2003 ). However, a significant limitation of the empirical studies is
they do not provide a consistently used operational definition of the construct, social
support. For example, Misra et al. (2003) operationalized social support as the quantity
and quality of contact with one’s own culture, one’s immediate family (e.g., parents and
siblings) and new friends in the U.S., local community and student organizations, and
religious organizations (e.g., churches and temples). Sumer et al. (2008) on the other
hand, operationalized social support as a degree to which respondent’s social
relationships provide various dimensions of social support, such as attachment, social
integration, reassurance of worth, reliable alliance, guidance, and opportunity for
nurturance.
Inconsistencies in the use of operational definitions of social support in
international students’ acculturation process were seen in other studies that specifically
23
conceptualized acculturative stress (Lee et al., 2004; Poyrazli et al., 2004; Ye, 2006a;
Yeh & Inose, 2003). For example, Ye (2006a) operationalized social support as the
number of people in the respondent’s interpersonal support network in the U.S. and their
level of satisfaction with the support that was offered by these networks. Yeh & Inose
(2003) operationalized social support as the number of people (e.g., family and nonfamily members) on whom a person could satisfactorily rely when he or she needed
support. In contrast, Lee et al. (2004) operationalized social support as practical and
emotional support from different sources such as parents, spouses/partners, friends,
American friends, and academic advisors. Furthermore, Poyrazli et al. (2004)
operationalized social support as levels of respondents’ perceived social support.
Another limitation of the previous studies on the role of social support in
international students’ acculturation process is these studies have not clearly identified
different types of social support. In the acculturation process of international students,
several types of social support can be of different importance. For example, emotional
support can be helpful for international students in dealing with a personal crisis and
informational support can be helpful for international students in providing information
or guidance in understanding how things work in U.S. such as finding a residence,
finding a job, etc. However, only limited studies have examined the different types of
social support in international students’ acculturation related stress (Lee et al., 2004;
Sumer et al., 2008).
Besides these different types of social support, the different sources that could
provide social support must be taken into account when examining the role of social
24
support in international students’ acculturation process in the U.S. The significance of
social support networks to the acculturation process of international students has been
examined by a few researchers (Bochner, McLeod, & Lin, 1977; Lee et al., 2004;
Poyrazli et al., 2004; Sumer et al., 2008; Swagler & Ellis, 2003; Ye, 2006a; Yeh & Inose,
2003). Among the initial efforts to investigate the role of different sources of social
support, the Functional Model of Friendship (Bochner et al., 1977) proposed there were
three different social support networks that international students could access during
their studies in the U.S: (a) a group of co-national students from the same country who
assist with home culture identity maintenance, (b) a network of host nationals for
academic and professional purposes, and (c) a multinational group of students from other
nations who play an important role in recreational activities. Correspondingly, Misra et
al. (2003) concluded that international students perceive social support from three
sources: Family members (parents and siblings), members of one’s own culture, and new
friends in the U.S.
When considering different sources of social support for international students in
the U.S, it should also be noted that international students often leave their familiar social
support network (e.g., families and friends) in their home countries. As such, these
students must meet the challenge of establishing comparable social support networks in
the U.S. (Mallinkrodt & Leong, 1992). These new social support networks in the U.S.
can be made up of co-nationals, other international students, and U.S. nationals.
Research findings, however, have been inconsistent in reporting which of these social
support networks play a more significant role in the acculturation process of international
25
students. For example, Church (1982) suggested that international students may benefit
from close ties with their co-nationals, who may provide social and emotional support
during the adjustment process. In contrast, Swagler and Ellis (2003) reported that social
support networks with both co-nationals and American nationals are important for
international students.
Few studies that have specifically conceptualized acculturative stress also studied
different sources of social support for international students in the U.S. For example, Ye
(2006a) reported interpersonal support networks in the U.S. and Yeh and Inose (2003)
reported family and non-family members (where it was not clearly identified whether
family and non-family members were from the international student’s home country or
the U.S.) as important sources of social support for international students. Furthermore,
Poyrazli et al. (2004) reported that social support from both international and American
students is beneficial to international students in the U.S. In addition, in the buffering
effects of social support in Korean international students in the U.S., Lee et al. (2004)
reported that social support from both Korean (e.g., parents, spouse, friends) and
American sources (e.g., friends, academic advisor) buffered the negative effects of
acculturative stress on mental health symptoms. These research findings demonstrated
that perceived social support from co-nationals, other international students, and
American nationals is important for the adjustment and well being of international
students.
Besides the above mentioned sources of social support for international students,
there is a new source of social support that needs more research attention: Online social
26
groups. With increasing access to the internet, many online social groups have been
established by international students to communicate with one another about their
common concerns of living in a new culture (Ye, 2006a). According to King (1994),
online social groups are ‘‘groups of people that exchange ideas and information through
the posting of message[s] on electronic bulletin boards (BBS), by sending email to a
common list of recipients and by exchanging private emails” (p. 47). Salem, Bogat, and
Reid (1997), in their investigation of online mutual-help groups reported that participants
in these online groups corresponded in certain ways that were comparable to traditional
support groups such as offering high levels of support, acceptance, and positive feelings.
One form of these online social groups is online “ethnic” social groups that were
developed to provide emotional and informational support to ethnic group members (Ye,
2006a). Ye (2006b) defined online ethnic social groups as “online groups developed for
people who have the same national origin and are currently living in a foreign country”.
(p. 866). In her study on Chinese international students, Ye (2006b) described online
ethnic social groups as “online social groups developed specifically for Chinese students
or immigrants in the United States” (p.869). The author reported that perceived social
support from both U.S. social networks and online ethnic social groups were negatively
related to reported social difficulties for Chinese international students in the U.S. This
study emphasized the importance of online social support in the cross-cultural adaptation
of Chinese international students.
Despite the information that online ethnic social groups can play a vital role in the
cross-cultural adaptation, only a few studies have examined the relationship between
27
acculturation related issues and the use of online social support groups for international
students in the U.S. (Ye, 2006a, b). For instance, Ye (2006a) found that Chinese
international students who received higher amounts of informational support from online
ethnic social groups reported lower levels of acculturative stress. The author suggested
that online ethnic social groups may play a protective role against acculturative stress that
is similar to face-to-face social support in terms of stress reduction. However, this study
focused on Chinese international students and this reduced the generalizability of the
findings to international students from other countries. Future studies which include
ethnically diverse international student samples may provide a better understanding of the
importance of social support from online social groups and its relation to acculturative
stress for international students. In addition, future investigations with ethnically diverse
international student samples may help to increase our understanding of the possible
differences in the use of social support resources and preferred sources of social support
for international students.
Ethnicity and social support. International students are comprised of students
from different countries (e.g., European, Asian, African, and Latin American) from all
over the world. In the few studies on international student samples from Asia (Lee et al.,
2004; Swagler & Ellis, 2003; Ye, 2006b), researchers have reported fairly similar results
concerning the relationship between social support and acculturative stress for Chinese,
Korean, and Taiwanese international students. For example, a study with Korean
international students reported the importance of social support from both host and conational students in moderating the effects of acculturative stress (Lee et al., 2004). Ye
28
(2006a) also found that support from interpersonal (friends and relatives in the U.S.) and
online social support groups was related to better adjustment for Chinese international
students. While both of these samples were from Asia, the results were consistent in
participants’ reporting that different sources of social support helped to reduce or buffer
against acculturative stress for both these international students samples. However, these
samples were based only on international students from Asian countries and this limits
their application to other international students. Future studies should consider the
inclusion of a more diverse international student sample to help augment the application
of these preliminary conclusions.
Length of residency in the U.S. and social support. The length of residence in
a host country can influence an international student’s use of social support in the
acculturation process. Only a few studies on acculturative stress in international students
have focused on the length of residence in the U.S. (Klomegah, 2006; Sumer et al., 2008;
Wei et al., 2007; Wilton & Constantine, 2003; Ying, 2005). Within this limited number
of studies, only one examined the relationship between length of residence in the U.S.
and social support for international students (Ye, 2006b). In a study on the impact of
length of U.S. residence (ranging from 1 month to 9 years post-immigration), Ye (2006b)
found that newly arrived Chinese international students (i.e., those with an average U.S.
residency of 2.9 years) reported higher perceived social support from online ethnic social
groups than Chinese international students who had lived in the U.S. for a longer period
of time.
29
The length of residency in the U.S. can influence international students’ use of
different sources of social support including social support from family members, U.S.
nationals (e.g., friends, faculty, and advisors), other international students, and online
social support groups. For instance, in the beginning phases of their transition to a new
country, international students may come to rely more on international student advisors
and co-nationals for informational support. In addition, to deal with acculturative
stressors, these students may rely on U.S. friends for emotional support. Whether these
sources of social support remain consistent or change during international students’
length of residence in the U.S. is important to consider and should be explored in future
studies on the acculturation process of international students.
Social support and acculturative stress. Social support is found to be crucial
for the adjustment and well being of international students as it can serve as a coping
resource. According to Mallinckrodt and Leong (1992), social support serves as a coping
resource that lessens or blocks the potentially pathogenic impact of stressors. Despite the
theoretical significance of social support to the acculturation process, relatively little
research has been done on social support in relation to acculturative stress in international
students in the U.S. A review of the literature on the direct and moderating effects of
social support on acculturative stress for international students will be discussed in the
following paragraphs.
Few of the available studies have focused on the direct (Poyrazli et al., 2004; Yeh
& Inose, 2003) and moderating effects of social support on acculturative stress in
international students in the U.S. (Chen, Mallinckrodt, & Mobley, 2002; Lee et al., 2004;
30
Ye, 2006a). For example, Yeh and Inose (2003) reported that social support significantly
predicted the levels of acculturative stress in European and non- European international
students. These authors found that international students with higher levels of
satisfaction with family and non-family social support networks experienced lower levels
of acculturative stress than students who had lower levels of satisfaction with these social
support networks. A major limitation of this study is that the authors did not clearly
define the term, social support networks; that is, whether these support networks were
specifically focusing on family and friends in their home country, in the U.S., or both. In
addition, sources of non-family members were not clearly identified by these authors;
that is, whether non-family members were friends, academic advisors, teachers, etc.
Similar to Yeh and Inose’s (2003) findings, Lee et al. (2004) found that lower
levels of social support from Korean sources (e.g., parents, spouse/partner) and American
sources (friends, academic advisors) significantly correlated with higher levels of
acculturative stress in Korean international students. In another study, Poyrazli et al.
(2004) found that international students from European and non-European countries (e.g.,
Asia, Middle East, Latin America, and Africa) with lower levels of perceived social
support experienced higher levels of acculturative stress in comparison to students who
reported higher levels of perceived social support. In addition, international students who
only received social support from other international students reported higher levels of
acculturative stress than those who received social support from both international and
American students.
31
In addition to these direct effects, few documented studies have supported the
moderating role of social support on stress and mental health issues in which the impact
of stress on negative outcomes is lessened in the presence of social support (Chen et al.,
2002; Jou & Foukada, 1997; Lee et al., 2004; Mallinckrodt & Leong, 1992). For
example, Chen et al. (2002) in their study on East Asian international students found that
social support from the International Student Office (ISO) helped to moderate the
negative effects of racism on psychological symptoms of distress. In another study, Lee
and colleagues (2004) reported a moderating effect of social support on acculturative
stress symptoms on mental health symptoms in Korean international students in the U.S.
One of the limitations of these studies is that these studies were conducted on
Asian international students which can limit their application to international students
from non-Asian countries. In addition, these studies have included limited sources of
social support, such as social support from family in the home country, new contact
support in the U.S., and support from the ISO. The inclusion of a more diverse
international student sample along with more sources of social support (e.g., co-nationals,
other international students in the U.S., and online ethnic social support groups) and the
clear identification of these different sources of support in future studies may provide a
better understanding of the effects of social support on acculturative stress in
international students population in the U.S.
After reviewing the literature on direct and moderating effects of perceived social
support on acculturative stress, it could be argued that perceived social support from
different sources (i.e., family, co-nationals, other international students, and online ethnic
32
support groups) would have an influence (direct or moderating) on international students’
acculturative stress. In addition, few studies have clearly supported the role of conationals, other international students, and American nationals in influencing the levels of
acculturative stress in international students in the U.S. Considering these results and
based on the possibility that international students access a number of social support
sources during their stay in the U.S., future studies should examine the role of social
support sources available to international students in the U.S. in influencing the levels of
acculturative stress.
Future research should also examine how different types of social support affect
acculturative stress and whether perceived social support from different sources (e.g., conationals, other international students, and American nationals) may differentially impact
acculturative stress in international students in the U.S. For example, it is possible that
the type of social support (e.g., emotional vs. practical/guidance) from co-nationals, host
nationals, other international students, and online ethnic support groups may have distinct
influences on acculturative stress in international students.
Negative Outcomes of Acculturative Stress
Adjustment to a new educational and social environment for most college
students can be a stressful process. However, many international students may
experience more serious stress because of the addition of adjusting to a new culture
(Hechanova- Alampay, Beehr, Christiansen, & Van Horn, 2002; Poyrazli & Grahame,
2007). Research has indicated that moving to a new culture can have potentially
detrimental effects on people’s mental health (Mallinckrodt & Leong, 1992; Sandhu,
33
1994). The stress due to acculturation can cause a variety of symptoms related to
psychological complaints among international students (Berry et al., 1987; Mori, 2000).
These symptoms can include anxiety, homesickness, depression, loneliness, the feeling of
marginality and alienation, decreased self-esteem, and identity confusion (Lin & Yi,
1997).
Mori (2000) reported that acculturative stress can cause international students to
feel a sense of hopelessness and, in turn, an intense sense of hopelessness may manifest
into depression. Findings suggest that acculturative stress increases the risk for mental
health problems such as major depression, anxiety, etc. (Constantine et al., 2004; Lee et
al., 2004; Wei et al., 2007). For example, Constantine et al. (2004) examined the
relationship between acculturative stress and depressive symptoms in newly arrived
African, Asian, and Latin American international college students in the U.S. The results
reported that higher acculturative stress scores predicted greater depressive symptoms
among international students.
In another study by Lee et al. (2004), the authors examined the relationship
between acculturative stress and mental health symptoms among 74 Korean international
students. Acculturative stress was measured by using the Index of Life Stress (ILS) scale
that focused on specific aspects of acculturative stress that were unique to Asian
international students. This study demonstrated that acculturative stress was positively
correlated with mental health symptoms. Similarly, Wei et al. (2007) in their study on
Chinese and Taiwanese international students found that acculturative stress was
positively associated with depression.
34
Considering the negative outcomes of acculturative stress on the psychological
well-being of the international students in the U.S., it is important to better understand
what contributes to acculturative stress for international students. An increased
understanding of the possible sources of acculturative stress for international students in
the U.S. can have important implications for creating and implementing programs that
can provide academic and personal support for this population. For example, the
recognition of specific sources of acculturative stress will enable counselors, international
student advisors, and professionals working with such international students to actively
engage in the development and evaluation of appropriate programs that may help in
promoting positive international adjustment and cross-cultural education.
Summary
This literature review identified specific factors that may be associated with
acculturative stress for international students and certain themes emerged from studies in
the current literature:
1.
Researchers studying international students in the U.S. have identified that
international students have to face many difficulties and challenges during
their acculturation to the U.S. These difficulties and challenges can cause a
particular type of stress described as “acculturative stress” in these
international students which can have a detrimental effect on the
psychological well-being of these students. Researchers have also identified
various sources (i.e., stressors) of acculturative stress in international students
in the U.S. However, only a few sources of acculturative stress were clearly
35
identified in the past studies. Future studies should examine less investigated
sources of acculturative stress such as perceived discrimination and social
support to clearly understand the scope and severity of acculturation-related
stress of international students in the U.S.
2. Researchers have suggested perceived discrimination as a possible source of
acculturative stress for international students. However, only limited studies
have investigated the relationship between perceived discrimination and
acculturative stress in international students in the U.S. In addition, the
literature is inconclusive and offers limited explanation of the different
contributors of perceived discrimination (e.g., race/ethnicity, foreign-status).
Factors such as race/ethnicity and foreign status may contribute to perceived
discrimination in international students in the U.S. However, past studies on
perceived discrimination of international students in the U.S. have not clearly
identified whether these acts of discrimination are due to race/ethnicity,
national origin/foreign status, or both. Few studies have also reported
differences in the perceived discrimination reported by individuals across
different ethnicities. That is, international students from non-European
countries reported experiencing more perceived discrimination then
international students from European countries. Thus, it is important for
future studies to take these differences into consideration when examining
different types of perceived discrimination and its relationship to acculturative
stress in international students in the U.S. Examining such differences may
36
help investigators to better understand whether European and non-European
international students differ in their experiences of perceived discrimination
based on race/ethnicity and foreign-status.
3. Researchers have suggested that social support is an important factor in the
acculturation process of international students and it has both direct and
moderating effects on international students’ adjustment to the U.S. However,
literature offers limited documentation of the direct and moderating role of
social support in acculturative stress for these students. In addition, previous
studies do not provide a consistently used operational definition of social
support. Although the majority of studies have reported different sources of
social support (e.g., family, co-nationals, other international students,
American sources) for international students, only a few studies have included
specific types of social support (i.e., emotional and practical) in their
operational definitions. In addition, certain sources of social support,
specifically online ethnic social groups, need to be further investigated with
other sources of social support in future studies. It would be beneficial if
future studies examine how different types of social support affect
acculturative stress and whether perceived social support from different
sources (e.g., co-nationals, other international students, American nationals,
and online ethnic support groups) may differentially impact acculturative
stress in international students in the U.S. The majority of studies that
examined social support and acculturative stress were based on Asian
37
international student samples. Given that international students are ethnically
diverse, ethnic differences may exist in the preferred sources of social support
for these students. Future studies should examine ethnic differences in the
preferred sources of social support and how these differences relate to
acculturative stress in these students.
Purpose of the Study
In the present study, I examined if there were ethnic group differences in the
reported levels of acculturative stress among non-European and European international
students in the U.S. In the present study, I further examined if there were ethnic group
differences in the levels of perceived discrimination (i.e., based on foreign-status and
race/ethnicity) among non-European and European international students in the U.S. In
addition, I examined if there were ethnic group differences in the social support networks
such as co-nationals, other international students, American friends, and online ethnic
support groups among non-European and European international students in the U.S.
The significant relationship between the levels of perceived discrimination (e.g.,
foreigner-based and race/ethnicity-based) and the levels acculturative stress was also
investigated. In addition, the significant relationship between five sources of social
support (family in home country, co-nationals, other international students, American
friends, and online ethnic support groups) and the levels acculturative stress was
investigated. Finally, in this study, I examined whether social support from five sources
moderated the relationship between perceived discrimination and acculturative stress in
international students in the U.S.
38
In the first hypothesis, I determined whether the ethnicity of international students
(non-European and European) was related to reported levels of acculturative stress.
1A: Non-European international students will report higher levels of acculturative
stress than European international students.
In the second set of hypotheses, I determined whether any ethnic differences
existed in the levels of perceived discrimination (race/ethnicity and foreign-status.) after
controlling for length of residence in the U.S.
2A: Non-European international students will report more foreigner-based
discrimination than European international students.
2B: Non-European international students will report more race/ethnicity-based
discrimination than European international students.
2C: International students who have lived in the U.S. longer will report higher
rates of foreigner-based and race/ethnicity-based discrimination than those who have
lived in the U.S. for a shorter period.
In the third set of hypotheses, I determined whether any ethnic differences existed
in the five sources of social support (family in home country, co-nationals, other
international students, American friends, and online ethnic support groups) after
controlling for length of residence in the U.S.
3A: Non-European students will report higher social support from family in home
country than European international students
3B: Non-European students will report higher social support from co-nationals
than European international students.
39
3C: Non-European students will report lower social support from other
international students than European international students.
3D: Non-European students will report lower social support from American
friends than European international students.
3E: Non-European students will report higher social support from online ethnic
support groups than European international students.
In the fourth set of hypotheses, I determined whether levels of perceived
discrimination based on foreigner-status and race/ethnicity were related to levels of
acculturative stress in international students in the U.S.
4A: Foreigner-based discrimination will be positively related to acculturative
stress in international students in the U.S.
4B: Race/ethnicity-based discrimination will be positively related to acculturative
stress in international students in the U.S.
In the fifth set of hypotheses, I determined whether five sources of social support
were related to the levels of acculturative stress in international students in the U.S.
5A: Social support from family in home country will be negatively related to
acculturative stress in international students in the U.S.
5B: Social support from co-nationals will be negatively related to acculturative
stress in international students in the U.S.
5C: Social support from other international students will be negatively related to
acculturative stress in international students in the U.S.
40
5D: Social support from American friends will be negatively related to
acculturative stress in international students in the U.S.
5E: Social support from online ethnic support groups will be negatively related to
acculturative stress in international students in the U.S.
In the sixth set of hypotheses, I determined whether five sources of social support
moderated the negative effects of perceived discrimination (e.g., foreigner-based and
race/ethnicity-based) on acculturative stress in international students.
6A: For international students who perceive higher levels of foreigner-based
discrimination, higher levels of social support from family in home will lead to lower
acculturative stress.
6B: For international students who perceive higher levels of foreigner-based
discrimination, higher levels of social support from co-nationals will lead to lower
acculturative stress.
6C: For international students who perceive higher levels of foreigner-based
discrimination, higher levels of social support from other international students will lead
to lower acculturative stress.
6D: For international students who perceive higher levels of foreigner-based
discrimination, higher levels of social support from American friends will lead to lower
acculturative stress.
6E: For international students who perceive higher levels of foreigner-based
discrimination, higher levels of social support from online ethnic support groups will lead
to lower acculturative stress.
41
6F: For international students who perceive higher levels of race/ethnicity-based
discrimination, higher levels of social support from family in home country will lead to
lower acculturative stress.
6G: For international students who perceive higher levels of race/ethnicity-based
discrimination, higher levels of social support from co-nationals will lead to lower
acculturative stress.
6H: For international students who perceive higher levels of race/ethnicity-based
discrimination, higher levels of social support from other international students will lead
to lower acculturative stress.
6I: For international students who perceive higher levels of race/ethnicity-based
discrimination, higher levels of social support from American friends will lead to lower
acculturative stress.
6J: For international students who perceive higher levels of race/ethnicity-based
discrimination, higher levels of social support from online ethnic support groups will lead
to lower acculturative stress.
42
Chapter 2
METHOD
Participants
The final sample consisted of 87 non-European (43 female, 44 male) and 13
European (9 female, 4 male) undergraduate and graduate international students at
California State University, Sacramento. Initially, about 500 international students at
California State University, Sacramento were recruited to participate in this study via an
email sent by the Office of Global Education. Of this number, 154 international students
provided written consent to participate in the survey, which was a 30.8% rate of response.
However, only 81 international students completed the survey and provided valid
responses, reflecting a 16.2% rate of completion. This rate of completion was
comparatively lower to the completion rate reported by previous studies that have used
online survey methods (Duru & Poyrazli, 2007; Poyrazli et al., 2004; Poyrazli, Thukral,
& Duru, 2010; Wei et al., 2007). In addition, 19 other international students were
recruited to participate in this study from the English Language Institute and the
Department of Psychology at California State University, Sacramento. All 19 of these
students provided written consent and completed the survey with valid responses.
Participants in this study were provided the opportunity to receive financial compensation
(i.e., random drawing for $30 gift certificates for students recruited from the office of
global education and the English language institute) or class credit (i.e., introductory
psychology participant pool) for volunteering for the study. With regard to power
analysis, Cohen (1982) reported that a minimum 107 participants were required for the
43
multiple regression analysis with more than 8 variables and with a power level of .80 and
alpha level of .05 for a medium effect size. Given that the final sample for this study was
below the cut-off number, the results of the statistical analysis on this sample must be
interpreted with some caution.
For this study, only participants who provided valid information for the
covariates, independent variables, and dependent variable were included in the final
sample. The final sample consisted of 100 international students and the ethnic
distribution was 75 Asian, 10 Middle Eastern, 2 Hispanic, and 13 White international
students. The Asian sample was represented by participants from India (41%), Taiwan
(17%), China (15%), Japan (8%), Vietnam (8%), Hong Kong (4%), South Korea (3%),
Singapore (2%), Sri Lanka (1%), and Bangladesh (1%). Regarding visa status, 90
participants had F-1 (student) visas (90%) and 10 had J-1 (temporary educational
exchange-visitor) visas (10%). Concerning marital status, 94 reported being single (94%)
and 6 reported being married (6%). The sample consisted of both undergraduate (46%)
and graduate international students (54%). Finally, in this study, the age of the final
sample ranged from 18 to 38 years (M = 25.45, SD = 3.26) and the participants’ length of
U.S. residency ranged from .33 to 10.7 years (M = 3.12, SD = 1.96).
Measures
Demographic Variables
Participants provided demographic information including age (in years and
months), gender, level of education, marital status, socioeconomic status (SES), ethnicity,
visa status, and length of U.S. residency (in years and months). For this study, ethnicity
44
was coded into two broad categories, European (White participants) = 1 and nonEuropean (Asian, Middle Eastern, and Hispanic participants) = 0. Gender was coded as
male = 1 and female = 2.
To measure SES of participants’ families, the Hollingshead’s Four Factor Index
of Social Status (1975) was used to calculate level of socioeconomic status. The
Hollingshead’s measure is one of the most frequently used measures of SES (EdwardsHewitt & Gray, 1985). The four factors measured in the scale were marital status and
gender of the parents, education level of each parent, and occupation of each parent.
However, due to a large number of missing, invalid, or vague responses on these SES
questions, this SES variable could not be used in the statistical analysis.
English Proficiency
To assess for level of English proficiency, a 5-point Likert-type scale was used on
three items. Specifically, participants were asked to rate their English language skills in
the areas of reading, writing, and speaking. The responses ranged from 1 (poor) to 5
(excellent). The scale was comparable to other English proficiency scales used in
previous studies (Duru & Poyrazli, 2007; Sumer et al., 2008; Yeh & Inose, 2003). In the
present study, this scale was shown to have a high internal consistency with a Cronbach’s
alpha of .93.
Perceived Discrimination
The Everyday Discrimination Scale (EDS) was used in the present study to
measure discrimination based on race/ethnicity and foreigner-status (Williams, Yu,
Jackson, & Anderson, 1997). The original 9-item scale has been commonly used to
45
assess discrimination in several studies (Clark, Coleman, & Novak, 2004; Gee, Spencer,
Chen, & Takeuchi, 2007; Mays & Cochran, 2001; Panter, Daye, Allen, Wightman, &
Deo, 2008; Roberts, Vines, Kaufman, & James, 2008). The item content and stem of the
EDS do not specifically mention everyday discrimination due to race or ethnicity, but
rather refer to the general experience of unfair treatment, which could be due to race,
gender, national origin, religion, or other personal characteristics.
The EDS requires respondents to rate the frequency with which they experience
unfair treatment in day-to-day life on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (four or
more times) to 4 (never), with higher scores representing lower amount of perceived
discrimination. The EDS includes items such as, “You are treated with less courtesy than
other people,” “You receive poorer service than other people at restaurants or stores,” and
“People act as if they think you are not smart.” After the responses to the nine questions
are provided, respondents are then asked to provide the main reason for these experiences
from eleven options (e.g., ancestry or national origin, gender, race, sexual orientation, or
physical disability).
This scale has shown high internal consistency with Cronbach’s alphas ranging
from .87 to .91 in racially and ethnically diverse samples (Clark et al., 2004; Gee et al.,
2007; Mays & Cochran, 2001; Panter et al., 2008; Williams et al., 1997). The criterionrelated validity of the EDS was assessed by exploring the relationship between perceived
racism and youth-reported symptoms (externalizing and internalizing) (Clark et al.,
2004).
46
In the present study, this scale was modified to measure discrimination due to
race/ethnicity and foreign-status separately. The modifications included changing the
scale instructions from “In your day-to-day life, how often have any of the following
things happened to you?” to “In your day-to-day life, how often have any of the
following things happened to you because of your race/ethnicity” and “In your day-today life, how often have any of the following things happened to you because of your
foreign-status.” In addition, to adapt the scale to the present study, the response format
was changed from a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (four or more times) to 4 (never) to a 4point scale ranging from 1 (never) to 4 (often). The response format of the EDS has also
been changed in a number of previous studies (e.g., Clark et al., 2004; Mays & Cochran,
2001) and found to be appropriate in reflecting a cohesive scale. Based on these
modifications, these two perceived discrimination (race/ethnicity and foreigner-based)
scales would now reflect that higher scores would represent higher amounts of perceived
discrimination. For the current study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for race/ethnicitybased discrimination and foreign-based discrimination were calculated as .91 and .92
respectively.
Social Support
The multi-dimensional support scale (MDSS) was used to measure participants’
social support (Winefield, Winefield, & Tiggemann, 1992). The original 19-item scale is
used to measure participant’s availability and adequacy of social support from three
sources: family/close friends, peers, and authority figures. Each source of social support
requires a participant to respond to the same six items. However, the family/close friends
47
group consisted of an additional item, “How often did they really make you feel loved?”
Participants are required to rate the “availability” of social support from these three
sources within the past month on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (never) to 4
(usually/always). Participants are required to rate the “adequacy” of social support from
these three sources on a 3-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (would have liked more) to 3
(it was just right).
The items on the MDSS measure emotional, practical, and informational support.
An example of the emotional support item includes, “How often did they really listen to
you when you talked about your concerns or problems?” An example of practical and
informational support includes, “How often did they help you in practical ways, like
doing things for you or lending you money?” and “How often did they answer your
questions or give you advice about how to solve your problems?” The scale has been
widely used with a range of groups, with reports of high internal consistency ranging
from .81 to .90 as measured by Cronbach's alphas (Albar Marin & Garcia-Ramirez, 2005;
Cotton, Dollard, & Jonge, 2002; Jackson, Tucker, Keith, & Herman, 2007; Muller,
Gragtmans, & Baker, 2008; Utsey, Lamier, Williams, Bolden, & Lee, 2006; Winefield et
al., 1992). The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients reported for the subscales of family/close
friends, peers, and authority figures were .81, .85, and .86 respectively (Muller et al.,
2008). The scale has also shown predictive validity for adjustment and measures of
psychological well-being, including self-esteem, depression, anxiety, and health
(Winefield et al., 1992).
48
The MDSS is described as a flexible instrument as it can be adapted for use with
various populations. Thus, the potential sources of social support can be selected for the
MDSS on the basis of their significance to the recipient group being studied (Winefield et
al., 1992). The present study intended to measure social support of international students
from five sources: family in home country, co-nationals, other international students,
American friends, and online ethnic support groups. Consequently, five sources were
listed in contrast to the original three sources of social support and the labels
“family/close friends,” “ peers,” and “authority” were replaced by “family in home
country,” “ co-nationals,” “ other international students,” “ American friends,” and
“online ethnic support groups.”
It was recommended that one item, “How often did they try to take your mind off
your problems by telling jokes or chattering about other things?” should be omitted from
the scale because the item occurs relatively at a low frequency and is not considered
supportive (Winefield et al., 1992). Hence, this item was not included in the present
study. In sum, 30 items were used to measure social support from the above five sources.
Finally, the adequacy of social support was not measured in this study to control for
survey length. For the present study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients reported for the
subscales of family in home country, co-nationals, other international students, American
friends, and online ethnic support groups were .85, .93, .91, .91, and .90 respectively.
49
Acculturative Stress
The Index of Life Stress (ILS) was used to measure participants’ acculturative
stress (Yang & Clum, 1995). This 30-item scale was developed to measure culturallybased stressors for international students in the United States and measured five areas of
stress, including concern about finances and desire to stay in the United States (6 items),
language difficulties (5 items), interpersonal stress (6 items), stress from new culture and
desire to return to one’s own country (8 items), and academic pressures (5 items).
Specifically, the concern about finances and desire to stay in the United States subscale
includes items such as, “I worry about my financial situation.” The language difficulties
subscale includes items such as, “my English embarrasses me when I talk to people.”
The interpersonal stress subscale comprises items such as “I can feel racial discrimination
toward me in restaurants.” The stress from new culture and desire to return home to
one’s own country subscale includes items such as, “I don’t like American food.” The
academic pressure subscale comprises of items such as, “I worry about my academic
performance.” This scale utilizes a 4-point Likert-type scale (0 = never to 3 = often) and
higher scores indicates higher life stress. Test retest reliability of the ILS was .87 in the
initial study (Yang & Clum, 1995), while other studies have found Cronbach’s alpha
reliability to range from .83 to .94 (Chen et al., 2002; Misra et al., 2003). The KuderRichardson 20 internal consistency in the initial study was .86. In regards to concurrent
validity, the scale is significantly correlated with the UCLA Depression Scale, the Zung
Depression Scale, and the Beck Hopelessness Scale (Yang & Clum, 1995). For the Yang
and Clum study, the internal consistency estimates for the five factors were: concern
50
about finances and desire to stay in the U.S. (.80), language difficulties (.79),
interpersonal stress (.82), stress from new culture and desire to return to one’s own
country (.70), and academic pressures (.75). A study by Misra et al. (2003) also found
coefficient alphas of .71 to .88 on the ILS subscales.
The ILS has been used in studies in the United States with East Asian
international students (Chen et al., 2002) and a general international student population
(Misra et al., 2003). In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient reported for
the scale was .88. In addition, the Cronbach’s alphas reported for the five sub-scales in
the present study were: concern about finances and desire to stay in the U.S. (.83),
language difficulties (.76), interpersonal stress (.85), stress from new culture and desire to
return to one’s own country (.68), and academic pressures (.56).
Procedure
In collaboration with the Office of Global Education at California State
University, Sacramento, an invitation to participate in the study using electronic mailing
lists was sent to approximately 500 currently enrolled international students. The
invitation included a link to the online survey website (www.surveymonkey.com).
Approximately two weeks later, a follow-up reminder email invitation with a link to the
online survey was sent to the Office of Global Education to be forwarded to enrolled
international students. Subjects’ anonymity was assured by not including any identifiable
information in the survey. Typically, the online survey took about 30 minutes to
complete.
51
In addition, subjects were recruited from the English Language Institute at
California State University, Sacramento. Prospective subjects from the English
Language Institute arrived in one of the classrooms in Del Norte Hall. Upon arrival,
subjects were informed of the study’s purposes and risks and then asked to provide
written consent to participate in the study. If the student agreed to participate in the
study, s/he received a packet of survey questionnaires. The subjects took approximately
30 minutes to complete the survey. After completing the survey, subjects received a
debriefing form which explained the purpose of the study in greater detail and contact
information about the primary investigator was provided should they have any further
questions about the study.
The participants from the English Language Institute and online survey who
wished to be entered into a random drawing for a gift certificate were directed to send
their names to the researcher after the completion of the surveys. As an incentive for
participation, 11 $30 visa cards were randomly distributed to participants who expressed
an interest in financial compensation.
Finally, subjects were recruited from the introductory psychology pool in the
Department of Psychology at California State University, Sacramento. After signing up
for the study, prospective subjects from the Department of Psychology arrived in one of
the shared research laboratories in Amador Hall. Upon arrival, subjects were informed of
the study’s purposes and risks and then asked to provide written consent to participate in
the study. If the subject agreed to participate in the study, s/he received a packet of
survey questionnaires. The subjects took approximately 30 minutes to complete the
52
survey. After completing the survey, subjects received a debriefing form, which
explained the purpose of the study in greater detail and contact information about the
primary investigator was provided should they have any further questions about the
study. The subjects from the Department of Psychology were assigned a course credit of
half an hour for their participation.
53
Chapter 3
RESULTS
Preliminary Findings
Preliminary analyses on the covariates and independent variables were conducted
to determine if some of the variables may be highly correlated to each other. A Pearson
product-moment correlation analysis showed that the covariates of age and length of U.S.
residency were not significantly correlated, (r = .09). A chi-square analysis reported that
European and non-European participants did not differ in terms of gender, ² (1, N = 100)
= 1.78, p = .18. However, a t-test analysis revealed significant ethnic differences in the
levels of English proficiency, t(99) = 3.64, p < .01. Specifically, European international
students (M = 4.23, SD = .61) reported higher English proficiency than non-European
international students (M = 3.48, SD = 1.10). Based on this information, the covariate of
English proficiency was not included in the main analyses. The means, standard
deviations, and percentages of the covariates, independent variables, and dependent
variables are reported in Tables 1 and 2.
Hypothesis 1
An analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was conducted to investigate whether nonEuropean international students reported higher acculturative stress than European
international students after controlling for the contribution of age, gender, and length of
U.S. residency. The results of the ANCOVA showed a marginally significant main effect
for ethnicity on acculturative stress, F(1, 98) = 3.32, p = .07, η² = .11. Specifically, nonEuropean international students (M = 1.28, SE = .05) reported slightly higher levels of
54
acculturative stress than European international students (M = 1.03, SE = .13). The
results of the ANCOVA showed no significant effect for the covariates of age, gender,
and length of U.S. residency. The estimated marginal means of acculturative stress for
non-European and European international students are reported in Table 3.
Hypothesis 2A and 2B
A hierarchical multiple regression analysis was conducted to determine whether
length of U.S. residency and ethnicity were significantly related to perceived
race/ethnicity-based discrimination and foreigner-based discrimination after controlling
for the contribution of age and gender. In these two regression models, the covariates of
age and gender were entered in the first block and length of U.S. residency and ethnicity
were added in the second block. Tests for multicollinearity of the covariates and
independent variables in these two regression models were not found to be significant.
The results of these two regression models are reported in Table 4.
For the regression analysis on race/ethnicity based discrimination, the first block
of the covariates of age and gender was not found to be significant. The second block
with length of U.S. residency and ethnicity was also not found to be significant.
For the regression analysis on foreigner-based discrimination, the first block of
the covariates of age and gender was not found to be significant. However, when length
of U.S. residency and ethnicity were added in the second block, the overall regression
model was found to be marginally significant F(2, 97) = 2.53, p = .05, and accounted for
10% of the explained variance. Specifically, international students who lived in the U.S.
longer reported higher levels of foreigner-based discrimination, t(98) = 2.17, p = .04.
Table 1
Summary of Means and Standard Deviations for Demographic Variables
Total sample
Non-European
European
(N = 100)
(n = 87)
(n = 13)
Variables
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
Participant age
25.21
3.32
24.46
3.39
25.21
2.79
Participant length of U.S. residency
3.05
2.00
2.97
1.89
3.05
2.77
Participant gender:
Male
48.00%
49.43%
30.77%
Female
52.00%
50.57%
69.23%
Note: Ethnicity was coded as non-European = 0, European = 1. Age ranged from 18-38 years and length of U.S.
residency ranged from 0.33-10.67 years. Participant gender indicates the percentages of males and females.
55
Table 2
Means and Standard Deviations of Perceived Discrimination, Social Support, and Acculturative Stress
Total sample
Non-European
European
(N = 100)
(n = 87)
(n = 13)
Variables
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
Race/ethnicity-based discrimination
1.82
0.65
1.85
0.63
1.59
0.76
Foreigner-based discrimination
1.69
0.62
1.74
0.62
1.41
0.58
Social support family in home country
3.56
0.56
3.59
0.56
3.38
0.58
Social support co-nationals
2.63
0.86
2.68
0.84
2.27
0.91
Social support other international students
2.19
0.79
2.23
0.79
1.92
0.77
Social support American friends
2.34
0.74
2.32
0.77
2.47
0.49
Social support online ethnic support groups
1.58
0.67
1.61
0.68
1.37
0.53
Acculturative stress
1.24
0.45
1.27
0.45
1.05
0.49
56
Note: Perceived discrimination scores range from 1-4, social support scores range from 1-4, and acculturative stress
scores range from 0-3. Higher scores for acculturative stress, perceived discrimination, and social support represent
a higher amount of acculturative stress, perceived discrimination, and social support.
57
Table 3
Estimated Marginal Means of Non-European and European International Students for Perceived Discrimination,
Social Support and Acculturative Stress
Non-European
European
(N = 87)
(N = 13)
Variables
M
SE
M
SE
Race/ethnicity-based discrimination
1.85
0.07
1.61
0.18
Foreigner-based discrimination
1.73
0.07
1.44
0.17
Social support family in home country
3.58
0.06
3.41
0.16
Social support co-nationals
2.68
0.09
2.29
0.24
Social support other international students
2.22
0.09
1.94
0.22
Social support American friends
2.32
0.08
2.44
0.21
Social support online ethnic support groups
1.61
0.07
1.40
0.18
58
Acculturative stress
1.28
0.05
1.03
0.13
Note: Perceived discrimination scores range from 1-4, social support scores range from 1-4, and acculturative stress
scores range from 0-3. Higher scores for acculturative stress, perceived discrimination, and social support represent
a higher amount of acculturative stress, perceived discrimination, and social support.
59
Table 4
Multiple Hierarchical Regression Results with Ethnicity and Length of U.S. Residency Predicting Race/Ethnicity-Based and
Foreigner-Based Discrimination
Variables
Race/ethnicity-based
Foreigner-based
discrimination
discrimination
B
SE
β
Step 1
Variables
B
SE
β
Step 1
Gender
0.09
0.02
0.07
Gender
0.13
0.13
0.10
Age
-0.02
0.02
-0.09
Age
-0.02
0.02
-0.13
R²
0.01
R²
Step 2
0.03
Step 2
Gender
0.08
0.13
0.06
Gender
0.11
0.12
0.09
Age
-0.01
0.02
-0.04
Age
-0.01
0.02
-0.07
Length of U.S. residency
-0.06
0.03
-0.17
Length of U.S. residency*
-0.07
0.03
-0.22
60
Ethnicity
R²
0.24
0.06
0.20
0.12
Ethnicity
R²
0.29
0.18
0.16
0.10
Note: Gender was coded as male = 1, female = 2. Ethnicity was coded as non-European = 0, European = 1. *p < .05.
61
62
Hypothesis 3A-3E
A multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was conducted to determine
if non-European international students reported higher social support from family in
home country, co-nationals, and online ethnic support groups and lower social support
from other international students and American friends than European international
students after controlling for age, gender, and length of U.S. residency. The overall
results of the MANCOVA on social support revealed no significant main effect for
ethnicity. In addition, the overall results reported no significant effects for the covariates
of age, gender, and length of U.S. residency.
The ANCOVAs for social support from family in home country, co-nationals,
other international students, online ethnic support groups, and American friends showed
no significant main effect for ethnicity. Also, the covariate of age was not found to be
significant for all five measures of social support. However, the covariate of length of
U.S. residency was found to be marginally significant for social support from online
ethnic support groups, F(1, 98) = 3.23, p = .08. Specifically, international students who
lived in the U.S. longer reported higher social support from online ethnic support groups
than international students who lived in the U.S. for a shorter period of time. In addition,
the covariate of gender was reported to be marginally significant for social support from
online ethnic support groups, F(1, 98) = 3.16, p = .08. Specifically, female international
students reported higher social support from online ethnic support groups than male
international students.
63
Hypothesis 4A and 4B
A hierarchical multiple regression analysis was performed to determine whether
there was a significant relationship between perceived discrimination (foreigner-based
and race/ethnicity-based) and acculturative stress after controlling for the contribution of
ethnicity, age, gender, and length of U.S. residency. To control for issues of
multicollinearity, two separate hierarchical multiple regression analysis were completed,
one with race/ethnicity-based discrimination and the other with foreigner-based
discrimination, as independent variables. Tests for multicollinearity on the covariates
and independent variables were not found to be significant.
In these two hierarchical multiple regression models predicting acculturative
stress, the covariates of ethnicity, age, gender, and length of U.S. residency were entered
in the first block and race/ethnicity-based discrimination or foreigner-based
discrimination was entered in the second block. The results of these two regression
models are reported in Table 5.
In the first regression model with race/ethnicity-based discrimination as an
independent variable, the covariates of age, gender, length of U.S. residency, and
ethnicity were not found to be significant predictors of acculturative stress. However,
when race/ethnicity-based discrimination was added in the second block, the overall
regression model was found to be significant, F(5, 94) = 10.51, p < .001, and this model
accounted for 35.9% of the variance of acculturative stress. Specifically, participants
who reported higher levels of race/ethnicity discrimination reported higher levels of
acculturative stress, t(98) = 6.60, p < .001. In addition, the covariate of gender became
64
marginally significant t(98) = 2.01, p = .05, providing support that female international
students reported higher acculturative stress than male international students. However,
the covariates of age and length of U.S. residency continued to be not significant in the
second model.
In the second regression model with foreigner-based discrimination as an
independent variable, the covariates of gender, length of U.S. residency, age, and
ethnicity were not found to be significant. However, when foreigner-based
discrimination was added in the second block, the overall model was found to be
significant, F(5,94) = 13.51, p < .001, and this accounted for 41.8% of the variance of
acculturative stress. Specifically, participants who reported higher levels of foreignerbased discrimination reported higher levels of acculturative stress, t(98) = 7.60 , p < .001.
In addition, the covariate of gender was found to be significant, t(98) = 2.40, p = .02,
providing support that female international students reported higher acculturative stress
than male international students. However, the covariates of length of U.S. residency and
age continued to be not significant in the second model.
Hypothesis 5A-5E
A hierarchical multiple regression analysis was performed to determine whether
the five sources of social support (family in home country, co-nationals, other
international students, American friends, and online ethnic support groups ) were
significantly related to acculturative stress in international students while controlling for
the contribution of ethnicity ,age, gender, and length of U.S. residency. Five separate
hierarchical multiple regression analysis were completed to avoid issues of
65
multicollinearity associated with the different types of social support. Tests for
multicollinearity on the covariates and independent variables were not found to be
significant.
In each hierarchical regression analysis, the covariates of ethnicity, age, gender,
and length of U.S. residency were entered in the first block of the regression model and
the source of social support was entered in the second block of the regression model.
In the first regression model which included social support from family in their
home country as an independent variable, the results indicated that the covariates of
ethnicity, age, gender, and length of U.S. residency in the first block were not found to be
significant. When social support from family in home country was entered in the second
block, the overall model was found to be marginally significant, F(5, 94) = 2.31, p = .05 ,
and this model accounted for 10.9% of the variance of acculturative stress. Specifically,
international students with higher social support from family in their home country
reported lower acculturative stress, t(98) = 2.26, p = .03. In addition, the covariate of
ethnicity in the second model was found to be marginally significant, t(98) = 2.09, p =
.04. Specifically, non-European international students reported higher acculturative
stress than European international students. However, the covariates of length of U.S.
residency, age, and gender continued to be not significant in the second block. The
results of this regression model are reported in Table 6.
In the second regression model which included social support from co-nationals
as an independent variable, the results indicated that the covariates of ethnicity, age,
gender, and length of U.S. residency were not found to be significant in the first block.
66
Also, the addition of social support from co-nationals in the second block was not found
to be significant.
In the third regression model which included social support from other
international students as an independent variable, the results showed that the covariates of
ethnicity, age, gender, and length of U.S. residency were not found to be significant in the
first block. Also, the addition of social support from other international students in the
second block was not found to be significant.
In the fourth regression model which included social support from American
friends as an independent variable, the results indicated that the covariates of ethnicity,
age, gender, and length of U.S. residency were not found to be significant in the first
block. When social support from American friends was added to the second block, the
overall model was found to be significant, F(5, 94) = 3.31, p = .01 , and this model
accounted for 14.9% of the variance of acculturative stress. Specifically, international
students who reported higher social support from American friends reported lower
acculturative stress, t(98) = 3.12, p = .001. In addition, the covariate of ethnicity in the
second model was found to be marginally significant, t(98) = 1.74, p = .09, providing
support that non-European international students reported higher acculturative stress than
European international students. However, the covariates of length of U.S. residency,
age, and gender continued to be not significant in the second block. The results of this
regression model are reported in Table 6.
Table 5
Multiple Hierarchical Regression Results with Race/Ethnicity-Based and Foreigner-Based Discrimination Predicting
Acculturative Stress
Acculturative stress
Variables
B
SE
Acculturative stress
β
Step 1
Variables
B
SE
β
Step 1
Gender
0.12
0.09
0.14
Gender
0.12
0.09
0.14
Age
-0.00
0.01
-0.00
Age
-0.00
0.01
-0.00
Length of U.S. residency
0.03
0.02
0.12
Length of U.S. residency
0.03
0.02
0.12
Ethnicity
-0.25
0.14
-0.18
Ethnicity
-0.25
0.14
-0.18
R²
0.06
R²
Step 2
0.06
Step 2
Gender†
0.15
0.08
0.17
Gender*
0.17
0.07
0.19
Age
-0.00
0.01
-0.03
Age
-0.01
0.01
-0.05
67
Length of U.S residency
0.01
0.02
0.03
Length of U.S. residency
-0.00
0.02
-0.02
Ethnicity
-0.15
0.11
-0.12
Ethnicity
-0.12
0.11
-0.09
Race/ethnicity-based
-0.40
0.06
-0.56
Foreigner-based
-0.46
0.06
-0.63
discrimination***
R²
discrimination***
0.36
R²
0.42
Note: Gender was coded as male = 1, female = 2. Ethnicity was coded as non-European = 0, European = 1.
†
p < .10. *p < .05. ***p < .001.
68
Table 6
Multiple Hierarchical Regression Results with Social Support from Family in Home Country and American Friends Predicting
Acculturative Stress
Acculturative stress
Variables
B
SE
Acculturative stress
β
Step 1
Variables
B
SE
β
Step 1
Gender
0.12
0.09
0.14
Gender
0.12
0.09
0.14
Age
-0.00
0.01
-0.00
Age
-0.00
0.01
-0.00
Length of U.S. residency
0.03
0.02
0.12
Length of U.S. residency
0.03
0.02
0.12
Ethnicity
-0.25
0.14
-0.18
Ethnicity
-0.25
0.14
-0.18
0.09
0.15
R²
0.06
R²
Step 2
Gender
0.06
Step 2
0.09
0.09
0.10
Gender
0.13
69
Age
-0.00
0.01
-0.01
Age
-0.01
0.01
-0.05
Length of U.S. residency
0.02
0.02
0.09
Length of U.S. residency
0.03
0.02
0.15
Ethnicity*
-0.28
0.13
-0.21
Ethnicity†
-0.23
0.13
-0.17
Social support family in
-0.18
0.08
-0.23
Social support American
-0.19
0.06
-0.30
home country*
R²
friends**
0.11
R²
0.15
Note: Gender was coded as male = 1, female = 2. Ethnicity was coded as non-European = 0, European = 1.
†
p < .10. *p < .05. **p < .01.
70
71
In the fifth regression model which included social support from online ethnic
support groups as an independent variable, the results showed that the covariates of
ethnicity, age, gender, and length of U.S. residency were not found to be significant in the
first block. Also, the addition of social support from online ethnic support groups in the
second block was not found to be significant.
Hypothesis 6A-6J
A hierarchical multiple regression analysis was performed to determine whether
the five sources of social support (family in home country, co-nationals, other
international students, American friends, and online ethnic support groups ) moderated
the effects of perceived discrimination (foreigner-based and race/ethnicity–based) on
acculturative stress. As suggested by Frazier, Tix, and Barron (2004), standardized
scores were calculated and subsequently used for analyzing the interaction between the
social support and discrimination variables in the regression model. Standardization of
the predictor and moderator variables is generally recommended when using a regression
model with interactions to limit the problems associated with multicollinearity. In
addition, the standardization of predictor and moderator variables is recommended to
control for possible errors that may arise from using different types of scaling for the
independent variables.
For standardization, Z scores for age, length of U.S. residency, perceived
discrimination (foreigner-based and race/ethnicity-based), and sources of social support
(family in home country, co-nationals, other international students, American friends, and
online ethnic support groups) were created. After standardization of these variables, ten
72
product-terms were formulated to represent the interaction between perceived
discrimination (foreigner-based and race/ethnicity-based) and sources of social support
(family in home country, co-nationals, other international students, American friends, and
online ethnic support groups). For gender and ethnicity variables, counter-balancing
steps had to be taken to correspond with the z-scoring of the other variables in the
regression model as recommended by Frazier et al. (2004). Specifically, for gender
variable, males were re-coded as -1 and females were re-coded as 1. Similarly, for the
ethnicity variable, non-European internationals students were re-coded as -1 and
European international students were re-coded as 1.
To control for issues of multicollinearity, ten separate hierarchical multiple
regression analysis were completed, one each for the interaction of race/ethnicity-based
discrimination and social support from family in home country, co-nationals, other
international students, American friends, and online ethnic support groups and the
interaction of foreigner-based discrimination and social support from family in home
country, co-nationals, other international students, American friends, and online ethnic
support groups. Tests for multicollinearity on the covariates and independent variables
for these 10 different models were not found to be significant.
For each hierarchical regression analysis, the covariates of age, gender, and length
of U.S. residency were entered in the first block. Ethnicity was entered in the second
block, perceived discrimination (race/ethnicity-based and foreigner-based) was entered in
the third block, source of social support (family in home country, co-nationals, other
international students, American friends, and online ethnic support groups) was entered
73
in the fourth block, and the interaction term (foreigner-based and race/ethnicity-based
discrimination and social support from family in home country, co-nationals, other
international students, American friends, and online ethnic support groups) was entered
in the fifth block. The results of these regression models using race/ethnicity-based and
foreigner-based discrimination as independent variables are reported in Tables 7, 8, 9, 10,
and 11.
Results for the first hierarchical multiple regression analysis indicated that the
covariates of age, gender, and length of U.S. residency were not found to be significant in
the first block. Similarly, ethnicity and the covariates of age, gender, and length of U.S.
residency were not found to be significant predictors of acculturative stress in the second
block. However, when race/ethnicity-based discrimination was entered in the third block,
the regression model was found to be significant, F(5, 94) = 10.51, p < .001, and this
model accounted for 36% of the variance of acculturative stress. Specifically,
international students with higher race/ethnicity-based discrimination reported higher
acculturative stress, t(98) = 6.60, p < .001. The covariate of gender in the third block was
also found to be marginally significant, t(98) = 2.01, p = .05, providing support that
female international students reported higher acculturative stress than male international
students.
When social support from family in home country was added in the fourth block,
the regression model continued to be significant, F(6, 93) = 10.24, p < .001, and the
overall variance explained by the model increased to 40% . Specifically, international
students with higher support from family in home country reported lower acculturative
74
stress t(98) = 2.46, p = .007. In addition, race/ethnicity-based discrimination in the fourth
block continued to be significant, t(98) = 6.68, p < .001, providing support that
international students with higher race/ethnicity-based discrimination reported higher
acculturative stress. The covariate of gender in the fourth block was also found to be
marginally significant, t(98) = 2.02, p = .05, providing support that female international
students reported higher acculturative stress than male international students. The
covariates of age and length of U.S. residency and ethnicity in the fourth block were not
found to be significant.
With the interaction between race/ethnicity-based discrimination and social
support from family in home country being entered in the fifth block, the overall model
continued to be significant, F(7,92) = 8.70, p < .001, but the overall explained variance
(40%) did not increase significantly. The covariates of gender, age, and length of U.S.
residency, ethnicity, race/ethnicity-based discrimination, and social support from family
in home country, and the interaction between race/ethnicity-based discrimination and
social support from family in home country in the fifth block were not found to be
significant. The results of this regression model are reported in Table 7.
Results for the second hierarchical multiple regression analysis indicated that the
covariates of age, gender, and length of U.S. residency were not found to be significant in
the first block. Similarly, ethnicity and the covariates of age, gender, and length of U.S.
residency were not found to be predictors of acculturative stress in the second block.
However, when race/ethnicity-based discrimination was entered in the third block, the
regression model was found to be significant, F(5, 94) = 10.51, p < .001, and this model
75
accounted for 36% of the variance of acculturative stress. Specifically, international
students with higher race/ethnicity-based discrimination reported higher acculturative
stress, t(98) = 6.60, p < .001. The covariate of gender in the third block was also found to
be marginally significant, t(98) = 2.01, p = .05, providing support that female
international students reported higher acculturative stress than male international
students.
When social support from co-nationals was added in the fourth block, the
regression model continued to be significant, F(6, 93) = 8.68, p < .001, but the overall
variance explained by the model (36%) did not increase significantly. Race/ethnicity
based discrimination in the fourth block continued to be significant, t(98) = 6.43, p <
.001, providing support that international students with higher race/ethnicity-based
discrimination reported higher acculturative stress Also, the covariate of gender in the
fourth block continued to be marginally significant, t(98) = 2.00, p = .05, with female
international students reporting higher acculturative stress than male international
students. The covariates of age and length of U.S. residency, ethnicity, and social
support from co-nationals in the fourth block were not found to be significant.
With the interaction between race/ethnicity-based discrimination and social
support from co-nationals being entered in the fifth block, the overall model continued to
be significant, F(7,92) = 7.37, p < .001, but the overall explained variance (36%) did not
increase significantly. The covariate of gender in the fifth block continued to be
significant, t(98) = 1.98, p = .05, with female international students reporting higher
acculturative stress than male international students. However, the covariates of age and
76
length of U.S. residency, ethnicity, race/ethnicity-based discrimination, social support
from co-nationals, and the interaction between race/ethnicity-based discrimination and
social support from co-nationals in the fifth block were not found to be significant. The
results of this regression model are reported in Table 8.
Results for the third hierarchical multiple regression analysis indicated that the
covariates of age, gender, and length of U.S. residency were not found to be significant in
the first block. Similarly, ethnicity and the covariates of age, gender, and length of U.S.
residency were not found to be predictors of acculturative stress in the second block.
However, when race/ethnicity-based discrimination was entered in the third block, the
regression model was found to be significant, F(5, 94) = 10.51, p < .001, and this model
accounted for 36% of the variance of acculturative stress. Specifically, international
students with higher race/ethnicity-based discrimination reported higher acculturative
stress, t(98) = 6.60, p < .001. The covariate of gender in the third block was also found to
be marginally significant, t(98) = 2.01, p = .05, providing support that female
international students reported higher acculturative stress than male international
students.
When social support from other international students was added in the fourth
block, the regression model continued to be significant, F(6, 93) = 9.21, p < .001, and the
overall variance explained by the model increased to 37%. Race/ethnicity based
discrimination in the fourth block continued to be significant, t(98) = 6.50, p < .001,
providing support that international students with higher race/ethnicity-based
discrimination reported higher acculturative stress. Also, the covariate of gender in the
77
fourth block was also found to be marginally significant, t(98) = 1.84, p = .07, providing
support that female international students reported higher acculturative stress than male
international students. However, the covariates of age and length of U.S. residency,
ethnicity, and social support from other international students in the fourth block were not
found to be significant.
With the interaction between race/ethnicity-based discrimination and social
support from other international students being entered in the fifth block, the overall
model continued to be significant, F(7,92) = 7.98, p < .001, and the overall explained
variance explained by the model was reported to be 38%. Race/ethnicity based
discrimination in the fifth block continued to be significant, t(98) = 2.94, p = .004,
providing support that international students with higher race/ethnicity-based
discrimination reported higher acculturative stress. Also, the covariate of gender in the
fifth block was also found to be marginally significant, t(98) = 1.80, p = .08, providing
support that female international students reported higher acculturative stress than male
international students. However, the covariates of age and length of U.S. residency,
ethnicity, and social support from other international students, and the interaction
between race/ethnicity-based discrimination and social support from other international
students in the fifth block were not found to be significant. The results of this regression
model are reported in Table 9.
Results for the fourth hierarchical multiple regression analysis indicated that the
covariates of age, gender, and length of U.S. residency were not found to be significant in
the first block. Similarly, ethnicity and the covariates of age, gender, and length of U.S.
78
residency were not found to be predictors of acculturative stress in the second block.
However, when race/ethnicity-based discrimination was entered in the third block, the
regression model was found to be significant, F(5, 94) = 10.51, p < .001, and this model
accounted for 36% of the variance of acculturative stress. Specifically, international
students with higher race/ethnicity-based discrimination reported higher acculturative
stress, t(98) = 6.60, p < .001. The covariate of gender in the third block was also found to
be marginally significant, t(98) = 2.01, p = .05, providing support that female
international students reported higher acculturative stress than male international
students.
When social support from American friends was added in the fourth block, the
regression model continued to be significant, F(6, 93) = 9.65, p < .001, and the overall
variance explained by the model increased to 38%. Specifically, international students
with higher support from American friends reported lower acculturative stress t(98) =
1.94, p = .06. In addition, race/ethnicity based discrimination in the fourth block
continued to be significant, t(98) = 5.95, p < .001, providing support that international
students with higher race/ethnicity-based discrimination reported higher acculturative
stress Also, the covariate of gender in the fourth block continued to be significant, t(98)
= 2.06, p = .04, with female international students reporting higher acculturative stress
than male international students. However, the covariates of age and length of U.S.
residency, and ethnicity in the fourth block were not found to be significant.
With the interaction between race/ethnicity-based discrimination and social
support from American friends being entered in the fifth block, the overall model
79
continued to be significant, F(7,92) = 8.58, p < .001, and the overall explained variance
increased to 40%. Race/ethnicity based discrimination in the fifth block continued to be
significant, t(98) = 3.04, p = .003, providing support that international students with
higher race/ethnicity-based discrimination reported higher acculturative stress. Also, the
covariate of gender in the fifth block continued to be significant, t(98) = 2.06, p = .04,
with female international students reporting higher acculturative stress than male
international students. However, the covariates of age and length of U.S. residency,
ethnicity, social support from American friends, and the interaction between
race/ethnicity-based discrimination and social support from American friends in the fifth
block were not found to be significant. The results of this regression model are reported
in Table 10.
Results for the fifth hierarchical multiple regression analysis indicated that the
covariates of age, gender, and length of U.S. residency were not found to be significant in
the first block. Similarly, ethnicity and the covariates of age, gender, and length of U.S.
residency were not found to be predictors of acculturative stress in the second block.
However, when race/ethnicity-based discrimination was entered in the third block, the
regression model was found to be significant, F(5, 94) = 10.50, p < .001, and this model
accounted for 36% of the variance of acculturative stress. Specifically, international
students with higher race/ethnicity-based discrimination reported higher acculturative
stress, t(98) = 6.60, p < .001. The covariate of gender in the third block was also found to
be marginally significant, t(98) = 2.01, p = .05, providing support that female
80
international students reported higher acculturative stress than male international
students.
When social support from online ethnic support groups was added in the fourth
block, the regression model continued to be significant, F(6, 93) = 9.28, p < .001, and the
overall variance explained by the model increased to 37%. Race/ethnicity-based
discrimination in the fourth block continued to be significant, t(98) = 6.68, p < .001,
providing support that international students with higher race/ethnicity-based
discrimination reported higher acculturative stress. However, the covariates of age,
gender, and length of U.S. residency, ethnicity, and social support from online ethnic
support groups in the fourth block were not found to be significant.
With the interaction between race/ethnicity-based discrimination and social
support from online ethnic support groups being entered in the fifth block, the overall
model continued to be significant, F(7,92) = 9.34, p < .001, and the overall explained
variance increased to 42%. The interaction between race/ethnicity-based discrimination
and social support from online ethnic support groups in the fifth block was found to be
significant, t(98) = 2.54, p = .03, providing support that social support from online ethnic
support groups moderate the effects of race/ethnicity-based discrimination on
acculturative stress. Specifically, international students who reported higher levels of
race/ethnicity-based perceived discrimination and who reported higher levels of social
support from online ethnic groups, experienced lower levels acculturative stress.
Race/ethnicity-based discrimination in the fifth block continued to be significant, t(98) =
5.12, p < .001, providing support that international students with higher race/ethnicity-
81
based discrimination reported higher acculturative stress. Also, the covariate of gender
was found to be marginally significant, t(98) = .1.92, p = .06, providing support that
female international students reported higher acculturative stress than male international
students. However, the covariates of age and length of U.S. residency, ethnicity, and
social support from online ethnic support groups in the fifth block were not found to be
significant. The results of this regression model are reported in Table 11.
Results for the sixth hierarchical multiple regression analysis indicated that the
covariates of age, gender, and length of U.S. residency were not found to be significant in
the first block. Similarly, ethnicity and the covariates of age, gender, and length of U.S.
residency were not found to be predictors of acculturative stress in the second block.
However, when foreigner-based discrimination was entered in the third block, the
regression model was found to be significant, F(5, 94) = 13.51, p < .001, and this model
accounted for 42% of the variance of acculturative stress. Specifically, international
students with higher foreigner-based discrimination reported higher acculturative stress,
t(98) = 7.59, p < .001. The covariate of gender in the third block was also found to be
significant, t(98) = 2.40, p = .02, providing support that female international students
reported higher acculturative stress than male international students.
When social support from family in home country was added in the fourth block,
the regression model continued to be significant, F(6, 93) = 13.33, p < .001, and the
overall variance explained by the model increased to 46% . Specifically, international
students with higher support from family in home country reported lower acculturative
stress t(98) = 2.76, p = .01. In addition, foreigner based discrimination in the fourth
82
block continued to be significant, t(98) = 7.81, p < .001, providing support that
international students with higher foreigner-based discrimination reported higher
acculturative stress. The covariate of gender in the fourth block was also found to be
marginally significant, t(98) = 2.02, p = .05, providing support that female international
students reported higher acculturative stress than male international students. However,
the covariates of age and length of U.S. residency, and ethnicity in the fourth block were
not found to be significant.
With the interaction between foreigner-based discrimination and social support
from family in home country being entered in the fifth block, the overall model continued
to be significant, F(7,92) = 11.30, p < .001, but the overall explained variance (46%) did
not increase significantly. The covariate of gender in the fifth block was also found to be
marginally significant, t(98) = 2.00, p = .05, providing support that female international
students reported higher acculturative stress than male international students. However,
the covariates of age and length of U.S. residency, ethnicity, foreigner-based
discrimination, social support from family in home country, and the interaction between
foreigner-based discrimination and social support from family in home country in the
fifth block were not found to be significant. The results of this regression model are
reported in Table 7.
Results for the seventh hierarchical multiple regression analysis indicated that the
covariates of age, gender, and length of U.S. residency were not found to be significant in
the first block. Similarly, ethnicity and the covariates of age, gender, and length of U.S.
residency were not found to be predictors of acculturative stress in the second block.
83
However, when foreigner-based discrimination was entered in the third block, the
regression model was found to be significant, F(5, 94) = 13.51, p < .001, and this model
accounted for 42% of the variance of acculturative stress. Specifically, international
students with higher foreigner-based discrimination reported higher acculturative stress,
t(98) = 7.59, p < .001. The covariate of gender in the third block was also found to be
marginally significant, t(98) = 2.40, p = .02, providing support that female international
students reported higher acculturative stress than male international students.
When social support from co-nationals was added in the fourth block, the
regression model continued to be significant, F(6, 93) = 11.12, p < .001, but the overall
explained variance (42%) did not increase significantly. Foreigner based discrimination
in the fourth block continued to be significant, t(98) = 7.48, p < .001, providing support
that international students with higher foreigner-based discrimination reported higher
acculturative stress. Also, the covariate of gender in the fourth block continued to be
significant, t(98) = 2.38, p = .02, providing support that female international students
reported higher acculturative stress than male international students. However, the
covariates of age and length of U.S. residency, ethnicity, and social support from conationals in the fourth block were not found to be significant.
With the interaction between foreigner-based discrimination and social support
from co-nationals being entered in the fifth block, the overall model continued to be
significant, F(7,92) = 9.63, p < .001, but the overall explained variance (42%) did not
increase significantly. The covariate of gender in the fifth block continued to be
significant, t(98) = 2.38, p = .02, providing support that female international students
84
reported higher acculturative stress than male international students. However, the
covariates of age and length of U.S. residency, ethnicity, foreigner-based discrimination,
social support from co-nationals, and the interaction between foreigner-based
discrimination and social support from co-nationals in the fifth block were not found to
be significant. The results of this regression model are reported in Table 8.
Results for the eighth hierarchical multiple regression analysis indicated that the
covariates of age, gender, and length of U.S. residency were not found to be significant in
the first block. Similarly, ethnicity and the covariates of age, gender, and length of U.S.
residency were not found to be predictors of acculturative stress in the second block.
However, when foreigner-based discrimination was entered in the third block, the
regression model was found to be significant, F(5, 94) = 13.51, p < .001, and this model
accounted for 42% of the variance of acculturative stress. Specifically, international
students with higher foreigner-based discrimination reported higher acculturative stress,
t(98) = 7.58, p < .001. The covariate of gender in the third block was also found to be
marginally significant, t(98) = 2.40, p = .02, providing support that female international
students reported higher acculturative stress than male international students.
When social support from other international students was added in the fourth
block, the regression model continued to be significant, F(6, 93) = 11.58, p < .001, and
the overall variance explained by the model increased slightly to 43%. Foreigner-based
discrimination in the fourth block continued to be significant, t(98) = 7.43, p < .001,
providing support that international students with higher foreigner-based discrimination
reported higher acculturative stress. The covariate of gender in the fourth block was also
85
found to be significant, t(98) = 2.24, p = .03, providing support that female international
students reported higher acculturative stress than male international students. However,
the covariates of age and length of U.S. residency, and ethnicity and social support from
other international students in the fourth block were not found to be significant.
With the interaction between foreigner-based discrimination and social support
from other international students being entered in the fifth block, the overall model
continued to be significant, F(7,92) = 10.36, p < .001, and the overall explained variance
increased to 44%. Specifically, international students with higher social support from
other international students reported lower acculturative stress, t(98) = 1.81, p = .07. The
covariate of gender in the fifth block was also found to be significant, t(98) = 2.34, p =
.02, providing support that female international students reported higher acculturative
stress than male international students. However, the covariates of age and length of U.S.
residency, ethnicity, foreigner-based discrimination, and the interaction between
foreigner-based discrimination and social support from other international students in the
fifth block were not found to be significant. The results of this regression model are
reported in Table 9.
Results for the ninth hierarchical multiple regression analysis indicated that the
covariates of age, gender, and length of U.S. residency were not found to be significant in
the first block. Similarly, ethnicity and the covariates of age, gender, and length of U.S.
residency were not found to be predictors of acculturative stress in the second block.
However, when foreigner-based discrimination was entered in the third block, the
regression model was found to be significant, F(5, 94) = 13.51, p < .001, and this model
86
accounted for 42% of the variance of acculturative stress. Specifically, international
students with higher foreigner-based discrimination reported higher acculturative stress,
t(98) = 7.59, p < .001. The covariate of gender in the third block was also found to be
significant, t(98) = 2.40, p = .02, providing support that female international students
reported higher acculturative stress than male international students.
When social support from other American friends was added in the fourth block,
the regression model continued to be significant, F(6, 93) = 11.67, p < .001, and the
overall variance explained by the model increased to 43%. Foreigner-based
discrimination in the fourth block continued to be significant, t(98) = 6.76, p < .001,
providing support that international students with higher foreigner-based discrimination
reported higher acculturative stress. Also, the covariate of gender in the fourth block
continued to be significant, t(98) = 2.41, p = .02, providing support that female
international students reported higher acculturative stress than male international
students. However, the covariates of age and length of U.S. residency, ethnicity, and
social support from American friends in the fourth block were not found to be significant.
With the interaction between foreigner-based discrimination and social support
from American friends being entered in the fifth block, the overall model continued to be
significant, F(7,92) = 10.48, p < .001, and the overall explained variance increased to
44.4%. Specifically, international students with social support from American friends
reported lower acculturative stress, t(98) = 1.90, p = .06. The covariate of gender in the
fifth block continued to be significant, t(98) = 2.43, p = .02, providing support that
female international students reported higher acculturative stress than male international
87
students. However, the covariates of age and length of U.S. residency, ethnicity,
foreigner-based discrimination, and the interaction between foreigner-based
discrimination and social support from American friends in the fifth block were not found
to be significant. The results of this regression model are reported in Table 10.
Results for the tenth hierarchical multiple regression analysis indicated that the
covariates of age, gender, and length of U.S. residency were not found to be significant in
the first block. Similarly, ethnicity and the covariates of age, gender, and length of U.S.
residency were not found to be predictors of acculturative stress in the second block.
However, when foreigner-based discrimination was entered in the third block, the
regression model was found to be significant, F(5, 94) = 13.51, p < .001, and this model
accounted for 42% of the variance of acculturative stress. Specifically, international
students with higher foreigner-based discrimination reported higher acculturative stress,
t(98) = 7.59, p < .001. The covariate of gender in the third block was also found to be
marginally significant, t(98) = 2.40, p = .02, providing support that female international
students reported higher acculturative stress than male international students.
When social support from online ethnic support groups was added in the fourth
block, the regression model continued to be significant, F(6, 93) = 11.32, p < .001, and
the overall variance explained by the model (42%) did not increase significantly.
Foreigner-based discrimination in the fourth block continued to be significant, t(98) =
7.48, p < .001, providing support that international students with higher foreigner-based
discrimination reported higher acculturative stress. The covariate of gender in the fourth
block was also found to significant, t(98) = 2.21, p = .03, providing support that female
88
international students reported higher acculturative stress than male international
students. However, the covariates of age and length of U.S. residency, ethnicity, and
social support from online ethnic support groups in the fourth block were not found to be
significant.
With the interaction between foreigner-based discrimination and social support
from online ethnic support groups being entered in the fifth block, the overall model
continued to be significant, F(7,92) = 10.45, p < .001, and the overall explained variance
increased to 44%. The interaction between foreigner-based discrimination and social
support from online ethnic support groups in the fifth block was found to be marginally
significant, t(98) = 1.86, p = .07, providing support that social support from online ethnic
support groups moderate the effects of foreigner-based discrimination on acculturative
stress. Specifically, international students who reported higher levels of foreigner-based
perceived discrimination and who reported higher levels of social support from online
ethnic groups, experienced lower levels acculturative stress. Also, social support from
online ethnic support groups in the fifth block was found to be marginally significant,
t(98) = 1.70, p = .05, providing support that international students with higher social
support from online ethnic support groups reported lower acculturative stress. In
addition, the covariate of gender in the fifth block was also found to be marginally
significant, t(98) = 2.08, p = .04, providing support that female international students
reported higher acculturative stress than male international students. However, the
covariates of age and length of U.S. residency, ethnicity, and foreigner-based
89
discrimination in the fifth block were not found to be significant. The results of this
regression model are reported in Table 11.
Table 7
Multiple Hierarchical Regression Results with Interaction between Social Support from Family in Home Country and
Perceived Discrimination (Race/Ethnicity-Based and Foreigner-Based) Predicting Acculturative Stress
Acculturative stress
Variables
B
SE
Acculturative stress
β
Step 1
Variables
B
SE
β
Step 1
Gender
0.05
0.05
0.11
Gender
0.05
0.05
0.11
Age
0.01
0.05
0.01
Age
0.01
0.05
0.01
Length of U.S. residency
0.06
0.05
0.12
Length of U.S. residency
0.06
0.05
0.12
R²
0.03
R²
Step 2
0.03
Step 2
Gender
0.06
0.05
0.14
Gender
0.06
0.05
0.14
Age
-0.00
0.05
-0.00
Age
-0.00
0.05
-0.00
Length of U.S residency
0.06
0.05
0.12
Length of U.S. residency
0.06
0.05
0.12
90
Ethnicity
R²
-0.12
0.07
-0.18
0.06
Ethnicity
R²
Step 3
-0.12
0.07
-0.18
0.06
Step 3
Gender†
0.08
0.04
0.17
Gender*
0.09
0.04
0.19
Age
-0.01
0.04
-0.03
Age
-0.02
0.04
-0.05
Length of U.S residency
0.01
0.04
0.03
Length of U.S. residency
-0.01
0.04
-0.02
Ethnicity
-0.08
0.06
-0.12
Ethnicity
-0.06
0.05
-0.09
Race/ethnicity-based
-0.25
0.04
-0.56
Foreigner-based
-0.28
0.04
-0.63
discrimination***
R²
discrimination***
0.36
R²
Step 4
0.42
Step 4
Gender†
0.06
0.04
0.14
Gender†
0.07
0.04
0.16
Age
-0.01
0.04
-0.03
Age
-0.02
0.04
-0.05
Length of U.S residency
-0.00
0.04
-0.00
Length of U.S. residency
-0.02
0.04
-0.05
91
Ethnicity
-0.09
0.06
-0.14
Ethnicity
-0.07
0.05
-0.11
Race/ethnicity-based
-0.24
0.04
-0.55
Foreigner-based
-0.28
0.04
-0.63
-0.10
0.04
-0.22
discrimination***
Social support family in
discrimination***
-0.09
0.04
-0.21
Social support family in
home country*
R²
home country**
0.40
R²
Step 5
0.46
Step 5
Gender
0.06
0.04
0.13
Gender †
0.07
0.04
0.16
Age
-0.02
0.04
-0.03
Age
-0.02
0.04
-0.05
Length of U.S residency
0.00
0.04
0.00
Length of U.S. residency
-0.02
0.04
-0.05
Ethnicity
-0.10
0.06
-0.14
Ethnicity
-0.07
0.06
-0.11
Race/ethnicity-based
-0.18
0.25
-0.41
Foreigner-based
-0.29
0.23
-0.65
discrimination
discrimination
92
Social support family in
-0.04
0.20
-0.09
Social support family in
home country
Race/ethnicity-based
R²
-0.11
0.20
-0.24
0.02
0.31
0.35
home country
-0.09
0.33
-0.19
Foreigner-based
discrimination × Social
discrimination × Social
support family in home
support family in home
country
country
0.40
R²
0.46
Note: Gender was re-coded as male = -1, female = 1. Ethnicity was re-coded as non-European = -1, European = 1.
†
p < .10. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
93
Table 8
Multiple Hierarchical Regression Results with Interaction between Social Support from Co-nationals and Perceived
Discrimination (Race/Ethnicity-Based and Foreigner-Based) Predicting Acculturative Stress
Acculturative stress
Variables
B
SE
Acculturative stress
β
Step 1
Variables
B
SE
β
Step 1
Gender
0.05
0.05
0.11
Gender
0.05
0.05
0.11
Age
0.01
0.05
0.01
Age
0.01
0.05
0.01
Length of U.S. residency
0.06
0.05
0.12
Length of U.S. residency
0.06
0.05
0.12
R²
0.03
R²
Step 2
0.03
Step 2
Gender
0.06
0.05
0.14
Gender
0.06
0.05
0.14
Age
-0.00
0.05
-0.00
Age
-0.00
0.05
-0.00
Length of U.S residency
0.06
0.05
0.12
Length of U.S. residency
0.06
0.05
0.12
94
Ethnicity
R²
-0.12
0.07
-0.18
0.06
Ethnicity
R²
Step 3
-0.12
0.07
-0.18
0.06
Step 3
Gender†
0.08
0.04
0.17
Gender*
0.09
0.04
0.19
Age
-0.01
0.04
-0.03
Age
-0.02
0.04
-0.05
Length of U.S residency
0.01
0.04
0.03
Length of U.S. residency
-0.01
0.04
-0.02
Ethnicity
-0.08
0.06
-0.12
Ethnicity
-0.06
0.05
-0.09
Race/ethnicity-based
-0.25
0.04
-0.56
Foreigner-based
-0.28
0.04
-0.63
discrimination***
R²
discrimination***
0.36
R²
Step 4
0.42
Step 4
Gender†
0.08
0.04
0.17
Gender*
0.09
0.04
0.19
Age
-0.01
0.04
-0.03
Age
-0.02
0.04
-0.05
Length of U.S residency
0.01
0.04
0.03
Length of U.S. residency
-0.01
0.04
-0.02
95
Ethnicity
-0.08
0.06
-0.11
Ethnicity
-0.06
0.06
-0.09
Race/ethnicity-based
-0.25
0.04
-0.56
Foreigner-based
-0.28
0.04
-0.63
0.00
0.04
0.00
discrimination***
Social support co-
discrimination***
0.01
0.04
0.02
Social support co-
nationals
R²
nationals
0.36
R²
Step 5
0.42
Step 5
Gender†
0.08
0.04
0.17
Gender*
0.09
0.04
0.19
Age
-0.01
0.04
-0.03
Age
-0.02
0.04
-0.04
Length of U.S residency
0.01
0.04
0.03
Length of U.S. residency
-0.01
0.04
-0.02
Ethnicity
-0.08
0.06
-0.12
Ethnicity
-0.07
0.06
-0.10
Race/ethnicity-based
-0.22
0.14
-0.50
Foreigner-based
-0.17
0.12
-0.40
discrimination
discrimination
96
Social support co-
0.05
0.22
0.12
Social support co-
nationals
Race/ethnicity-based
0.20
0.39
-0.22
0.25
-0.48
nationals
-0.06
0.28
-0.13
Foreigner-based
discrimination × Social
discrimination × Social
support co-nationals
support co-nationals
R²
0.17
0.36
R²
0.42
Note: Gender was re-coded as male = -1, female = 1. Ethnicity was re-coded as non-European = -1, European = 1.
†p
< .10. *p < .05. ***p < .001.
97
Table 9
Multiple Hierarchical Regression Results with Interaction between Social Support from Other International Students and
Perceived Discrimination (Race/Ethnicity-Based and Foreigner-Based) Predicting Acculturative Stress
Acculturative stress
Variables
B
SE
Acculturative stress
β
Step 1
Variables
B
SE
β
Step 1
Gender
0.05
0.05
0.11
Gender
0.05
0.05
0.11
Age
0.01
0.05
0.01
Age
0.01
0.05
0.01
Length of U.S. residency
0.06
0.05
0.12
Length of U.S. residency
0.06
0.05
0.12
R²
0.03
R²
Step 2
0.03
Step 2
Gender
0.06
0.05
0.14
Gender
0.06
0.05
0.14
Age
-0.00
0.05
-0.00
Age
-0.00
0.05
-0.00
Length of U.S residency
0.06
0.05
0.12
Length of U.S. residency
0.06
0.05
0.12
98
Ethnicity
R²
-0.12
0.07
-0.18
0.06
Ethnicity
R²
Step 3
-0.12
0.07
-0.18
0.06
Step 3
Gender†
0.08
0.04
0.17
Gender*
0.09
0.04
0.19
Age
-0.01
0.04
-0.03
Age
-0.02
0.04
-0.05
Length of U.S residency
0.01
0.04
0.03
Length of U.S. residency
-0.01
0.04
-0.02
Ethnicity
-0.08
0.06
-0.12
Ethnicity
-0.06
0.05
-0.09
Race/ethnicity-based
-0.25
0.04
-0.56
Foreigner-based
-0.28
0.04
-0.63
discrimination***
R²
discrimination***
0.36
R²
Step 4
0.42
Step 4
Gender†
0.07
0.04
0.15
Gender*
0.08
0.04
0.18
Age
-0.02
0.04
-0.05
Age
-0.03
0.04
-0.06
Length of U.S residency
0.02
0.04
0.05
Length of U.S. residency
0.00
0.04
0.00
99
Ethnicity
-0.09
0.06
-0.13
Ethnicity
-0.07
0.06
-0.10
Race/ethnicity-based
-0.24
0.04
-0.55
Foreigner-based
-0.27
0.04
-0.62
-0.05
0.04
-0.10
discrimination***
Social support other
discrimination***
-0.05
0.04
-0.12
Social support other
international students
R²
international students
0.37
R²
Step 5
0.43
Step 5
Gender†
0.07
0.04
0.15
Gender*
0.09
0.04
0.19
Age
-0.03
0.04
0.05
Age
-0.02
0.04
-0.03
Length of U.S residency
0.02
0.04
0.05
Length of U.S. residency
-0.01
0.04
-0.02
Ethnicity
-0.08
0.06
-0.12
Ethnicity
-0.08
0.06
-0.13
Race/ethnicity-based
-0.34
0.12
-0.77
Foreigner-based
-0.11
0.12
-0.24
discrimination**
discrimination
100
Social support other
-0.22
0.19
-0.50
Social support other
R²
0.22
0.61
-0.37
0.25
-0.83
international students†
international students
Race/ethnicity-based
0.27
0.20
0.23
0.45
Foreigner-based
discrimination × Social
discrimination × Social
support other international
support other international
students
students
0.38
R²
0.44
Note: Gender was re-coded as male = -1, female = 1. Ethnicity was re-coded as non-European = -1, European = 1.
†p
< .10. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
101
Table 10
Multiple Hierarchical Regression Results with Interaction between Social Support from American Friends and Perceived
Discrimination (Race/Ethnicity-Based and Foreigner-Based) Predicting Acculturative Stress
Acculturative stress
Variables
B
SE
Acculturative stress
β
Step 1
Variables
B
SE
β
Step 1
Gender
0.05
0.05
0.11
Gender
0.05
0.05
0.11
Age
0.01
0.05
0.01
Age
0.01
0.05
0.01
Length of U.S. residency
0.06
0.05
0.12
Length of U.S. residency
0.06
0.05
0.12
R²
0.03
R²
Step 2
0.03
Step 2
Gender
0.06
0.05
0.14
Gender
0.06
0.05
0.14
Age
-0.00
0.05
-0.00
Age
-0.00
0.05
-0.00
Length of U.S residency
0.06
0.05
0.12
Length of U.S. residency
0.06
0.05
0.12
102
Ethnicity
R²
-0.12
0.07
-0.18
0.06
Ethnicity
R²
Step 3
-0.12
0.07
-0.18
0.06
Step 3
Gender†
0.08
0.04
0.17
Gender*
0.09
0.04
0.19
Age
-0.01
0.04
-0.03
Age
-0.02
0.04
-0.05
Length of U.S residency
0.01
0.04
0.03
Length of U.S. residency
-0.01
0.04
-0.02
Ethnicity
-0.08
0.06
-0.12
Ethnicity
-0.06
0.05
-0.09
Race/ethnicity-based
-0.25
0.04
-0.56
Foreigner-based
-0.28
0.04
-0.63
discrimination***
R²
discrimination***
0.36
R²
Step 4
0.42
Step 4
Gender*
0.08
0.04
0.17
Gender*
0.09
0.04
0.19
Age
-0.03
0.04
-0.05
Age
-0.03
0.04
-0.06
Length of U.S residency
0.02
0.04
0.05
Length of U.S. residency
0.00
0.04
0.00
103
Ethnicity
-0.08
0.06
-0.11
Ethnicity
-0.06
0.05
-0.09
Race/ethnicity-based
-0.23
0.04
-0.52
Foreigner-based
-0.26
0.04
-0.59
-0.05
0.04
-0.12
discrimination***
Social support American
discrimination***
-0.08
0.04
-0.17
Social support American
friends†
R²
friends
.038
R²
Step 5
0.43
Step 5
Gender*
0.08
0.04
0.17
Gender*
0.09
0.04
0.19
Age
-0.02
0.04
-0.05
Age
-0.02
0.04
-0.05
Length of U.S residency
0.01
0.04
0.02
Length of U.S. residency
-0.03
0.04
-0.08
Ethnicity
-0.07
0.06
-0.11
Ethnicity
-0.06
0.05
-0.09
Race/ethnicity-based
-0.39
0.13
-0.88
Foreigner-based
-0.09
0.12
-0.21
discrimination**
discrimination
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Social support American
-0.32
0.19
-0.70
Social support American
R²
0.21
0.58
-0.41
0.27
-0.90
friends†
friends
Race/ethnicity-based
0.26
0.33
0.25
0.72
Foreigner-based
discrimination × Social
discrimination × Social
support American friends
support American friends
0.40
R²
0.44
Note: Gender was re-coded as male = -1, female = 1. Ethnicity was re-coded as non-European = -1, European = 1.
†
p < .10. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
105
Table 11
Multiple Hierarchical Regression Results with Interaction between Social Support from Online Ethnic Support Groups and
Perceived Discrimination (Race/Ethnicity-Based and Foreigner-Based) Predicting Acculturative Stress
Acculturative stress
Variables
B
SE
Acculturative stress
β
Step 1
Variables
B
SE
β
Step 1
Gender
0.05
0.05
0.11
Gender
0.05
0.05
0.11
Age
0.01
0.05
0.01
Age
0.01
0.05
0.01
Length of U.S. residency
0.06
0.05
0.12
Length of U.S. residency
0.06
0.05
0.12
R²
0.03
R²
Step 2
0.03
Step 2
Gender
0.06
0.05
0.14
Gender
0.06
0.05
0.14
Age
-0.00
0.05
-0.00
Age
-0.00
0.05
-0.00
Length of U.S residency
0.06
0.05
0.12
Length of U.S. residency
0.06
0.05
0.12
106
Ethnicity
R²
-0.12
0.07
-0.18
0.06
Ethnicity
R²
Step 3
-0.12
0.07
-0.18
0.06
Step 3
Gender†
0.08
0.04
0.17
Gender*
0.09
0.04
0.19
Age
-0.01
0.04
-0.03
Age
-0.02
0.04
-0.05
Length of U.S residency
0.01
0.04
0.03
Length of U.S. residency
-0.01
0.04
-0.02
Ethnicity
-0.08
0.06
-0.12
Ethnicity
-0.06
0.05
-0.09
Race/ethnicity-based
-0.25
0.04
-0.56
Foreigner-based
-0.28
0.04
-0.63
discrimination***
R²
discrimination***
0.36
R²
Step 4
0.42
Step 4
Gender
0.07
0.04
0.15
Gender*
0.08
0.04
0.18
Age
-0.02
0.04
-0.05
Age
-0.03
0.04
-0.05
Length of U.S residency
0.02
0.04
0.05
Length of U.S. residency
-0.00
0.04
-0.00
107
Ethnicity
-0.09
0.06
-0.13
Ethnicity
-0.06
0.06
-0.09
Race/ethnicity-based
-0.25
0.04
-0.56
Foreigner-based
-0.28
0.04
-0.62
-0.03
0.08
-0.07
discrimination***
Social support online
discrimination***
0.06
0.04
0.13
Social support online
ethnic support groups
R²
ethnic support groups
0.37
R²
Step 5
0.42
Step 5
Gender†
0.07
0.04
0.16
Gender*
0.08
0.04
0.17
Age
-0.01
0.04
-0.03
Age
-0.03
0.04
-0.07
Length of U.S residency
0.02
0.04
0.03
Length of U.S. residency
0.00
0.04
0.00
Ethnicity
-0.05
0.06
-0.07
Ethnicity
-0.09
0.06
-0.14
Race/ethnicity-based
-0.45
0.09
-1.03
Foreigner-based
-0.10
0.10
-0.22
discrimination***
discrimination
108
Social support online
-0.43
0.15
-1.00
Social support online
R²
0.22
0.82
-0.45
0.24
-1.00
ethnic support groups†
ethnic support groups**
Race/ethnicity-based
0.37
0.42
0.16
1.00
Foreigner-based
discrimination × Social
discrimination × Social
support online ethnic
support online ethnic
support groups**
support groups†
0.42
R²
0.44
Note: Gender was re-coded as male = -1, female = 1. Ethnicity was re-coded as non-European = -1, European = 1.
†
p < .10. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
109
110
Chapter 4
DISCUSSION
Summary and Interpretations of Findings
The results of the present study partially supported the proposed hypotheses. In
the first hypothesis, marginally significant ethnic differences were found in the levels of
acculturative stress. Specifically, non-European international students reported higher
levels of acculturative stress than European international students. However, the mean
scores for acculturative stress for European and non-European international students’
levels of acculturative stress were found to be very low, suggesting both ethnic groups
experienced very little acculturative stress.
Nonetheless, the mean scores for acculturative stress reported in the present study
were found to be higher than previous findings (Lee et al., 2004; Misra et al., 2003; Yeh
& Inose, 2003). For example, the mean scores reported in the present study were found
to be 0.49 points higher than what the mean scores were reported in Misra et al.’s (2003)
study, suggesting international students in the present study reported higher levels of
acculturative stress as compared to international students in these studies. It is important
to note that some of these studies used modified rating scales on the ILS to increase the
variability in acculturative stress scores (Lee et al., 2004; Misra et al., 2003). For
example, Lee at al. (2004) modified the rating scale from 0 (never) to 3 (often) to 0
(never) to 4 (very often). Hence, the mean scores of the present study were adjusted
accordingly in attempting to determine if the current mean scores were similar or
different to the mean scores reported in these previous studies. The findings of the
111
present study provided marginal support of the results in previous research that showed
non-European international students experienced higher levels of acculturative stress than
European international students (Constantine et al., 2004; Poyrazli et al., 2004; Yeh &
Inose, 2003). The current study also found that international students in the present study
reported higher levels of acculturative stress than international students in previous
studies (Lee et al., 2004; Misra et al., 2003; Yeh & Inose, 2003).
When exploring the second hypothesis, no significant differences in the levels of
race/ethnicity-based and foreigner-based discrimination were found between nonEuropean and European international students. The mean scores for race/ethnicity-based
and foreigner-based discrimination for both European and non-European international
students were found to be very low, suggesting both non-European and European
international students experienced very low levels of perceived discrimination
(race/ethnicity-based and foreigner-based). Corresponding to previous findings, the
expectation that non-European international students would report higher levels of
race/ethnicity-based discrimination was not supported. In addition, the findings did not
support that non-European international students experienced higher levels of foreignerbased discrimination when compared to European international students.
Ethnic differences in foreigner-based discrimination were not explored in
previous studies and the assumption that non-European international students will report
higher levels of foreigner-based discrimination than European international students was
based on previous research which focused specifically on race/ethnicity-based
discrimination in international students (Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007; Sodowsky & Plake,
112
1992). Also, the mean scores for race/ethnicity-based discrimination in the current study
were lower than the reported mean scores for race/ethnicity-based discrimination in
previous research (Porazli & Lopez, 2007).
While exploring the relationship between length of U.S. residency and
discrimination (race/ethnicity and foreigner-based), it was found that length of U.S.
residency was not significantly related to race/ethnicity-based discrimination. In contrast,
length of U.S. residency was positively related to foreigner-based discrimination.
Specifically, international students who lived in the U.S. for a longer period of time
reported higher levels of foreigner-based discrimination than international students who
lived in the U.S. for a shorter duration. These findings were slightly different from what
was proposed in the hypothesis and reported in previous research, that international
students who lived longer in the U.S. reported higher levels of race/ethnicity-based
discrimination (Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007).
It is important to note that prior research used a single dimension of perceived
discrimination (race/ethnicity-based) in investigating acculturation-related difficulties in
international students. The current study attempted to expand on and investigate broader
aspects of perceived discrimination (race/ethnicity and foreigner-based). Thus, it is
possible the addition of foreigner-based discrimination in this study may have contributed
to different findings than what was reported in past research. It may be possible that the
longer non-European international students live in the U.S., the more salient their
different English accents and limited English proficiency become in identifying their
foreigner-status in the U.S. For example, Lee and Rice (2007) described that experiences
113
of discrimination in international students can be attributed to their foreign-status, limited
English proficiency, different English accents, and lack of familiarity with the host
culture’s rules and norms. These results show some support that foreigner-based
discrimination should be explored separately in future studies.
The analysis conducted to explore the third hypothesis revealed no significant
ethnic differences in the levels of five sources of social support (family in home country,
co-nationals, other international students, American friends, and online ethnic support
groups). That is, non-European and European international students did not differ
significantly in their reported levels of social support from these five sources (family in
home country, co-nationals, other international students, American friends, and online
ethnic support groups). This finding was directly contradictory to the proposed
hypothesis as it was expected that non-European international students would report
higher levels of social support from family in home country, co-nationals, and online
ethnic support groups and lower levels of social support from other international students
and American friends. However, the mean scores for both European and non-European
international students on social support from family in home country were found to be
very high, suggesting both these ethnic groups received social support from family in
home country. In addition, the mean scores for both European and non-European
international students on the other sources of social support (other international students,
American friends, online ethnic support groups, and co-nationals) were found to be low,
suggesting both these ethnic groups were received lower levels of social support from
these sources. This finding is consistent with previous research that suggested
114
international students received low or inadequate amounts of social support from
American friends (Gareis, 2012). The study by Gareis (2012) revealed that East Asian
international students received lower amounts of social support from American friends
than international students from English-speaking countries. Although the findings of the
present study did not find any significant ethnic differences in the levels of the five
sources of social support (family in home country, co-nationals, other international
students, American friends, and online ethnic support groups) between non-European and
European international students, these findings lend some support to previous findings
that indicated international students received higher social support from family in home
country (Misra et al., 2004; Lee et al., 2004; Ye, 2006a).
While exploring the fourth hypothesis, a significant relationship between
discrimination (foreigner-based and race/ethnicity-based) and acculturative stress was
found after controlling for the covariates of age, gender, length of U.S. residency, and
ethnicity. Specifically, international students who reported higher levels of both
foreigner-based and race/ethnicity-based discrimination reported higher levels of
acculturative stress. These results are consistent with previous research that indicated
that race/ethnicity discrimination was positively related to acculturative stress in
international students (Chavajay & Skowronek, 2008; Sandhu & Asrabadi, 1994;
Sullivan, 2011). However, these studies did not explore foreigner-based discrimination.
Nonetheless, as expected and described in the proposed hypothesis, the findings of this
study supported that both race/ethnicity-based and foreigner-based discrimination were
positively related to acculturative stress.
115
Furthermore, this finding reported that foreigner-based discrimination accounted
for a higher amount of explained variance (42%) in acculturative stress in international
students than race/ethnicity-based discrimination (36%). As shown in Table 5, the
pattern between perceived discrimination (foreigner-based and race/ethnicity-based) and
acculturative stress clearly indicates that while both types of discrimination are positively
related to acculturative stress in international students, foreigner-based discrimination is
the stronger predictor of acculturative stress in international students than race/ethnicitybased discrimination. However, the mean scores for both race/ethnicity-based and
foreigner-based perceived discrimination were found to be very low, suggesting
international students experienced very low levels of race/ethnicity-based and foreignerbased discrimination.
Despite relatively low rates of reported discrimination, the variability for these
scores was related to significant changes in the reporting of acculturative stress,
suggesting international students experienced significant levels of acculturative stress due
to race/ethnicity-based and foreigner-based discrimination. This finding was supportive
of previous research that reported that race/ethnicity-based discrimination was related to
acculturative stress in international students (Sandhu & Asrabadi, 1994). These findings
show some support for examining both race/ethnicity-based and foreigner-based
discrimination and their relationship to acculturative stress in future studies.
In the next set of hypothesis, the relationship between the sources of social
support (family in home country, co-nationals, other international students, American
friends, and online ethnic support groups) and acculturative stress was explored after
116
controlling for the covariates of gender, age, ethnicity, and length of U.S. residency. In
spite of the correlational relationship that was hypothesized between the five sources of
social support (family in home country, co-nationals, other international students,
American friends, and other ethnic support groups) and acculturative stress, it was
interesting to note that only social support from family in home country and American
friends were associated with statistically significant lower levels of acculturative stress in
international students.
When the mean scores of the five sources of social support (family in home
country, co-nationals, other international students, American friends, and online ethnic
support groups) were compared, social support from family in home country had the
highest mean scores, suggesting international students received the highest amount of
social support from family in home country. However, the significant findings suggested
that while both social support from family in home country and American friends were
negatively related to acculturative stress, social support from American friends was a
stronger predictor of acculturative stress in international students.
These findings clearly indicated that despite a relatively low rate of reported
social support from American friends, it was significantly related to acculturative stress
in international students. These findings are consistent with prior research that reported
that higher levels of social support from American friends and family in home country
were related to lower levels of acculturative stress in international students (Chen et al.,
2002; Misra et al., 2003; Lee at al., 2004; Poyrazli et al., 2004). However, contrary to
what was hypothesized, no significant relationship was found between social support
117
with co-nationals, other international students, and online ethnic support groups and
acculturative stress in international students. These findings clearly show social support
from American friends and family in home country provide a significant role in dealing
with the difficulties involved in adjusting to life and culture in the U.S. These findings
show some support for examining these two sources of social support in future studies.
While investigating the sixth hypothesis that social support (family in home
country, co-nationals, other international students, American friends, and online ethnic
support groups) moderates the relationship between perceived discrimination
(race/ethnicity and foreigner-based) and acculturative stress. The results suggest that
higher social support from online ethnic support groups moderated the negative effects of
both race/ethnicity-based and foreigner-based discrimination on acculturative stress in
international students, suggesting that international students who reported higher levels of
perceived discrimination (race/ethnicity-based and foreigner-based) and who reported
higher levels of social support from online ethnic groups, experienced lower levels
acculturative stress. This finding is consistent with the proposition by prior studies that
social support serves as a moderator between a stressor and acculturative stress in
international students (Chen et al., 2002; Jou & Foukada, 1997; Lee et al., 2004;
Mallinckrodt & Leong, 1992).
Furthermore, the results of this analysis revealed that race/ethnicity-based and
foreigner-based discrimination were the strongest predictors of acculturative stress. In
addition, both social support from family in home country and American friends were
118
found to be significant, but lesser predictors of acculturative stress in international
students.
Another important finding in this hypothesis indicated that when interactions
between race/ethnicity-based discrimination and social support from family in home
country and co-nationals were added, the effect of race/ethnicity-based discrimination on
acculturative stress was eliminated. Similarly, when interactions between foreignerbased discrimination and social support from family in home country, co-nationals,
American friends, other international students, and online ethnic support groups were
added, the effect of foreigner-based discrimination on acculturative stress was eliminated.
Likewise, interactions between perceived discrimination (race/ethnicity and foreignerbased) and social support (family in home country and American friends) eliminated the
significant effects of both social support from family in home country and American
friends on acculturative stress in international students.
In conclusion, when the interactions between perceived discrimination
(race/ethnicity and foreigner-based) and social support from family in home country, conationals, other international students, American friends, and online ethnic support
groups were added to the regression models, only social support from online ethnic
support groups was found to moderate the relationship between perceived discrimination
(race/ethnicity-based and foreigner-based) and acculturative stress. This would suggest
there was minimal support of moderating effect of social support on the negative impact
of race/ethnicity-based and foreigner-based discrimination on acculturative stress for
119
international students in the current study. However, further research is needed to further
examine this relationship.
Limitations of the Present Study
The current study had some limitations that should be considered when
interpreting the results. One limitation consists of the generalizability of current sample
of international students to the larger international student population in the U.S. The
current sample of international students may vary from other international students in
universities in the U.S. in a number of ways such as level of education, marital status, and
length of U.S. residency. For example, previous studies included a larger number of
doctoral and married international students (Duru & Poyrazli, 2007; Poyrazli et al., 2004,
Wei et al., 2007). However, the participants in this study were more evenly balanced
between undergraduate and graduate international students. In addition, the sample of the
present study consisted largely of single international students (96%), and this
phenomenon may limit the generalizability of these findings to doctoral or married
international students.
Another limitation is that even within this institution, the current sample size was
relatively small due to a low response rate. Of the approximately 500 international
students who received the email invitation to participate in the study, only 154 (30.2%)
initially responded and with only 81 (16.2%) provided complete information to be
included in the final data analysis. Although the response rate was lower than other
studies with international students (Lee et al., 2004; Duru & Poyrazli, 2007; Poyrazli et
al., 2004), the reason for such a low rate may be attributed to collecting data from a single
120
campus. Some prior studies had collected data from more than one university or college
in the U.S. (Duru & Poyrazli, 2007; Poyrazli et al., 2004). For example, in their study
with Turkish international students, Duru and Poyrazli (2007) collected data from 17
campuses in the U.S. Yet, in another study on international students, the data was
collected from two different universities and the reported response rate was 15% (Sumer
et al., 2008). Nonetheless, it may be beneficial for future studies on international students
to collect data from different colleges and universities. Recruiting international students
from different universities may help future studies in getting an adequate sample size.
Yet another limitation of the current study was the disproportionate low number of
European international students (13%). Furthermore, the non-European sample in the
present study consisted largely of Asian international students (75%). However, the
ethnic distribution in the present study was comparable to the ethnic distribution of
international students in previous studies (Misra et al., 2003; Poyrazli et al., 2004,
Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007; Poyrazli et al., 2010; Yeh & Inose, 2003). For example, the
sample in Poyrazli et al.’s (2010) study consisted of 86% non-European and 14%
European international students. In addition, 63% of the non-European sample consisted
of Asian international students (Poyrazli et al., 2010). This ethnic distribution is
particularly apparent at California State University, Sacramento, where 60% of
international students were Asian and 9.8% were European international students (E. D.
Merchant, personal communication, October 22, 2012). In addition, the ethnic
distribution in the present study is representative of the ethnic distribution of international
121
students in the U.S., where 60% of international students were reported to be Asian and
5.9% were European international students (IIE, 2011).
Another limitation may lie in the use of the interpersonal stress subscale of the
acculturative stress scale (ILS) in the present study. This acculturative subscale was
included five items that were related to race/ethnicity-based and foreigner-based
discrimination. These items were not removed from the scale even though two of the
predictor variables were race/ethnicity-based discrimination and foreigner-based
discrimination. It was assumed that the removal of these discrimination items from the
ILS may possibly affect the psychometric properties and the integrity of the original
scale. Hence, a decision was made to use the ILS with all five subscales intact in the
present study. It may be possible the significant relationship between perceived
discrimination (race/ethnicity-based and foreigner-based) and acculturative stress in the
study may have resulted from a high correlation between both the ILS and discrimination
scales. However, a post hoc analysis conducted without the discrimination items in the
ILS resulted in similar findings. These findings showed that race/ethnicity-based
discrimination was still significantly related to acculturative stress, F(5, 94) = 6.89, p <
.001, and accounted for 27% of the variance in acculturative stress. Similarly, foreignerbased discrimination was still significantly related to acculturative stress, F(5, 94) = 7.51,
p < .001, and accounted for 29% of the variance in acculturative stress.
Implications for Researchers
The current study presents a number of implications for researchers and
counselors. First, the study established that perceived discrimination is a consistent
122
predictor of acculturative stress in international students in the U.S. This finding
supported previous studies that indicated that international students with higher levels of
perceived discrimination experienced higher acculturative stress (Chavajay &
Skowronek, 2008; Sandhu & Asrabadi, 1994). While previous studies have focused on
race/ethnicity-based discrimination, this study attempted to investigate both
race/ethnicity-based and foreigner-based discrimination and its relationship to
acculturative stress. Although the findings suggested that both types of discrimination
were positively related to acculturative stress, foreigner-based discrimination was found
to be a stronger predictor of acculturative stress than race/ethnicity based discrimination.
Hence, it may be beneficial to continue exploring distinct types of this variable and their
relationship to acculturative stress in international students.
Second, only marginally significant ethnic differences in the levels of
acculturative stress between non-European and European international students in the
present study were found. However, the results were comparable to prior studies have
reported that non-European international students experience higher acculturative stress
than European international students (Constantine et al., 2004; Poyrazli et al., 2004; Yeh
& Inose, 2003). It appears the majority of these studies, including the present study, have
attempted to understand the possible differences between European and non-European
international students’ levels of acculturative stress. However, considering the ethnic
distribution in the present study and some other studies (Misra et al., 2003; Poyrazli et al.,
2004; Yeh & Inose, 2003), the majority of international student samples tend to consist
Asian students. Furthermore, the sub-grouping of the Asian sample in the present study
123
found that the majority of students were Indian and East Asian (e.g., Chinese,
Taiwanese). It is possible that international students from one Asian subgroup may differ
from international students from another Asian subgroup on their levels of acculturative
stress. However, within-group differences between Indian and East Asian international
students in relationship to acculturative stress were not tested in the present study as the
small sample size prevented such analyses. Future studies may benefit from exploring
differences in the levels of acculturative stress between various subgroups of Asian
international students.
In addition, social support, specifically from family in home country and
American friends was found to be negatively related to acculturative stress. Also, social
support from online ethnic support groups was found to moderate the effects of perceived
discrimination on acculturative stress. However, these findings suggest that social
support, particularly from family in home country and American friends, was found to
have a significant role to play in the adjustment of international students in the U.S. It
may be beneficial to continue examining this variable in future studies. Also, future
studies may benefit from including other sources of social support such as online social
networking sites as a source of social support to better understand changing patterns of
this variable and its relationship to acculturative stress in international students. In
addition, future studies may include different types of social support such as
informational, practical, and emotional and its relationship to different sources of social
support. It may be possible that international students utilize different sources for
different types of social support. For example, it may be possible that American friends
124
provide informational support to international and family in home country provides
emotional support to international students.
The results of this study have some implications for counselors and staff and
administrators in the offices of international education in U.S. universities and colleges.
One, while prior research has examined the role race/ethnicity-based discrimination in
international students’ adjustment in the U.S., the present study suggested that the role of
foreigner-based discrimination in international students’ adjustment process should be
considered as well. This study found that international students who lived longer in the
U.S. reported higher levels of foreigner-based discrimination than international students
who lived for a shorter period of time. This information may be used by offices of
international offices to increase international students’ awareness of how particular types
of discrimination may affect their adjustment at different time points of their stay in the
U.S. It may be beneficial to include and communicate this information to newly arrived
international students during international students’ orientation programs.
In addition, the results of this study showed that social support from family in
home country and American friends helped international students in dealing with their
acculturative stress. Similar to this finding, a recent study showed that social support
from American friends not only helped international students in reducing stress levels,
but this also helped with their academic performance and language difficulties (Gareis,
2012). Since family members may not be readily available to international students
during their stay in the U.S., it may be beneficial to help international students in building
social support networks that are comprised of American students. Specifically, peer
125
programs are needed in which an international student is matched with an American
student so that international students’ interactions with American students are promoted.
Offices of international education in U.S. universities and colleges can work with other
campus offices and departments to develop such peer programs for international students.
Future Directions in Research
The present study utilized international students from one university and this
resulted in a relatively small sample size. Future studies with international students may
expand their sample size by utilizing international students from more than one university
or institution. Hence, it may be beneficial to contact international student offices of
different universities for recruiting international students from their campuses. When
collecting data, it may also be beneficial to use alternative methods of data collection
such as online surveys, mailing survey packets to international students, and collecting
data from international students in different departments at universities and colleges.
The examination of race/ethnicity-based discrimination has been shown to be
important in studies of acculturative stress and in the present study. In addition, the
present study showed the importance of foreigner-based discrimination to acculturative
stress in international students. It may be beneficial to continue examining this type of
discrimination in future studies. Also, future studies may attempt to explore relevant
predictors, such as English accent, lack of English proficiency, and appearance, to better
understand the causes of foreigner-based discrimination.
In addition, the present study found that length of U.S. residency was related to
foreigner-based discrimination. It may be useful to continue exploring this relationship
126
in future studies. Future studies may attempt to explore how foreigner-based
discrimination changes over a period of time by using longitudinal designs.
Finally, while the present study and previous studies have focused on ethnic
differences in acculturative stress, these differences have been limited to Asian and
European international students. Since, the majority of sample in these studies and the
present study included Asian international students; it may be beneficial to explore ethnic
differences between various subgroups of Asian international students such as Indian,
East Asian, and South Asian.
127
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