A STUDY OF THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN RISK-TAKING, NEIGHBORHOOD
SOCIAL CAPITAL AND LIFE SATISFACTION AMONG ADOLESCENT GIRLS
A Thesis
Presented to the faculty of the Department of Sociology
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
in
Sociology
by
Janelle C. Jones
FALL
2012
A STUDY OF THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN RISK-TAKING, NEIGHBORHOOD
SOCIAL CAPITAL AND LIFE SATISFACTION AMONG ADOLESCENT GIRLS
A Thesis
by
Janelle C. Jones
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Amy Qiaoming Liu, Ph.D
__________________________________, Second Reader
Manuel Barajas, Ph.D
____________________________
Date
ii
Student: Janelle C. Jones
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University
format manual, and that this thesis is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to
be awarded for the thesis.
__________________________, Graduate Coordinator
Amy Qiaoming Liu, Ph.D
Department of Sociology
iii
___________________
Date
Abstract
of
A STUDY OF THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN RISK-TAKING, NEIGHBORHOOD
SOCIAL CAPITAL AND LIFE SATISFACTION AMONG ADOLESCENT GIRLS
by
Janelle C. Jones
The present study investigated the relationship between risk-taking, neighborhood social
capital and life satisfaction among adolescent girls. Survey data were used from the
Health Behavior in School-Aged Children (HBSC) research project and The United
States sample was comprised of 14,817 students, ranging from grades 6 through 10.
Surveys were conducted in the 2001-2002 school year. Results from a multivariate linear
regression model using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) software,
indicated that risk-taking behaviors committed by adolescent girls was significantly
associated with lower life satisfaction, controlling for race, neighborhood social capital,
family affluence, and age. The effect of risk-taking on life satisfaction did not differ
between boys and girls. Black girls had higher life satisfaction scores than that of white
girls. Both neighborhood social capital and family affluence had a positive significant
relationship with life satisfaction. Age also had a significant negative relationship to
girls’ life satisfaction. Results suggest that some forms of adolescent risk-taking
behaviors do effect life satisfaction such as substance use and physical violence. Findings
iv
also suggest a need for programs in schools and the community that address substance
use and focus on developing better social skills with peers to prevent physical violence.
Implementing such programs may deter adolescent girls from partaking in risky
behaviors that may jeopardize their health, public safety, and their life satisfaction.
__________________________, Committee Chair
Amy Qiaoming Liu, Ph.D
_______________________
Date
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my thesis chair Dr. Randall MacIntosh for devoting his time guiding
me throughout this research study. Without him none of this would have been possible. I
also would like to thank my husband, Josh Jones, and my family for supporting me every
step of the way and always believing in me.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements............................................................................................................vi
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................1
2. LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................................4
3. METHODS....................................................................................................................17
4. RESULTS......................................................................................................................22
5. DISCUSSION................................................................................................................25
Appendix A. Means and Standard Deviations...................................................................31
Appendix B. Regression Coefficients and Standard Errors...............................................32
Appendix C. Coefficient Comparison- Gender.................................................................34
References..........................................................................................................................35
vii
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Purpose of the Study
Life satisfaction research has been somewhat sparse when it comes to the study of
children and adolescents with adults being the main focus (Dew and Huebner 1994,
Huebner 1991(a)). However, in recent years there has been an increasing interest in life
satisfaction among children and adolescents and the determinants and correlates of
individual differences in life-satisfaction (Raphael et al. 1996).
Quality of life has many aspects associated with it (Dew and Huebner 1994)
however this article will focus on the role of “life satisfaction” and its association with
adolescent violent and risk-taking behaviors. This article will test the hypothesis that
there is a relationship between gender, life-satisfaction reports and with adolescent
violent and risk-taking behaviors and will contribute to quality of life research involving
children and adolescents.
An individual’s life satisfaction is greatly influenced by both external conditions
(objective) and the individual’s own evaluation of their life (subjective) (Dew and
Huebner 1994). This could include satisfaction with friends, family, and school
experiences. External conditions that can contribute to an individual’s quality of life
could be housing, income levels, friendship networks, and access to health services. An
individual’s subjective interpretations and evaluations of their experiences are most
2
important in comparison to the individual’s objective life circumstances, however (Dew
and Huebner 1994, Diener 2000, Raphael 1996).
In Valois, Zullig, Huebner and Drane 2001 study they explore the various
relationships between life satisfaction and violent/risk taking behaviors among 5,032
adolescents. Their hypothesis, that there is no statistically significant difference in
violent behaviors of adolescents who are satisfied with their life and adolescents who are
not satisfied, was not supported by their findings. The results conclude that there is an
association between violent/risk taking behaviors such as carrying a weapon at school or
riding with a drinking driver, with reduced life satisfaction.
This replication study will investigate the association between risk-taking,
neighborhood social capital and life satisfaction among adolescent girls. There has been
mixed findings from current studies of gender differences and its relationship to both life
satisfaction and risk-taking behaviors and therefore is important to analyze. Gender
differences in life satisfaction could be the cause of differing parental relationships to a
particular gender or the magnitude of peer pressure experienced and relationship with
peers by a certain gender (Ma and Huebner 2008).
Valois et al. 2001 study was implemented over ten years ago and there has been
an increase in published literature on the study of adolescents in recent years.
Conducting a replication of this previous study would contribute to the ever growing
study of adolescent health and quality-of-life. These two bridged areas of study have
3
been quite absent however Valois et al. study illustrated significant relationships
between life satisfaction and violent/risk taking behaviors. Literature has emerged in
recent years, studying the relationship between life-satisfaction and risk-taking behavior
among adolescents.
A more recent study conducted in 2005 by MacDonald, Piquero, Valois, and
Zullig revealed the same results as did Valois et al. 2001 study; life satisfaction is
associated negatively with violent behavior amongst adolescents. These two studies
however used the same cluster sample of 5,032 public high school students who
responded to the South Carolina Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Valois et al. (2001)
acknowledges the study’s weakness that using this sample may not be nationally
representative given that this sample was drawn from a single southern state.
Replicating this study by using a different sample and with more recent results
may reveal different outcomes when it comes to the relationship between life satisfaction
and risk-taking behaviors amongst adolescents, further contributing to life satisfaction
and adolescent risk-taking behavior literature.
4
Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Gender has been found to be an important influence when it comes to the
relationship between life satisfaction and risk-taking (MacDonald et al. 2005, Valois et
al. 2001, Valois et al. 2006, Zullig, Valois, Huebner, Oeltmann, and Drane 2001)
although few studies have analyzed the gender differences. This study will analyze
female differences in the association between risk-taking, neighborhood social capital
and life satisfaction.
Life Satisfaction and Risk Taking Behaviors
The study of the relationship between life satisfaction and risk-taking behaviors for
adolescents has been quite scarce. A body of literature, however, has begun to surface in
the past decade (Newcomb, Bentler, and Collins 1986, Raphael et al. 1996, Valois et al.
2001, Valois et al 2006, MacDonald et al. 2005, Clark and Kirisci 1996, Harris, Duncan,
and Boisjoly 2002, Zullig et al. 2001). With the scarcity of literature analyzing these
variables it is therefore important to further investigate this relationship.
When adolescents have lost meaning in their life and have low perceptions of
future opportunities they often will act out in forms of risk taking behaviors as a way of
releasing tension (Breton 2004, Raphael et al. 1996) or used as a way of “sensationseeking” (Rollison and Scherman 2002). There are higher mortality and morbidity rates
amongst male adolescents than females, mostly because of the self-affirmation theory
5
that males tend to feel the urge of showing bravery and virility which can be shown with
reckless driving, drunkenness, and physical violence (Breton 2004). Adolescents often
have a “nothing to lose attitude” in life, and often commit risk taking, and often violent
behaviors because they feel they already are dissatisfied with their life and therefore their
life couldn’t possibly get any worse (Harris et al. 2002). Based on Problem Behavior
Theory (Jessor 1987, Wilson and Jonah 1988), adolescents often commit risky behaviors
as a coping mechanism for underlying problems in the adolescent’s life. These types of
behaviors are functional for the individual because it allows them to cope with
dissatisfaction in their life, boredom, and lack of connection with social ties whether it is
the neighborhood or family. Prevention efforts for risky behaviors such as drunk driving
should be based on the adolescent’s level of lifestyle and not on the risky behavior itself
(Jessor 1987).
In a study by Raphael (1996), quality of life issues were stated to be associated
with occurrences of risk-taking behaviors such as tobacco and alcohol use however not
based on intensity or frequency of use. Newcomb et al. (1986) discovered that
adolescents having an early dissatisfaction with their future opportunities caused a direct
increase in alcohol use, although the results were small.
Although risk taking behaviors has been found to have a relationship with life
satisfaction, Clark and Kirisci (1996) found opposing findings with no relationship
between life satisfaction and alcohol use. However, it is must be noted that there was
6
only a one-item interviewer rating on adolescent’s life satisfaction and therefore the
results should be carefully interpreted.
Demographics and Life Satisfaction
Studies analyzing both adults and adolescents as the focus have shown that gender along
with other demographic variables (such as race and age) had only a modest relationship
or no relationship at all with life satisfaction (Dew and Huebner 1994, Diener 1994,
Gilman, Huebner, Huebner 1991, Huebner 1991(b), Huebner 1995, Huebner and Dew
1996, Huebner, Laughlin, Ash, Gilman 1998, Palmore and Luikart 1972, Park and
Huenber 2005). However, Raboteg-Saric et al. (2008) found that gender was the only
socio-demographic variable that significantly predicted adolescents' perceived life
satisfaction. In this study, girls were less satisfied with their lives than boys.
Relationships between life satisfaction and race have been somewhat mixed in the past
decade however. In Huebner (1999) and Huebner, Drane, and Valois (2000) there was
no difference in life satisfaction between Black adolescents and Whites. However, it has
been found that Black adolescents tend to have lower life satisfaction in middle school
students (Dew and Huebner 1994). Clemente and Sauer (1976) found that Blacks tended
to be less satisfied with life in comparison to white individuals. However, they
concluded that when putting age into consideration, race is a weaker predictor when it
comes to life satisfaction. This study however was conducted over thirty years ago
therefore the results are quite dated.
7
In a study by Barger, Donoho, and Waymant (2009) Black and Hispanic
individuals were more likely to be dissatisfied and less likely to be very satisfied in
comparison to whites. However, when controlling for SES, this relationship was
weakened for blacks and disappeared for Hispanics.
Life satisfaction was found to be positively correlated with SES (Socio Economic
Status) in Dew and Huebner (1994). However, in a study by Raphael, Rukholm, Brown,
Hill-Bailey (1996) there was a lack of a relationship between quality of life scores and
SES. Also, socioeconomic status had no relationship to alcohol and tobacco use,
although authors did point out the limitations of their study that was based on limited
variability in socioeconomic status.
Social Capital and Life Satisfaction
Not only has life satisfaction been associated with violent, risk taking behaviors, but there
are other important factors to consider such as environmental variables (McCullough,
Huenber and Laughlin 2000). There has been an abundance of studies on psychological
effects of the quality of the physical environment, however very few have used
adolescents as their focus (Proctor, Linley, and Maltby 2009). Neighborhood social
capital has been shown to have tremendous effects on adolescence life satisfaction.
Neighborhood social capital involves relationships and ties to the neighborhood in which
one lives in (Barger et al. 2009, Paxton, Valois, Huebner, and Drane 2006). When a child
8
feels safe in their own neighborhood, inclusion of neighborhood activities and local
organizations goes up (Wright and Fitzpatrick 2006, Jeynes 2001).
It has been discovered that adolescents living in neighborhoods with high problem
levels and dilapidated housing report lower life satisfaction than adolescents whom live
in better, more established, maintained neighborhoods (Proctor et al. 2009, Homel et al.
1989).
Family structure and emotional support is an important factor when it comes to
life satisfaction (Barger et al. 2009, Dew et al. 1994, Park and Huebner 2005, Nickerson
and Nagel 2004, Proctor et al. 2009). Zullig at al. (2005) found that living with other
relatives, non-relatives, or guardians was correlated with life dissatisfaction for most
adolescents. Dew and Huebner (1994) also discovered that family relationships are a
huge influence on life satisfaction among children and adolescents.
Nickerson and Nagel (2004) investigated the many life domains associated with
life satisfaction among adolescents and found that relationships with parents, peers, or
both, were associated with life satisfaction. Trust and communication were found to be
correlated with adolescent’s overall life satisfaction and that poor parent and peer
relationships were negatively correlated with life satisfaction. Consistent findings of
Proctor et al. (2009) were apparent in a more recent study conducted by Oberle,
Schonert-Reichl and Zumbo (2011) where positive social interactions with family, peers,
and the community were highly important to adolescent’s life satisfaction.
9
Psychological stress has been associated with violence in the home. Adolescents
living in homes where the head of households had obtained a higher educational level
were found to have lower levels of depression and hopelessness (DuRant, Pendergrast,
and Cadenhead 1995(b)).
Social Control Theory
According to Travis Hirschi’s social control theory (1969), adolescents who do not make
social bonds with family members and the community tend to deviate from social norms
and are more likely to commit deviant behaviors. Because of weakened social
relationships, an individual may not feel bound to the norms of their community. These
detached individuals do not feel these rules apply to them and therefore break them
because they have no bond to the social order.
Social Capital and Risk-taking Behaviors
Risk-taking, violent behaviors has been found to be correlated with social capital through
many studies (Kowaleski-Jones 2000, Wright et al. 2006, Pickett, Dostaler, Craig,
Janssen, Simpson, Shelley, and Boyce 2006, Raphael 1996, Webster, Gainer, and
Champion 1993, Zimmerman and Maton 1992). In a study conducted by Wade and
Brannigan (1998), they found that the most important variable in predicting risk-taking
behaviors was the relationship between youth and their parents. Their study concluded
that the better the relationship between the adolescent and their parents, the less likely the
10
child would partake in risky behaviors. They also discovered that the greater the
relationship with peers the more likely the child would also engage in risky behaviors.
Without supportive groups such as peers, teachers, and family members, children
who are often victims of violence themselves do not have the means of being protected
therefore commit violent acts in ways of lashing out as a coping mechanism (Breton
2004, DuRant, Getts, Cadenhead, Emans, and Woods 1994(b), Wright et al. 2006).
Being exposed to these toxic environments will most often create violent behavior
(Garbarino 1995) and the adolescent often will legitimize the aggression because they
were treated unfairly (Erdley and Asher 1998).
Ties within the family as well as outside are of great importance when it comes to
whether an adolescent commits risk taking, violent acts (Abbott-Chapman, Denholm, and
Wyld 2008, Breton 2004, Garbarino 1995, Harris et al. 2002, Jeynes 2001, KowaleskiJones 2000). These ties outside the home offer support for children’s parents and the
assurance that their children are being watched when outside the home (Wright et al
2006). Involvement with local institutions such as churches (Dyfoos 1990, Zimmerman
et al. 1992) is shown to decrease the likelihood of a child engaging in violent, risk-taking
behaviors and children living in “involved” neighborhoods are less likely as well
(Cochran 1993, Jeynes 2001). Parents maintaining supportive relationships with their
children are of the utmost importance for the child because it makes the child feel “safe.”
Adolescents with protective, supportive family members will be less likely to resort to
11
gangs or feel they have to carry a gun for protection (Garbarino 1995) as well as other
risky behaviors such as substance use (Dryfoos 1990).
It is explained that adolescents often engage in violent behaviors because of their
lack of interpersonal skills. Interpersonal skills are developed through relationships with
family and the community (DuRant et al 1994(b)). If a child were to come from a broken
family or a neighborhood lacking community and involvement than it seems
understandable that the child uses violence as their resolution because of the lack of
interpersonal skills learned. DuRant, Pendergrast, and Cadenhead (1994) concluded that
the likelihood of engaging in physical fighting was increased if the child came from a
violent family background where the child could have potentially been victimized.
Based on Kowaleski-Jones (2000) findings, living in residentially stable
communities (ie. less neighbors moving in and out of the neighborhood), is associated
with decreases in adolescent problem behaviors which again shows that it is not only
important to live in a stable family environment but also neighborhood. Involvement
with church activities which brings about more trust and support has caused adolescents
to be less likely to engage in violent behaviors (Wright 2006).
According to a study by Bellair and McNulty (2005), social environments have a
tremendous influence on youth violence and aggression (Erdley et al. 1998, Boyce,
Davies, Gallupe, and Shelley 2008). The study found that race was spurious when it
came to violent behaviors among black and white youths. Black males were found to
engage in more violent behavior in comparison to whites however black youth are more
12
likely to be living in a disadvantage community structure thus engaging in more violent
acts.
Family structure within the home is also important when it comes to violent
behaviors as mentioned by Bellair and McNulty (2005). This study found that youth
living in a single-parent, never-married household were also more likely to engage in
violent acts in comparison to youth living with two married biological parents.
Although social capital within the family and the community (neighborhood
social capital) has been shown to have a strong relationship to risk taking behavior
(Boyce et al. 2008) and life satisfaction, certain risky behaviors are also often correlated
with other risky behaviors.
Risky Behavior and their relationship to each other
Many risk-taking behaviors performed by adolescents are often correlates of other risk
taking behaviors such as with sexual risk taking (Valois et al. 1993, Valois et al. 1995,
Valois, Oeltmann, Waller, and Hussey 1999, Valois et al. 2001, Sosin, Koespel, Rivara,
and Mercy 1995), risky driving behavior (Jessor 1987, Nusbaumer and Zusman 1981,
Sarvela, Pape, Odulana, and Bajracharya 1990), cigarette and marijuana use (Alexander
and Klassen 1988) and alcohol consumption (Bailey 1992, Dryfoos 1990, Orpinas,
Basen-EngQuist, Grunbaum, and Parcel 1995, Sosin et al. 1995). Studies have found that
alcohol use was the only risk behavior that was significant across all categories of
number of sexual intercourse partners for all gender/race groups. For black females, the
13
relationship between number of sexual intercourse partners and other risk behaviors such
as fighting, being a date rape victim, being a date violence victim, alcohol, cigarette and
marijuana use were all significant. It was concluded that as the number of sexual partners
a black female has, the more likely they will partake in other risky behaviors. It has been
found that substance use such as cigarettes is often a gateway for alcohol and drug use.
Increasing the frequency of drug and cigarette use may initiate more serious patterns of
substance use (Bailey 1992).
Demographics and Risk Taking Violent Behaviors
Risk-taking and often violent behaviors committed by adolescent males have been found
throughout the literature to be significantly higher than that of their female counterparts
(Langhinrichsen-Rohling, Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, Monson, Meyer, and Langford
1998, Farrow 1985, Abbott-Chapman et al. 2008, Rhodes 2010, Geckil and Dundar 2011,
MacDonald et al. 2005). It has been shown that the gender gap has been narrowing
meaning that females are engaging risk taking behaviors in the same comparable
frequency as males although the context of the risk-taking behaviors are different (Essau
2004, Byrnes, Miller, and Schafer 1999, Figner and Weber 2011).
Gender has been found to be the most important predictor of carrying a weapon
(Valois, Vincent, McKeown, Garrison, and Kirby 1993, Valois, McKeown, Garrison, and
Vincent 1995). These risk-taking and often violent behaviors were frequently more
evident with males although a large proportion of females did participate in a lot of these
14
behaviors as well (Valois et al. 1993). For males it has been discovered that carrying a
weapon is more likely to be associated with aggressive behavior for males, however
carrying a weapon for females was associated with gang fighting (DuRant, Getts,
Cadenhead, and Woods 1995(a)).
In a comparative analysis study conducted by Abbott-Chapman et al. (2008) they
investigated the many harmful, risk taking behaviors being acted out among adolescents
in Australia and if there are still continued gender differences in risky behaviors in
comparison to the adolescent’s parent’s generation. They concluded that gender
differences with risk taking behaviors have narrowed from generation to generation and
that there are more opportunities now for females to commit risky behaviors as much as
males because adolescent females and males tend to have mixed-gender circle of friends.
They found from their focus groups that boys often enjoyed “egging them on” (AbbottChapman et al. 2008:151), them meaning the females which would explain the increase
in risk taking behaviors among female adolescence in comparison to their parents’
generation. They also came to the conclusion that females in the current generation tend
to drive more and hold part-time jobs than their mothers did allowing females to feel
more independent and assertive causing the increase of reckless and drunk driving.
Parental relationships are especially important to females, but the study concluded that
peers can sometimes be more of an influence on female’s choices.
A more recent study has been conducted by Rhodes and Pivik (2010) analyzing
gender differences in risky driving amongst teenagers and found that males did engage in
15
more risky driving than females (Farrow 1985). The explanation behind the findings of
the gender differences in risky driving behavior was attributed to differences in
perceptions of risk and risky behavior enjoyment. Male drivers more likely to report both
enjoying risky driving behaviors and perceiving them as less risky than female drivers.
White adolescents are more likely to be heavy drinkers than that of Black
adolescents although less likely to admit to problems they encounter from their drinking
(Bailey and Rachal 1993). An explanation of this could be that the Black community
may have a lesser tolerance for drinking and may have greater consequences for lower or
any levels of use. Black adolescents may experience less peer pressure in comparison to
White adolescents.
In Valois et al. 2001 study that is being replicated here, the type and magnitude of
the risky/violent behaviors and life satisfaction were significantly influenced by gender.
This study will focus on female differences in the association between risk-taking
behaviors, neighborhood social capital and life satisfaction. The hypotheses for this
study is that there is a stronger correlation between risk-taking and life satisfaction for
females than for males after controlling for race, family affluence, neighborhood social
capital, and age. Risk-taking is negatively correlated with life satisfaction, after
controlling for gender, race, family affluence, neighborhood social capital, and age.
Neighborhood social capital is positively associated with life satisfaction after controlling
for gender, race, family affluence, and age. Because of the compelling evidence seen in
16
the many recent studies with the correlation of gender, life satisfaction, and risk-taking
behaviors, it is important to analyze these variables further.
17
Chapter 3
METHODS
Sample
The data used in this study were part of an investigation by the international the Health
Behavior in School-Aged Children (HBSC) research project that set out to examine
health behavior, lifestyles and their context in adolescents. The study’s goal was to bring
about awareness of health promotion geared at school-aged children at the national and
international levels. The United States sample was comprised of 14,817 students,
ranging from grades 6 through 10 and the surveys were conducted in the 2001-2002
school year. Simple random sampling was used for class selection from a frame of
classes that represented the target grade in a selected school. Clustered sampling design
was used to select the students. To ensure that students were equally likely to be
included in the sample, classes within schools were selected by using a weighted
probability technique.
The survey took approximately 45 minutes to complete and was administered in a
classroom setting by a school representative (teacher, nurse, guidance counselor, etc.).
Two questionnaires were administered: one for high school students consisting of 92
multiple-choice questions and one for middle school students consisting of 77 multiplechoice questions. The questionnaires were identical with the exception that high school
students were asked about dieting practices, injuries, and drug use.
A multiple regression analysis will be conducted because of the multivariate
model. The single continuous dependent variable (life satisfaction) is measured on a ten
18
point scale and predicting the independent variable being used (risk-taking/violent
behaviors). We will be controlling for demographic variables, family affluence, and
neighborhood social capital in order to examine a potential relationship with life
satisfaction and risk taking behaviors.
Due to the nature of the data set, SPSS must be used because of the clustering of
the complex sample. This clustering must be taken into account to ensure that the
variance is estimated correctly. Individuals from the same cluster will often times be
under the same conditions (same neighborhood) or view-points. This occurrence is
called intraclass correlation which complicates the calculations of standard errors and
increases them (West 2008).
Hypotheses:
H1: Risk-taking is negatively correlated with life satisfaction, after controlling for race,
family affluence, neighborhood social capital and age.
H2: There is a stronger correlation between risk-taking and life satisfaction for girls than
for boys after controlling for race, family affluence, neighborhood social capital and age.
H3: Neighborhood social capital is positively associated with life satisfaction after
controlling for race, family affluence and age.
H4: Being black will have a negative relationship to life satisfaction.
H5: Family affluence and life satisfaction will have a positive relationship.
H6: Age will have a negative relationship with life satisfaction for girls.
19
Dependent Variable
Life Satisfaction
Students were asked “Here is a picture of a ladder. The top of the ladder ‘10’ is the best
possible life for you and the bottom ‘0’ is the worst possible life for you. In general,
where on the ladder do you feel you stand at the moment?”
Control Variables
Race/Ethnicity
Students were asked “What is your race?” with possible answers being Native American
or Alaska Native=1, Asian=2, Black or African American=3, Native Hawaiian or Other
Pacific Islander=4, White=5, and Two or More Races=6.
Neighborhood Social Capital
The variables that were selected to measure neighborhood social capital from the dataset
were topics on how the student feels about their local area in which they live, asking how
they feel about particular statements such as, “It is safe for younger children to play
outside during the day..” , “People say ‘hello’ and often stop to talk to each other in the
street”, “It is safe for younger children to play outside during the day”, “You can trust
people around here”, “There are good places to spend your free time (e.g., leisure centers,
parks, shops)”, “I could ask for help or a favor from neighbors”. Answer selections for
all of these statements were labeled “Strongly agree”=5, “Agree”=4, “Neither agree nor
disagree”=3, “Disagree”=2, and “Strongly Disagree”=1.
20
Family Affluence
Family affluence was measured by a few variables from the dataset. “Does your family
own a car, van, or truck?” with potential answer selections being “No”=1, “Yes, one”=2
“Yes, two or more”=3. For the purpose of this study the variable was recoded as
“No”=0, and “Yes, one or more”=2. “During the past 12 months, how many times did
you travel away on vacation with your family?” with potential answer selections being
“Not at all”=1, “Once”=2, “Twice”=3, “More than twice”=4. This variable was also
recoded as “Not at all”=0, “Once”=1, “Twice”=2, and “More than twice”=3. Ownership
of computers was asked “How many computers does your family own?” with “None”=1,
“One”=2, “Two”=3, and “More than two”=4. Again, the variable was recoded as
“None”=0, “One”=1, “Two”=2, “More than two”=3. “Do you have your own bedroom
for yourself?” with potential answers being “No”=1 and “Yes”=2. This variable was
recoded as “No”=0 and Yes=”1”.
Age
Students were asked “How old are you?” with the calculated age rounded down.
Independent Variable
Risk Taking Behaviors
Risky behaviors were measured by asking students the following questions: “During the
past 12 months, how many times were you in a physical fight?” with “I have not been in
a physical fight”=1,”One time”=2, “Two times”=3, “Three times”=4, “Four times or
21
more”=5, “At least one time”=6. This variable was recoded as “I have not been in a
physical fight”=0 and “Between one and four or more times”=1. “During the past 30
days, on how many days did you carry a weapon, such as a gun, knife, or club?” with
possible answer selections being “I did not carry a weapon during the last 30 days”=1,
“One day”=2, “Two to three days”=3, “Four to five days”=4, “Six or more days”=5, and
“At least one day”=6. This variable was also recoded as “I did not carry a weapon during
the last 30 days”=0, and “Between one and six days”=1.
Frequency of smoking tobacco was also asked with “How often do you smoke
tobacco at present?” with answers being “Everyday”=4, “At least once a week, but not
every day”=3, “Less than once a week”=2, and “I do not smoke”=1. An automatic
recode reversing these values was implemented. Questions on drinking experiences were
also asked such as “Have you ever had so much alcohol that you were really drunk?”
with “No, never”=1 and “Yes, once”=2, “Yes, 2-3 times”=3, “Yes, 4-10 times”=4, “Yes,
more than 10 times”=5.
22
Chapter 4
RESULTS
This main interest in this replication study is analyzing the association between
risk-taking, neighborhood social capital and life satisfaction among female adolescents.
Results showed that 15.4% of variation in life satisfaction in girls is explained by risk
taking behaviors, neighborhood social capital, age, race, and family affluence.
The first hypothesis has been supported by the results of the regression model that
risk taking behaviors are negatively correlated with life satisfaction, after controlling for
gender, race, family affluence, neighborhood social capital and age. All risk-taking
variables had a significant relationship to life satisfaction with the exception of carrying a
weapon in the last 30 days. If a girl acknowledged to being in one or more fights in the
past 30 days, life satisfaction decreased by .305 units. For each additional unit of
frequency in smoking, life satisfaction in girls decreased by .282 units and as the
frequency of getting drunk increased life satisfaction in girls decreased by .192 units.
The second hypothesis is that there is a stronger correlation between risk taking
and life satisfaction for girls than for boys after controlling for race, family affluence,
neighborhood social capital and age was proven by the model. All risk-taking variables
were significant among boys and girls with the exception of carrying a weapon in the last
30 days. None of the boys’ and girls’ risk-taking behaviors were significantly different
from each other however. For girls, for every additional unit of fighting, life satisfaction
decreased by .305 units in life satisfaction in comparison to boys units in life satisfaction
23
decreasing by only .255 units. For girls, for every additional unit of smoking frequency,
life satisfaction decreased by .282 units in comparison to boys life satisfaction decreasing
by .197 units. For girls, for every additional unit of being drunk, life satisfaction
decreased by .192 units in comparison to boys life satisfaction decreasing by .110 units.
As noted, however, the differences were not statistically significant.
Results supported the third hypotheses that neighborhood social capital is
positively associated with life satisfaction after controlling for race, family affluence and
age. For every one-unit increase in neighborhood social capital, life satisfaction
increased by .122 units for girls. The higher the neighborhood social capital for girls, the
more satisfied they were with their life.
Results did not support the fourth hypothesis that Black girls will have a negative
relationship to life satisfaction. Race was analyzed and there was a positive relationship
where girls identifying as Black were statistically significantly higher in their life
satisfaction (b=.388). Findings showed that the only racial difference was between
Blacks and Whites.
The fifth hypothesis that family affluence and life satisfaction are positively
correlated was proven true by the model. For every one-unit increase in family affluence,
life satisfaction increased by .081 units and had a significant relationship.
24
Age had a significant relationship to life satisfaction and supports the sixth
hypothesis that age and life satisfaction has a negative relationship. Results showed that
for every additional year in age life satisfaction decreased by .094 units.
Living in rural areas was significant to life satisfaction in comparison to living in
suburban areas. Living in rural areas increased life satisfaction by .219 units. Residing in
urban areas however was not statistically significantly different from residing in suburban
areas.
25
Chapter 5
DISCUSSION
The limited amount of prior literature can help explain the findings from this
study on adolescent girls. The results suggest that there is a substantial relationship with
risky behaviors and adolescent girls’ dissatisfaction with their life. Although there is a
limited amount of literature on these topics, the results from this study suggest a
significant relationship between risky behaviors and life satisfaction in adolescent girls.
As what was found from this study, a longitudinal study by Bogart, Collins,
Ellickson, and Klein (2007) found the same significant relationship between risky
behaviors and life satisfaction. Their study suggests that adolescent substance use
predicts subsequent substance use, low income, and poor health which then lead to
reduced subjective well-being over time. If adolescents continue on through life
committing risky behaviors such as smoking, drinking and fighting this may have an
effect on how others view them. Disapproval from peers, family, and the community
can result in a decrease of social support which then decreases their life satisfaction.
(Chassin et al. 2003, Diener et al. 1999, Newcomb et al. 1986). An increase of substance
abuse programs for adolescents and programs geared at developing social skills for
adolescents such as training tactics with resolving fights with other peers in non-violent
manners may be effective. Perhaps programs focusing on the social consequences of
children’s choices may deter children from committing risky behaviors would then
decrease the likelihood of having dissatisfaction in life.
26
It was found from this study that risk-taking behaviors among adolescent girls is
negatively correlated with life satisfaction, as was found with Valois et al. 2001 study
with boys and girls. Other previous studies also support the findings that there is a
relationship between life satisfaction and risky-taking behaviors among adolescents
(Breton 2004, MacDonald et al. 2005, Raphael 1996, Newcomb et al. 1986, Rollison and
Scherman 2002, Zullig et al. 2001, Valois et al. 2006) although no difference was found
between boys and girls.
Gender neutrality was apparent in this study as well as many others suggesting
that adolescent girls do not have a stronger correlation with risk taking behaviors and life
satisfaction in comparison to boys (MacDonald et al. 2005, Valois et al. 2001, Valois et
al. 2006, Zullig, Valois, Huebner, Oeltmann, and Drane 2001). Children are being raised
in a more gender neutral society in comparison to previous generations which may have
caused the little difference in gender. It has been reported that more young girls are now
beginning to have circles of friends of both boys and girls causing girls to perhaps be an
equal with boys. Girls have begun to see themselves as equals with their male
counterparts and act out in the same manners as boys such as risky behaviors such as
smoking and fighting (Abbott-Chapman 2008). The lack of gender differences is also
apparent perhaps because familial relationships have been found to be more important
than any other relationship in an adolescent’s life including neighborhood relationships
(Barger et al. 2009, Dew et al. 1994, Park and Huebner 2005, Nickerson and Nagel 2004,
Proctor et al. 2009, Dew and Huebner 1994, Nickerson and Nagel 2004, Oberle et al.
27
2011, Zullig 2005). In future studies parental relationships and living situations should
be used to see if there is a difference with life satisfaction and risk taking behaviors
between boys and girls.
It was found that when neighborhood social capital increased, life satisfaction also
increased which is supported by past studies. It has been found that children who are
more engaged in their community tend to have higher life satisfaction (Proctor et al.
2009, Homel et al. 1989) and lower likelihood of engaging in risky behaviors (DuRant et
al. 1994(b), Dyfoos 1990, Zimmerman et al. 1992, Cochran 1993, Jeynes 2001,
Kowaleski-Jones 2000, Boyce et al. 2008). Adolescents spend a lot of their time outside
the home therefore having a strong sense of community in a child’s neighborhood is
critical for creating positive youth development such as life satisfaction (Oberle et al.
2012). Occurrences and relationships outside the home are important with a child’s life
satisfaction, but what goes on inside the home is an important factor as well.
From the results, as family affluence increased so did life satisfaction for
adolescent girls. The explanation behind these results could be for obvious reasons. The
more stable, affluent environment a child or adult is in the more likely they will be happy
with their life and their circumstances (Dew et al. 1994). A child having annual family
trips, having their own room and parents having higher income explains why a child
would be more satisfied with their life and perhaps not have the desire to commit thrill
seeking behaviors.
28
As girls increase in age, their life satisfaction decreases. This could be explained
by adolescents being more conscious of their surroundings and quality of life. This is
consistent with previous studies where age was a factor with the relationship between risk
taking behaviors and life satisfaction (Valois et al. 2001, Geckil 2011, Zullig et al. 2008).
Also, these results can be explained by a normal development phenomenon where
adolescents are faced with challenges related to their transitions from childhood into
adulthood (Goldbeck et al. 2007).
Racial differences were apparent in this study, where the relationship between life
satisfaction and risky behaviors was stronger for black girls than for white girls. Black
girls tended to score higher in life satisfaction in comparison to white girls. According to
Williams, Yu, Jackson, and Anderson (1997), black individuals tend to have more
frequent exposure to adversity, becoming more familiar to stress and have greater
emotional flexibility than that of a white girl. However there are theories explaining
response scale differences between black and white respondents. According to Bachman
and O’Malley’s 1984 study, they concluded that blacks were more likely than whites to
use the extreme response categories on Likert-type scales such as the Life Satisfaction
Scale. Differences in culture could be an explanation as to why this is taking place.
Bachman and O’Malley’s 1984 study explains the possibility that racial differences might
be explained by subcultural differences in linguistic styles where blacks may have more
willingness to express themselves in unqualified terms than whites. All other races were
not significantly different from whites, which even further reinforces this explanation.
29
Another limitation is that self-reported measures such as a child rating their level
of life satisfaction are entirely dependent on the honesty and openness of the adolescent.
However, the life satisfaction measure that was used in this study has been used in many
prior studies and has been found to be valid and reliable (Dew 1994, Diener 1994).
It was also found that living in rural areas was significant in relation to life
satisfaction where living in rural areas increased life satisfaction in comparison to
adolescents living in the suburbs. Bachman and O’Malley’s (1984) study found that
adolescents living in southern-rural regions tended to have higher agreement scores
although this may be associated with blacks living in more rural areas due to the cultural
heritage of most blacks.
Another explanation to differences in life satisfaction based on region is that rural
areas often have a stronger support system, where there is autonomy and attachment to
the community. This was found to all be associated with emotional well-being in a study
conducted by Glendinning, Nutall, Hendry, Kloep and Wood (2003).
It is important to emphasize from these findings that an adolescent’s life
satisfaction is very dependent on neighborhood environment and family affluence and is
important to address this problem. According to Kowaleski-Jones’ 2000 study, without
neighborhood social capital, adolescent development could become impaired. With the
implementation of more after school programs in communities, neighborhood watch
programs, and an increase in overall community involvement, children may not feel the
30
need to engage in risky behaviors which then will decrease the likelihood of having lower
satisfaction with life.
31
Appendix A.
Means and Standard Deviations
Variable
Mean
Standard Deviation
Life Satisfaction
7.35
.335
Neighborhood Social Capital
Scale
19.30
.008
.30
.014
.1663
.0394
.0286
.0076
.0468
.088
.175
.165
.241
.162
.2611
.065
Family Affluence Scale
Race: (white omitted)
Black
Asian
American Indian
Hawaiian
Two or More
Fighting Frequency
.0647
.136
Carrying a Weapon in Last 30
Days
1.25
.065
Smoking Frequency
1.42
.051
Been Drunk
13.46
.019
.3459
.3626
.070
.076
Age
Urbanicity
Rural
Urban
32
Appendix B.
Regression Coefficients and Standard Errors
Independent Variables
Neighborhood Social Capital
Scale
Family Affluence Scale
Race: (white omitted)
Black
Asian
American Indian
Hawaiian
Two or More
Fighting Frequency
Carrying a Weapon in Last 30
Days
Smoking Frequency
Drunk Frequency
Age
Urbanicity:
Rural
Urban
Intercept
Dependent Variable: Life Satisfaction
.122***
(.008)
.081***
(.014)
.388***
(.088)
-.173
(.175)
.070
(.165)
.054
(.241)
-.274
(.162)
-.305***
(.065)
-.063
(.136)
-.282***
(.065)
-.192***
(.051)
-.094***
(.019)
.219**
(.070)
.111
(.076)
6.777***
(.335)
33
R Square
.154
F
409.634***
Number of Cases
10490
*p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001
Note: Number in parenthesis is the standard error
34
Appendix C.
Coefficient Comparison – Gender
Variable
Girl’s
Girls’
Boy’s
Boy’s
Difference t
Significance
Parameter SE
Parameter SE
Fighting
-.305
.065
-.255
.057
-.05
-.58
.282
Weapon
-.063
.136
-.101
.078
.038
.24
.404
Smoking
-.282
.065
-.197
.065
-.085
-.92
.178
Drunk
-.192
.051
-.11
.043
-.082
-1.23
.109
35
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