Prejudice Quotes
“Travel is fatal to prejudice, bigotry, and narrow-mindedness.”
--- Mark Twain
“Few people are capable of expressing with equanimity opinions which differ from
the prejudices of their social environment” --- Albert Einstein
“He flattered himself on being a man without any prejudices; and this pretension
itself is a very great prejudice” --- Anatole France
“Prejudice is a great time saver. You can form opinions without having to get the
facts” --- E. B. White
Prejudices are rarely overcome by argument; not being founded in reason they
cannot be destroyed by logic” --- Tryon Edwards
Some Definitions *
Stereotypes
(Generalized beliefs about the characteristics of a
group – good or bad)
Prejudice
(Dislike based on faulty and inflexible
generalizations; either felt or expressed. It may be
directed toward a group as a whole or toward
individuals because of their group membership)
Discrimination
(Different treatment of people based on their
membership of a group)
Prejudice and Discrimination
Types (just about anything):
• Sex
• Race
• Age
• Religion
• Attractiveness (and height & weight)
• Accent
• Hair color
• Sexual orientation
• Social economic status (e.g., money)
• Disability
• Nationality
Development of Prejudice
• Socialization (e.g., parents, peers, media)
• Relative status and competition for resources (e.g., Realistic Conflict Theory)
• Social identity theory (e.g., In versus Out-Groups)
• Cognitive processes (e.g., information processing, decision making)
(e.g., Negative behavior = more memorable, influential; Minority status =
distinctive)
Institutional Prejudice
What is it?
Gender Discrimination Examples & Institutional
Prejudice
• Voting rights (Granted in 1920) link
• Jury service (not until S.C. Case in 1975 that service could not be confined to men)
• Access to athletics (title ix in 1972)
• Theory of Planned Behavior RIGHTS AMENDMENT (ERA) link
[Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the united states or by any
state on account of sex]
• Title VII of the Civil Rights Act [sex introduced to defeat the bill]
• Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) [focus on maternity leave]
• Medical insurance coverage (e.g., birth control, examinations)
• Sexual harassment (1986 supreme court case; damage and liability limitations)
Circa 1983
Measurement of Attitudes
~ Some Attitudes Towards Women Scale Items ~
1 (Highly Disagree) to 5 (Highly Agree)
• The initiation of dating should come mostly from a man.
• Intoxication among women is worse that intoxication among men.
• The satisfaction of a husband’s sexual desire is a fundamental obligation of every
wife.
• Women should be as free to initiate marriage as men.
• The intellectual leadership of a community should largely be in the hands of men.
• Swearing and obscenity is more repulsive in the speech of a woman than a man.
• Women should worry less about their rights and more about becoming good wives
and mothers.
• A wife should make every effort to minimize irritation and inconvenience in the male
head of the family.
1 (Highly Disagree) to 7 (Highly Agree)
_____ Most old people get set in their ways and are unable to change
_____ It is foolish to claim that wisdom gets better with old age
_____ Most old people tend to let their homes become shabby and unattractive
_____ Most old people spend too much time prying into the affairs
of others and giving unsought advice
_____ Most old people should be more concerned with their personal appearance;
they’re too untidy
_____ If old people expect to be liked, their first step is to try to get rid of their
irritating faults
_____ Old people have too much power in business and politics
_____ Most old people make me feel ill at ease
Presentation of Females in the Media
G-rated Films (Family Films)
• Males outnumber females 3 to 1 (In G,, PG, PG-13, R-rated: 2.7 to 1 males or 73%)
• TV for children 11 and under: males 2x more prevalent
Figures based on studies conducted by Dr.
• 83% of the narrators are male
Stacy Smith, Ph.D. at the USC Annenberg
School for Communication & Journalism
(Gender stereotypes: An analysis of
popular films and TV; 2008)
• 85.5% of characters are White, 4.8% are Black, and 9.7 from other ethnic backgrounds
(e.g., Hispanic, Asian)
• Females are almost four times as likely as males to be shown in sexy attire (In G, PG,
PG-13), R-rated: females 5x more likely to be shown in revealing attire and 3x more likely
to be shown with a thin figure)
• Animation versus live action: females more likely to have small waists (37% vs. 6.9) and
unrealistic body type (22.7% vs. 1.2%)
• From 2006 to 2009 not one female character was depicted in G-rated family films in the
field of medical science, as a business leader, in the law, or in politics.
• 80.5% of all working characters are male and 19.5% are female, which is a contrast to
real-world statistics of women comprising 50% of the workforce
• Only 7% of directors, 13% of writers, and 20% of producers are female
More on Females in the Media
Stacey Smith et al. recently analyzed 11,927 speaking roles on prime-time television
programs aired in spring 2012, children's TV shows aired in 2011 and family films
(rated G, PG, or PG-13) released between 2006 and 2011.
44.3 percent of females were gainfully employed -- compared with 54.5 percent of males.
Women across the board were more likely to be shown wearing sexy attire
Male-female ratio in STEM fields was 14.25 to 1 in family films and 5.4 to 1 on prime time TV.
Percentages of speaking female characters in each media form: Women made up 28.3 percent
of characters in family films, 30.8 percent of characters in children's shows, and 38.9 percent of
characters on prime time television. In over, 1000 top grossing fills (2002-2012, 4.4% directors
were female)
Females are more likely than males to be depicted in a stereotypical light (caregivers,
romantically involved, lacking employment)
Females are far less likely to be shown in films as holding clout and powerful positions in
political (e.g., Senators, Representatives), financial (e.g., CEO), or legal (SC Justices) arenas.
Why so important?
2011 Kaiser Family Foundation: In US, those from ages 8-18 consume an average of 7,5 hours
of entertainment media daily. 71% have TVs in bedroom
Commercials in Prime Time (speaking roles)
White 83.3%
Black 12.4%
Asian 2.3%
Latino 1.0%
Native American .4%
Source: Mastro & Stern (2003) Representations of race in television commercials: A content
analysis of prime-time advertising. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media
Television Images (cont.)
WHO is NOT on TV?
• The Elderly
• Hispanics
U.S Census 2010: U.S. Hispanic population surged 43%, rising to 50.5
million in 2010 from 35.3 million in 2000. Latinos constitute 16% of the
nation's total population of 308.7 million
WHO IS on Prime Time TV?
• Young, Attractive, Financially Successful
Sherif’s Robbers Cave (Boys Camp) Study *
•
Introduction of competition (e.g., baseball, football, tug-of-war)
Result ---
•
Open hostility to out-group members
•
Greater in-group solidarity
Sherif (cont.)
~ Group Development ~
• Leaders selected
• Nicknames chosen
• Division of labor established
• Norms emerged
• Sanctions developed
Sherif (cont.)
Ineffective solution --• Increased social contact between group members (boys fought
and argued more)
Other common practices used in society:
• Presentation of accurate/favorable information about the other
group
• Bring leaders together
• Attend religious services
Solution -Work on common goals; everyone has to work together (e.g., break in water main,
car problems, $ for movie)
40
% best
friend in
out30
group
Eagles
Rattlers
20
10
0
Before
Cooperation
After
Cooperation
Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination
Key Factors (Allport, Sherif, Others) *
• Interdependence
• Equal Status Contact
• Work on Common Goals
• Friendly Atmosphere (non threatening)
• Exposure to multiple others from each group
• Existence of Equality Norms (e.g., Authority support)
Jigsaw Classroom
[For specific steps see: http://www.jigsaw.org/steps.htm]
Process: Each person is given
information to present to the
group that is valuable to find a
solution to a given problem
Timeframe --45 minutes, 3 times/week
Specific Jigsaw Procedure (10 Steps)
1) Divide students into 5- or 6-person jigsaw groups (ensure diversity in terms of
gender, ethnicity, race, ability)
2) Appoint one student from each group as the leader (e.g., initially, most
mature)
3) Divide lesson into 5-6 segments. For example Eleanor Roosevelt: (1) Her
childhood, (2) Her family life with FDR and their children, (3) Her life after FDR
contracted polio, (4) Her work in the White House as First Lady, and (5) Her life
and work after FDRs death
4) Give each student one segment to learn (ensure students have direct access
only to their own segment)
5) Allow students time to read over their segment at least twice
Specific Jigsaw Procedure (10 Steps)
6) Form temporary "expert groups" by having one student from each jigsaw
group join other students assigned to the same segment
7) Bring the students back into their jigsaw groups
8) Ask each student to present her or his segment to the group. Encourage others
in the group to ask questions for clarification
9) Float from group to group, observing the process. If any group is having
trouble (e.g., a member is dominating or disruptive), make an appropriate
intervention. At the end of the session, give a quiz on the material so that
students quickly come to realize that these sessions are not just fun and games but
really count
10) After the session, give a quiz so that students realize that this counts
Source: http://www.jigsaw.org/steps.htm
Jigsaw Classroom Results *
• Increased liking for classmates
• Increased self-esteem
• Increased liking for school
• Decreased negative ethnic stereotypes
• Higher scores on standardized tests
Additional Jigsaw Classroom Results
• Perception of Oneness (reduction of in versus out-group
thinking)
• Greater ability to role-take (empathize with others)
• Different attributions for success & failure (i.e., more
external attributions for failures of others; avoidance of
fundamental attribution error)
Female Attractiveness and Support for the Feminist Movement
30 photos of women rated in terms of
attractiveness (5-point scale)
Procedure -- Place 15 pictures into
each pile
Support feminist movement
Do not support feminist
movement
Results --• Less attractive females perceived as feminist
• No differences between males & females
• No effect of rater’s own attitudes regarding women's liberation
Female Attractiveness and Corporate Success *
Gender
Female
Regular
Male
Fast
Regular
Fast
Unattractive
Attractive
X
Rated on various factors (e.g., ability, integrity, likeability)
• Key is perception of levels of femininity. If highly feminine, not seen as very
capable.
Summary:
Reasons for the success of a rapidly rising attractive
female:
• Less due to ability and effort
• Perception of “femininity” is key (not attractiveness
per se)
Female Traits and Leadership *
Rate traits of
typical males
Rate traits of
typical females
Rate traits of successful
leaders (managers)
Male traits seen as similar to leadership traits
Males higher ratings on “Dominant-Aggressive” characteristics –
e.g., competitive, need for power, aggressive, assertive (especially by
male raters)
Females higher ratings on “Social Humanitarian” characteristics
-- e.g., sympathetic, desire for friendship, helpful (especially by
female raters)
Female CEOs of Fortune 500 Companies?
23 (Link)
Company
GENERAL MOTORS
HEWLETT-PACKARD
IBM
PEPSICO
A.D.M
LOCKHEED MARTIN
CEO
Mary Barra
2014
Company
AVON
2011 = 12; 2012 = 18
CEO
Sherilyn McCoy
2012
Meg Whitman
2011
SEMPRA ENERGY
Debra Reed
2011
Virginia Rometty
2012
GUARDIAN LIFE
Deanna Mulligan
2011
Indra Nooyi
2006
CAMPBELL SOUP
Denise Morrison
2011
Patricia Woertz
2006
MYLAN
Heather Bresch
2012
Marillyn Hewson
2013
INGREDION
Ilene Gordon
2009
DUPONT
Ellen Kullman
2009
CH2M HILL
Jacqueline Hinman 2014
MONDELEZ
Irene Rosenfeld
2006
GRAYBAR ELECTRIC
GENERAL DYNAMICS
Phebe Nokakovic
2013
GANNETT
TJX
Carol Meyrowitz
2007
FRONTIER COMM.
XEROX
DUKE ENERGY
Ursula Burns 2009
Lynn Good 2013
YAHOO
Kathleen Mazzarella 2012
Gracia Martore
2011
Maggie Wilderotter 2006
Marissa Meyer
2012
Female Representation in Academics
• In 2006, 23% of university presidents were female. In 2011, that
figure climbed to a bit over 26%
• Women hold 24% of full professorships in the United States
FEMALES IN U.S. SENATE (2015)
Dianne
Feinstein
Susan Collins
Amy
Klobuchar
Barbara
Boxer
Barbara Mikulski
Claire
McCaskill
Lisa
Murkowski
Mazie Hirono
Elizabeth Warren
Deb Fischer
Debbie Stabenow
Kirsten
Gillibrand
Maria Cantwell
Jeanne
Shaheen
Kelly Ayotte
Shelley
Capito
Patty Muray
Heidi
Heitkamp
Tammy
Baldwin
Female Representation in Politics
Lower/Single House
Rank
C0untry
Total
#
Women
% Women
1
RW
80
39
48.8
2
SWE
349
165
47.3
3
Costa
Rica
57
22
38.6
4
Finland
200
76
38.0
5
Norway
169
64
37.9
6
Denmark
179
66
36.9
7
Netherlands
150
55
36.7
8
Cuba
609
219
36.0
67
USA
435
79
18.2
Upper House/Senate
Total
#
Women
%
Women
75
22
29.3
100
20
20.0
Current Female Heads of State Worldwide
Country
Leader
Germany
Chancellor Angela Merkel
Liberia
President Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf
Argentina
President Cristina Fernandez de Kirchne
Bangledesh
Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina Wajed
Iceland
Prime Minister Jóhanna Sigurdardóttir
Lithuania
President Dalia Grybauskaite
Costa Rica
President Laura Chinchilla
Trinidad and Tobago
Prime Minister Kamla Persad-Bissessar
Australia
Prime Minister Julia Gillard
Slovakia
Prime Minister Iveta Radicová
Brazil
President Dilma Rousseff
Mali
Prime Minister Cissé Mariam Kaïdama Sidibé
Kosovo
President Atifete Jahjaga
Thailand
Prime Minister Yingluck Shinawatra (Recently removed from office)
Denmark
Prime Minister Helle Thorning-Schmidt
Switzerland
President Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf
Jamaica
Prime Minister Portia Simpson Miller
Source: http://www.filibustercartoons.com/charts_rest_female-leaders.php
Female Heads of State
Source: http://articles.businessinsider.com/2012-03-01/news/31112559_1_femalepresident-female-head-female-political-leaders
Gender and Leadership: Recent Findings
Females as CEOs --increase in stock price
Survey of over 60,000 direct
reports
But, it depends on
industry
No gender preference for one’s
own boss
Price goes up higher if
female CEO is head of
female-dominated
business, otherwise small
decrease in stock price
(Cooke & Glass, 2011)
“Ideal” boss:
54% -- No Preference
13% -- Female Preference
33% -- Male Preference
• Small but significant preference for opposite-sex
bosses
• Increased preference for stereotypical female leader
characteristics (sensitive, supportive) vs. direct,
forceful. Study by Elesser & Lever (2011)
More Recent Findings
Analyzed 99 data sets from 58 journal publications, 30 unpublished dissertations or
theses, five books and six other sources (e.g., white papers)
86% of the samples from studies conducted in the United States or Canada
Basic Results --• Ratings by others indicated that women were perceived as more effective
leaders than men in middle management, business and education organizations
• Women were viewed as more effective in senior-level management positions
• Men rate themselves as significantly more effective than women rate themselves
From: Paustian-Underdahl, S. C., Walker, L. S. & David J. Woehr, D. J. (2014) Gender and Perceptions of
Leadership Effectiveness: A Meta-Analysis of Contextual Moderators. Journal of Applied Psychology
Constitution of the Iroquois Nations: The Great
Binding Law
31. If a Lord of the Confederacy should become seriously ill and be thought near death, the women who are
heirs of his title shall go to his house and lift his crown of deer antlers, the emblem of his Lordship, and place
them at one side. If the Creator spares him and he rises from his bed of sickness he may rise with the antlers on
his brow.
44. The lineal descent of the people of the Five Nations shall run in the female line. Women shall be
considered the progenitors of the Nation. They shall own the land and the soil. Men and women shall
follow the status of the mother.
45. The women heirs of the Confederated Lordship titles shall be called Royaneh (Noble) for all time to come.
46. The women of the Forty Eight (now fifty) Royaneh families shall be the heirs of the Authorized Names
for all time to come.
47. If the female heirs of a Confederate Lord's title become extinct, the title right shall be given by the Lords of
the Confederacy to the sister family whom they shall elect and that family shall hold the name and transmit it to
their (female) heirs, but they shall not appoint any of their sons as a candidate for a title until all the eligible men
of the former family shall have died or otherwise have become ineligible.
90. When the Five Nations' Council declares war any Lord of the Confederacy may enlist with the warriors by
temporarily renouncing his sacred Lordship title which he holds through the election of his women
relatives. The title then reverts to them and they may bestow it upon another temporarily until the war is over
when the Lord, if living, may resume his title and seat in the Council.
94. The men of every clan of the Five Nations shall have a Council Fire ever burning in readiness for a council of
the clan. When it seems necessary for a council to be held to discuss the welfare of the clans, then the men may
gather about the fire. This council shall have the same rights as the council of the women.
Prejudice and Behavior (Race Discrimination) *
 Shoving incident (during a debate)
Black shoves white person = 75% defined it as act of violence
White shoves black person = 17% defined it as act of violence
Study 1: Whites interviewed black applicants
• More distance (less overall immediacy)
• Shorter interview length
• Blacks had more speech errors
Study 2: White interviewers treated White applicants in an
immediate manner (the way Whites were treated in first
study) or non-immediate (as Blacks were treated in 1st
study) Non-immediate applicants performed poorly (more
speech errors) and were rated less highly
From: Word, C. O., Zanna, M. P., & Cooper, J. (1974). The nonverbal mediation of self-fulfilling prophecies in
interracial interaction. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 10, 109-120.
Prejudice in Action – Shooting Decision *
# of
Errors
Per 20
Trials
Most Common Error is
Shooting Unarmed Black
Person
4
3
Points:
2
5 = Not shooting unarmed
10 = Shooting armed
1
Lose 20 = Shot unarmed
Lose 40 = Not shoot armed
0
White
Black
Race of Person in Photo
(From: Correll, Park, Judd, & Wittenbrink, 2002)
Prejudice in Action – Retribution
160
Shock
Intensity 145
(duration
and level)
Black Victim
130
White Victim
115
100
85
No Insult
From: Roger, & Prentice-Dunn (1981)
Insult
Similar results obtained
with other groups (e.g.,
French C Canadians,
Jews, homosexuals,
females)
Effect of Name on Resumes and
Interview Rates *
Name type
Resume Quality
Low
High
“White”
sounding
name
“Black”
sounding
name
50% less chance of
being invited for an
interview versus
“Whites” with high
qualifications
From: Bertrand, M., & Mullainathan, S. (2004). Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha
and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination. The American Economic Review, 991-
Age and Job Performance
Widespread belief that performance decreases with age
Little evidence of this decline --•
Meta-analysis found that older workers are equal to younger
individuals on objective performance measures but scored lower on
subjective, supervisor ratings
• Evidence that older employees are more responsible, productive, and
have less turnover
• Organization with all employees over 50had 18% greater profits, 16%
less turnover, 40% less absenteeism, and 60% less inventory los (theft?)
versus similar companies with younger workers
Age and Interview Questions
QUALIFICATIONS
LOW
AVERAGE
HIGH
YOUNG
OLD
Asked easier
questions than
those who were
younger
*** Also, part of this was due to rater ageism and viewing older people’s
errors are due to stable factors
From: Rupp, D. E., Vodanovich, S. J., & Crede, M. (2006). Age bias in the workplace: The impact of
ageism and causal attributions. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36, 1337–1364.
Effect of Labels *
Randomly assigned labels
Army recruits
Low
Average
High
• This group had better
performance scores on
various measures
• Also viewed their leaders
as more effective
> > > Self-fulfilling prophecy at work (leaders spent more time with the “high”
expectation group)
~ Social Identity Theory ~ *
[In-Group Bias]
They tendency to link one’s self-concept and self esteem with the status and/or
behavior of groups
Also, people tend to reward members of ingroups (e.g., Minimal Group Paradigm) --Self-esteem
Basking in Reflected Glory --Favorite Football Team wins --- “We”; More likely to wear team t-shirt
Favorite Football Team loses --- “They”
Perceived similarity
In and Out-Groups Bias
Selection to the in-group
1) Ability
2) Responsibility
3) Trust
In-group
Out-group
• Liking, spend time with leader
• Less desirable jobs
• Challenging, visible jobs
• Less time spent with supervisor
• Better memory for good behavior
• Treated formally
• Treated warmly
• Lower performance evaluations
• Performance evaluations
• Less rewards
• Allocation of rewards
In Versus Out-Group Judgments *
(Perception of Out-Group Sameness; aka, they
are all alike)
75
%
thought
to make
same
choice
Rutgers
70
65
60
Princeton
55
50
45
In-Group
Judgments
From: Quattrone & Jones, 1980
Out-Group
Judgments
Students thought
out-group
members were
more alike