Quotes "He who angers you conquers you" -- Elizabeth Kenny "Non-violence is the first article of my faith and it is the last article of my creed“ -- Mahatma Gandhi "You cannot simultaneously prevent and prepare for war“ -- Einstein “Anger is never without a reason, but seldom with a good one" -- Benjamin Franklin "If you are patient in one moment of anger, you will escape 100 days of sorrow“ --- Chinese Proverb What are some examples of aggressive or violent behavior? What cultural factors influence the rate of violent crime? Aggression definition: Any behavior that is intended to harm another living being Source: http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u.s/2012/crime-in-the-u.s.-2012/violent-crime/violent-crime National Homicide & Forcible Rape Year Homicide # Homicide rate Forcible Rape # Forcible Rape Rate 2005 16,740 5.6 94,347 31.8 2006 17,309 5.8 94,472 31.6 2007 17,128 5.7 92,160 30.6 2008 16,465 5.4 90,750 29.8 2009 15,399 5.0 89,241 29.1 2010 14,722 4.8 85,593 27.7 2011 14,661 4.7 84,175 27.0 2012 14,827 4.7 84,376 26.9 Source: FBI at http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u.s/2012/crime-in-the-u.s.2012/tables/1tabledatadecoverviewpdf/table_1_crime_in_the_united_states_by_volume_and_rate_per_1 00000_inhabitants_1993-2012.xls Total fatal and nonfatal firearm violence 1,800,000 1,600,000 1,400,000 1,200,000 1,000,000 800,000 600,000 400,000 200,000 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 - Mass Shootings Columbine High School: 14 students and 1 teacher killed Aurora shooting: 12 people killed Virginia Tech shooting 33 people killed Sandy Hook Elementary School: 20 students and 6 adults killed 4/23/2014 Georgia Gov. Nathan Deal (R) signed a sweeping gun rights bill on Wednesday. House Bill 60, also known as The Safety Carry Protection Act, will allow licensed gun owners to carry their firearms into public places, including bars, nightclubs, schools, churches and government buildings. Capital Punishment --- The Death Penalty 3 Since 1976 157 Since 1976 1115 Since 1976 Is There A Racial Bias in the Application of the Death Penalty? 270 Source: Deathpenaltyinfo.org. Execution information accurate as of April 24, 2014, since 1976 in the U.S. 20 Execution Information In April (2012) Connecticut voted to abolish the death penalty. In May, 2013, Maryland abolished the death penalty. Click here to see states with and without the death penalty Death Row Exonerations Graph as of Mar. 12, 2014 From 1973-1999, there was an average of 3.03 exonerations per year. From 20002013, there has been an average of 4.29 exonerations per year. From 1973 to March 12, 2014, there have been 144 exonerations in 26 different States. Types of Aggression Physical Direct (victim present) Hitting, stabbing, shooting, Indirect Letting air out of (victim not present) someone’s tires Verbal Yelling, name calling, cursing Spreading rumors Relational (Social): More common among females. Harming social relationships/acceptance Gossiping, exclusion from a group, ignoring someone. On TV, most commonly performed by attractive females whose behavior is often rewarded and justified (Coyne & Archer, 2004) Displaced: Directed at a substitute target (e.g., boss yells at employee, employee yells at children/spouse when at home) Aggression Factors Genetics -- Identical twin studies; .30 correlation) Physiology Limbic system (e.g., amygdala) Hormones (more testosterone leads to greater aggression; more serotonin lowers aggression) Neurotransmitters (serotonin; more leads to lower aggression) Aggression Factors (cont.) • Pain/discomfort (e.g., heat, frustration, stress) Social Learning/Modeling (Role of the media) Temperature and Aggression (cont.) Violent Crime Ratio 40 35 30 25 20 15 40-57 69-72 78-80 85-88 Temperature (Fahrenheit) 93-95 Temperature and Aggression (cont.) From: Carlsmith & Anderson (1979) Temperature and Aggression (cont.) .6 Phrases: HBP per game • “Hot headed” • “Hot under the collar” • “My blood is boiling” .5 .4 .3 < 70 70-79 80-89 90 and above Temperature (Fahrenheit) Alcohol and Aggression Sober Shock intensity Intoxicated 5.5 5.0 O God, that men should put an enemy in their mouths to steal away their brains! That we should, with joy, pleasance, revel, and applause, transform ourselves into beasts! 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 William Shakespeare, Othello 2.0 Low aggressors High aggressors Alcohol and Aggression (Why the connection?) • Impairment of cognitive processing (e.g., “alcohol myopia” – narrows the range of cues focused upon; focus on the only most obvious ones) • Disruption of executive (high level) functioning (reduction of inhibitory control lowers ones inhibitions) •Expectancy Effect (People expect alcohol to increase aggression; Belief that one has consumed alcohol increases aggressive behavior (e.g., Begue et al., 2009) •Automaticity Theory -- Alcohol and aggression are linked in semantic memory as part of an associative network-- alcohol consumption is not needed to increase aggression: The mere presence of alcohol cues may be sufficient -- Alcohol cues and weapon cues (pictures) automatically increased aggressive thoughts (faster reaction times to aggressive words) -- Alcohol-related cues and aggression-related cues (delivered subliminally) lead to greater aggression (negative ratings given to an experimenter) From: Subra, B, et al (2010). Automatic Effects of Alcohol and Aggressive Cues on Aggressive Thoughts and Behaviors Aggressive Cues and Violence Aggressive Cues and Violence (cont.) TV Show Neutral Violent (swat team and use of walkie-talkie) Interview before hockey game Tape recorder Walkie-talkie Played in hockey game • Those who watched the violent TV show and were interviewed with a walkie-talkie (aggressive cue) behaved more aggressively Aggression and Social Learning Theory [We learn to be aggressive by observing others and imitating (modeling) the behavior of others] • Sports (e.g., Boxing) Modeling Explanation -- • Publicity Effect • Victim Similarity (i.e., race of loser) Characteristics of Violent Stimuli A) Behavior is rewarded B) Exiting (emotionally arousing) C) Realistic D) Behavior is justified and not criticized E) Intent to injure War and Homicide Rates --- Pre and Post war homicide rates [Dose of war and labeling Issue] Crime rates for 110 countries from 1900 on show that compared with similar nations that remained at peace, after a country had fought a war, its homicide rates rose substantially When a countries are at war: • Citizens of the countries have lower inhibitions against aggression • Aggression is imitated (learned) • Aggressive responses are more acceptable • Desensitization to the violence of war – less sympathetic toward victims Media Influence • Children spent about 53 hours/week consuming media (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2009) • Approximately 60 % of TV programs contain violence • 85 % of the most popular video games are violent • Television characters are 1000 times more likely to be murdered than those in real life (Robson, 1992) • By the time the average American child finishes elementary school, they have may have seen 8,000 murders and more than 100,000 other acts of violence • 40% of the violent incidents seen on TV during a particular year were initiated by characters portrayed as heroes or other attractive role models for children Children’s shows Prime-time shows 80 70 60 % of characters 50 40 30 20 10 0 Violent characters Victims of violence Perpetrators or victims of violence Media Influence • Adolescents and adults who watched TV over 4 hours/day are more likely to have exaggerated view of the degree of violence taking place outside their homes • Heavy TV views have much greater fear of being personally assaulted From: (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, Signorielli, & Shanahan, 2002). Video Games Playing violent video games lead to an increase in aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. But effects only last about 15 minutes (Carnagey & Anderson, 2005; Sestir & Barthlow, 2010) If players think about the violence in the video game, effects can last up to 24 hours (Bushman & Gibson, 2010) Violent Music Lyrics Effects on: • State hostility • Aggressive thoughts • Aggression-related thoughts, feelings --- Repeated exposure issue and role of imagination From: Anderson, C. A., Carnagey, N. A., & Eubanks, J. (2003). Exposure to Violent Media: The Effects of Songs With Violent Lyrics on Aggressive Thoughts and Feelings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(5), 960–971 Comparison of the Effect of Violent Media on Aggression with Effects From Other Domains Smoking and lung cancer Media violence and aggression Condom use and sexually transmitted HIV Passive smoking and lung cancer at work Lead exposure and children’s IQ Nicotine patch and smoking cessation Calcium intake and bone mass Homework and academic achievement From Bushman, B.J., & Anderson, C. A. (2001). Media violence and the American public: Scientific facts versus media misinformation, American Psychologist, June/July, 477-489. Asbestos and laryngeal cancer Self-examination and breast cancer -.2 -.1 0 .1 .2 .3 .4 Summary: Why The Connection Between Media Violence and Aggression? • Exciting and an increase in physiological arousal • Imitation (Social Learning) • Primes people to aggressive ideas/expectations (primes “social scripts” – acceptable ways of heaving socially_) FCC Chairman Reed Hundt • “If a sitcom can sell soap, salsa, and cereal, then who could argue that TV violence cannot affect to some degree some viewers, particularly impressionable children?” (2003) Methods to Reduce Aggression Catharsis: The venting of one’s aggressive impulses (e.g., punching a pillow, hammering nails, slamming doors). Venting (catharsis) DOES NOT work!!! Indeed, it can increase aggression! Rewarding positive/non-aggressive behavior Social skills training (how to better interpret verbal and non-verbal behaviors of other in social situations Exposure to prosocial role models/media = less aggression (e.g., children view adults expressing themselves in a calm, respectful manner after being provoked handle their own frustrations with less aggression (Donnerstein & Donnerstein, 1976; Vidyasagar & Mishra, 1993) Violence Against Women --- Pornography How would you define pornography? (Any examples?) SUPREME COURT • Explicit sex • Community standards • Content is without redeeming social value Supreme Court Justice Potter Stewart: “I shall not today attempt further to define the kinds of material I understand to be embraced within that shorthand description [hard-core pornography]; and perhaps I could never succeed in intelligibly doing so. But I know it when I see it, and the motion picture involved in this case is not that.” • Jacobellis v. Ohio, 378 U.S. 184 (1964) Goya, Francisco The Nude Maja 1800 Oil on canvas 97 x 190 cm Museo del Prado, Madrid Ingres, Jean Auguste Dominique The Turkish Bath 1862 Oil on canvas on wood Diameter 42 1/2" (108 cm) Musee du Louvre, Paris Antonio Allegri, known as Correggio 1489?-1534 Venus, Satyr and Cupid c. 1525 Nude in the Sunlight, 1876, 81x64,5cm. Paris, Musee d'Orsay. Jean-Jacques, known as James Pradier 1790-1852 Satyr and Bacchante Dated 1834 Marble Michelangelo's statue of "David." Defining Obscenity (1) an “average person, applying contemporary community standards must find . . . the work, taken as a whole, appeals to the prurient interest”; (2) “the work must depict or describe, in a patently offensive way, sexual conduct specifically defined by the applicable state law; and (3) ”(3) “the work, taken as a whole, must lack serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value.” Violence Against Women --- The Role of Violent vs. and Sexually Explicit Images Some Film Type Studies: • Sexually explicit (e.g., X-rated) • Sexually aggressive (e.g., rape scenes) Angered or not • Violence (e.g., murder, assault) • “Teen sex” films • Neutral Effects on: Reactions to films (e.g., habituation, viewed as less offensive/violent) Negative attitudes/perceptions towards females Violent behavior Desensitization From: Linz, D, G., Donnerstein, E., & Penrod, S. (1988). Effects of long-term exposure to violent and sexually degrading depictions of women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, (5),758-768 Films had no effect on male targets whereas both types of aggressive erotic films increased aggression toward the female Angered male subjects were more aggressive toward the female after viewing either aggressive erotic film but that only the positive-outcome aggressive film increased aggression in non-angered subjects. Participants watch 1 film per day for 5 days. Then served as jurors in a mock jury trial • Female viewed as more responsible for the attack • Female seen as resisting less • Female perceived as being hurt less severely • Less sympathy for the victim From: Linz, Donnerstein, and Penrod (1984). 1930s-era female statue representing the "Spirit of Justice” in the Great Hall of the Department of Justice Frequency: • R-rated films possess greater number and proportion of aggressive scenes • R-rated films have more graphic depictions of aggression (Palys, 1986) • “Porn” films (e.g., “stag” movies) from 1915 – 1972: Rape depictions occurred about 5% of the time (Slade, 1984). Images of sexual violence is included in 1/3000 pages and in less than 4/1000 pictures Some General Findings: • Sexually-aggressive films = highest aggression levels (e.g., shocks to females) • Aggression-only films (no sex) = greater aggression than sexually explicit film and no difference between the sex-only film and the control condition (Donnerstein, Berkowitz, & Linz, 1986) This is material suited for prime-time programming!!! So, violent material (sexually explicit or not) promotes violent behavior Summary “… depictions of violence against women, whether in a sexually explicit context or not, should be the focus of concern.” (Linz & Donnerstein, 1990) “we should be concerned about the detrimental effects of exposure to violent images both in pornography and elsewhere ---particularly material that portrays the myth that women enjoy or in some way benefit from rape, torture, or other forms of sexual violence. The portrayal of this theme is not found only in pornography. To single out pornography for mire stringent legal action is inappropriate, based on the empirical research. Mass media depictions portray the same myth even though they contain little explicit sex or are only mildly sexually explicit … It is now fairly well documented that violent material, whether sexually explicit or not, has the potential to promote violent behavior following exposure” (Linz, Donnerstein, & Penrod, 1987 – in the American Psychologist) Psychological vs. Legal Interpretations California Assembly Bill 1179 (2005), Cal. Civ. Code Ann. §§1746– 1746.5 (West 2009) (Act): prohibits the sale or rental of “violent video games” to minors, and requires their packaging to be labeled “18.” The Act covers games “in which the range of options available to a player includes killing, maiming, dismembering, or sexually assaulting an image of a human being, if those acts are depicted” in a manner that “[a] reasonable person, considering the game as a whole, would find appeals to a deviant or morbid interest of minors,” that is “patently offensive to prevailing standards in the community as to what is suitable for minors,” and that “causes the game, as a whole, to lack serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value for minors.” §1746(d)(1)(A). Violation of the Act is punishable by a civil fine of up to $1,000. §1746.3. Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Assn. (2010) Psychological studies purporting to show a connection between exposure to violent video games and harmful effects on children do not prove that such exposure causes minors to act aggressively. Any demonstrated effects are both small and indistinguishable from effects produced by other media. These studies have been rejected by every court to consider them,6 and with good reason: They do not prove that violent video games cause minors to act aggressively (which would at least be a beginning). Instead, “nearly all of the research is based on correlation, not evidence of causation, and most of the studies suffer from significant, admitted flaws in methodology.”