Quotes
"He who angers you conquers you"
-- Elizabeth Kenny
"Non-violence is the first article of my faith and it is the last article of my creed“
-- Mahatma Gandhi
"You cannot simultaneously prevent and prepare for war“
-- Einstein
“Anger is never without a reason, but seldom with a good one"
-- Benjamin Franklin
"If you are patient in one moment of anger, you will escape 100 days of sorrow“
--- Chinese Proverb
What are some examples of aggressive or
violent behavior?
What cultural factors influence the rate of
violent crime?
Aggression definition: Any behavior that is intended to
harm another living being
Source: http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u.s/2012/crime-in-the-u.s.-2012/violent-crime/violent-crime
National Homicide & Forcible Rape
Year
Homicide #
Homicide
rate
Forcible Rape
#
Forcible Rape
Rate
2005
16,740
5.6
94,347
31.8
2006
17,309
5.8
94,472
31.6
2007
17,128
5.7
92,160
30.6
2008
16,465
5.4
90,750
29.8
2009
15,399
5.0
89,241
29.1
2010
14,722
4.8
85,593
27.7
2011
14,661
4.7
84,175
27.0
2012
14,827
4.7
84,376
26.9
Source: FBI at http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u.s/2012/crime-in-the-u.s.2012/tables/1tabledatadecoverviewpdf/table_1_crime_in_the_united_states_by_volume_and_rate_per_1
00000_inhabitants_1993-2012.xls
Total fatal and nonfatal firearm violence
1,800,000
1,600,000
1,400,000
1,200,000
1,000,000
800,000
600,000
400,000
200,000
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
-
Mass Shootings
Columbine High School: 14
students and 1 teacher killed
Aurora shooting: 12 people killed
Virginia Tech shooting 33
people killed
Sandy Hook Elementary School:
20 students and 6 adults killed
4/23/2014
Georgia Gov. Nathan Deal (R) signed a sweeping gun
rights bill on Wednesday. House Bill 60, also known
as The Safety Carry Protection Act, will allow licensed
gun owners to carry their firearms into public places,
including bars, nightclubs, schools, churches and
government buildings.
Capital Punishment --- The Death Penalty
3 Since 1976
157 Since 1976
1115 Since 1976
Is There A Racial Bias in the Application of the Death Penalty?
270
Source: Deathpenaltyinfo.org. Execution information accurate
as of April 24, 2014, since 1976 in the U.S.
20
Execution Information
In April (2012) Connecticut voted to abolish the death penalty. In May, 2013, Maryland
abolished the death penalty. Click here to see states with and without the death penalty
Death Row Exonerations
Graph as of Mar. 12, 2014
From 1973-1999, there was an average of 3.03 exonerations per year. From 20002013, there has been an average of 4.29 exonerations per year.
From 1973 to March 12, 2014, there have been 144 exonerations in 26 different
States.
Types of Aggression
Physical
Direct
(victim present)
Hitting, stabbing,
shooting,
Indirect
Letting air out of
(victim not present) someone’s tires
Verbal
Yelling, name
calling, cursing
Spreading rumors
Relational (Social): More common among females. Harming social
relationships/acceptance Gossiping, exclusion from a group, ignoring
someone. On TV, most commonly performed by attractive females whose
behavior is often rewarded and justified (Coyne & Archer, 2004)
Displaced: Directed at a substitute target (e.g., boss yells at employee,
employee yells at children/spouse when at home)
Aggression Factors
Genetics -- Identical twin studies; .30 correlation)
Physiology
Limbic system (e.g., amygdala)
Hormones (more testosterone leads to
greater aggression; more serotonin lowers
aggression)
Neurotransmitters (serotonin; more leads
to lower aggression)
Aggression Factors (cont.)
• Pain/discomfort (e.g., heat, frustration, stress)
Social Learning/Modeling (Role of the media)
Temperature and Aggression (cont.)
Violent
Crime Ratio
40
35
30
25
20
15
40-57
69-72
78-80
85-88
Temperature (Fahrenheit)
93-95
Temperature and Aggression (cont.)
From: Carlsmith & Anderson (1979)
Temperature and Aggression (cont.)
.6
Phrases:
HBP per
game
• “Hot headed”
• “Hot under the collar”
• “My blood is boiling”
.5
.4
.3
< 70
70-79
80-89
90 and above
Temperature (Fahrenheit)
Alcohol and Aggression
Sober
Shock
intensity
Intoxicated
5.5
5.0
O God, that men should
put an enemy in their
mouths to steal
away their brains! That
we should, with joy,
pleasance, revel,
and applause, transform
ourselves into beasts!
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
William Shakespeare,
Othello
2.0
Low aggressors
High aggressors
Alcohol and Aggression (Why the connection?)
• Impairment of cognitive processing (e.g., “alcohol myopia” – narrows the
range of cues focused upon; focus on the only most obvious ones)
• Disruption of executive (high level) functioning (reduction of inhibitory
control lowers ones inhibitions)
•Expectancy Effect (People expect alcohol to increase aggression; Belief that one
has consumed alcohol increases aggressive behavior (e.g., Begue
et al., 2009)
•Automaticity Theory -- Alcohol and aggression are linked in semantic memory
as part of an associative network-- alcohol consumption is not needed to increase
aggression: The mere presence of alcohol cues may be sufficient
-- Alcohol cues and weapon cues (pictures) automatically increased aggressive
thoughts (faster reaction times to aggressive words)
-- Alcohol-related cues and aggression-related cues (delivered subliminally) lead
to greater aggression (negative ratings given to an experimenter)
From: Subra, B, et al (2010). Automatic Effects of Alcohol and Aggressive Cues on Aggressive Thoughts and Behaviors
Aggressive Cues and Violence
Aggressive Cues and Violence (cont.)
TV Show
Neutral
Violent (swat team and use
of walkie-talkie)
Interview before hockey game
Tape recorder
Walkie-talkie
Played in hockey game
• Those who watched the violent TV show and were interviewed with a walkie-talkie
(aggressive cue) behaved more aggressively
Aggression and Social Learning Theory
[We learn to be aggressive by observing others and imitating
(modeling) the behavior of others]
• Sports (e.g., Boxing)
Modeling Explanation --
• Publicity Effect
• Victim Similarity
(i.e., race of loser)
Characteristics of Violent Stimuli
A) Behavior is rewarded
B) Exiting (emotionally arousing)
C) Realistic
D) Behavior is justified and not criticized
E) Intent to injure
War and Homicide Rates --- Pre and Post war homicide rates
[Dose of war and labeling Issue]
Crime rates for 110 countries from 1900 on show that compared with similar nations
that remained at peace, after a country had fought a war, its homicide rates rose
substantially
When a countries are at war:
•
Citizens of the countries have lower
inhibitions against aggression
•
Aggression is imitated (learned)
•
Aggressive responses are more acceptable
•
Desensitization to the violence of war –
less sympathetic toward victims
Media Influence
• Children spent about 53 hours/week consuming media (Kaiser
Family Foundation, 2009)
• Approximately 60 % of TV programs contain violence
• 85 % of the most popular video games are violent
• Television characters are 1000 times more likely to be
murdered than those in real life (Robson, 1992)
• By the time the average American child finishes elementary school,
they have may have seen 8,000 murders and more than 100,000
other acts of violence
• 40% of the violent incidents seen on TV during a particular year
were initiated by characters portrayed as heroes or other
attractive role models for children
Children’s shows
Prime-time shows
80
70
60
% of
characters
50
40
30
20
10
0
Violent
characters
Victims of
violence
Perpetrators or
victims of violence
Media Influence
• Adolescents and adults who watched TV over 4
hours/day are more likely to have exaggerated view
of the degree of violence taking place outside their
homes
• Heavy TV views have much greater fear of being
personally assaulted
From: (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, Signorielli, & Shanahan, 2002).
Video Games
Playing violent video games lead to an increase in
aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. But effects
only last about 15 minutes (Carnagey & Anderson, 2005;
Sestir & Barthlow, 2010)
If players think about the violence in the video game,
effects can last up to 24 hours (Bushman & Gibson, 2010)
Violent Music Lyrics
Effects on:
• State hostility
• Aggressive thoughts
• Aggression-related thoughts, feelings
--- Repeated exposure issue and role of imagination
From: Anderson, C. A., Carnagey, N. A., & Eubanks, J. (2003). Exposure to Violent
Media: The Effects of Songs With Violent Lyrics on Aggressive Thoughts and
Feelings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(5), 960–971
Comparison of the Effect of Violent Media on Aggression
with Effects From Other Domains
Smoking and lung cancer
Media violence and aggression
Condom use and sexually
transmitted HIV
Passive smoking and lung cancer
at work
Lead exposure and children’s IQ
Nicotine patch and smoking
cessation
Calcium intake and bone mass
Homework and academic
achievement
From Bushman, B.J., & Anderson, C.
A. (2001). Media violence and the
American public: Scientific facts
versus media misinformation,
American Psychologist, June/July,
477-489.
Asbestos and laryngeal cancer
Self-examination and breast
cancer
-.2
-.1
0
.1
.2
.3
.4
Summary: Why The Connection Between Media Violence
and Aggression?
• Exciting and an increase in physiological arousal
• Imitation (Social Learning)
• Primes people to aggressive ideas/expectations (primes “social
scripts” – acceptable ways of heaving socially_)
FCC Chairman Reed Hundt
• “If a sitcom can sell soap, salsa, and cereal, then who could
argue that TV violence cannot affect to some degree some
viewers, particularly impressionable children?”
(2003)
Methods to Reduce Aggression
Catharsis: The venting of one’s aggressive impulses (e.g., punching a pillow,
hammering nails, slamming doors).
Venting (catharsis) DOES NOT work!!! Indeed, it can increase aggression!
Rewarding positive/non-aggressive behavior
Social skills training (how to better interpret verbal and non-verbal
behaviors of other in social situations
Exposure to prosocial role models/media = less aggression (e.g., children
view adults expressing themselves in a calm, respectful manner after being
provoked handle their own frustrations with less aggression (Donnerstein &
Donnerstein, 1976; Vidyasagar & Mishra, 1993)
Violence Against Women --- Pornography
How would you define pornography? (Any examples?)
SUPREME COURT
• Explicit sex
• Community standards
• Content is without redeeming social value
Supreme Court Justice Potter Stewart:
“I shall not today attempt further to define the kinds of material I understand to be
embraced within that shorthand description [hard-core pornography]; and perhaps
I could never succeed in intelligibly doing so. But I know it when I see it, and the
motion picture involved in this case is not that.”
• Jacobellis v. Ohio, 378 U.S. 184 (1964)
Goya, Francisco
The Nude Maja
1800
Oil on canvas
97 x 190 cm
Museo del Prado, Madrid
Ingres, Jean Auguste Dominique
The Turkish Bath
1862
Oil on canvas on wood
Diameter 42 1/2" (108 cm)
Musee du Louvre, Paris
Antonio Allegri, known
as Correggio
1489?-1534
Venus, Satyr and Cupid
c. 1525
Nude in the Sunlight, 1876,
81x64,5cm.
Paris, Musee d'Orsay.
Jean-Jacques, known as
James Pradier
1790-1852
Satyr and Bacchante
Dated 1834
Marble
Michelangelo's statue of "David."
Defining Obscenity
(1) an “average person, applying contemporary community standards
must find . . . the work, taken as a whole, appeals to the prurient
interest”;
(2) “the work must depict or describe, in a patently offensive way,
sexual conduct specifically defined by the applicable state law; and
(3) ”(3) “the work, taken as a whole, must lack serious literary,
artistic, political, or scientific value.”
Violence Against Women --- The Role of Violent vs. and
Sexually Explicit Images
Some Film Type Studies:
• Sexually explicit (e.g., X-rated)
• Sexually aggressive (e.g., rape scenes)
Angered or not
• Violence (e.g., murder, assault)
• “Teen sex” films
• Neutral
Effects on:
Reactions to films (e.g., habituation, viewed as less offensive/violent)
Negative attitudes/perceptions towards females
Violent behavior
Desensitization
From: Linz, D, G.,
Donnerstein, E., &
Penrod, S. (1988). Effects
of long-term exposure to
violent and sexually
degrading depictions of
women. Journal of
Personality and Social
Psychology, 55, (5),758-768
Films had no effect on male targets whereas both types
of aggressive erotic films increased aggression toward
the female
Angered male subjects were more aggressive toward the
female after viewing either aggressive erotic film but that
only the positive-outcome aggressive film increased
aggression in non-angered subjects.
Participants watch 1 film per day for 5 days. Then served as jurors in a
mock jury trial
• Female viewed as more responsible for the attack
• Female seen as resisting less
• Female perceived as being hurt less severely
• Less sympathy for the victim
From: Linz, Donnerstein, and Penrod (1984).
1930s-era female statue representing the "Spirit of Justice” in the Great Hall of
the Department of Justice
Frequency:
• R-rated films possess greater number and proportion of aggressive scenes
• R-rated films have more graphic depictions of aggression (Palys, 1986)
• “Porn” films (e.g., “stag” movies) from 1915 – 1972: Rape depictions occurred
about 5% of the time (Slade, 1984). Images of sexual violence is included in
1/3000 pages and in less than 4/1000 pictures
Some General Findings:
• Sexually-aggressive films = highest aggression levels (e.g., shocks to females)
• Aggression-only films (no sex) = greater aggression than sexually explicit
film and no difference between the sex-only film and the control condition
(Donnerstein, Berkowitz, & Linz, 1986)
This is material suited for prime-time programming!!! So, violent material (sexually
explicit or not) promotes violent behavior
Summary
“… depictions of violence against women, whether in a sexually explicit context
or not, should be the focus of concern.” (Linz & Donnerstein, 1990)
“we should be concerned about the detrimental effects of exposure to violent
images both in pornography and elsewhere ---particularly material that portrays
the myth that women enjoy or in some way benefit from rape, torture, or other
forms of sexual violence. The portrayal of this theme is not found only in
pornography. To single out pornography for mire stringent legal action is
inappropriate, based on the empirical research. Mass media depictions portray the
same myth even though they contain little explicit sex or are only mildly sexually
explicit … It is now fairly well documented that violent material,
whether sexually explicit or not, has the potential to promote violent
behavior following exposure” (Linz, Donnerstein, & Penrod, 1987 – in the
American Psychologist)
Psychological vs. Legal Interpretations
California Assembly Bill 1179 (2005), Cal. Civ. Code Ann. §§1746–
1746.5 (West 2009) (Act):
prohibits the sale or rental of “violent video games” to minors,
and requires their packaging to be labeled “18.” The Act covers
games “in which the range of options available to a player includes
killing, maiming, dismembering, or sexually assaulting an image of a
human being, if those acts are depicted” in a manner that “[a]
reasonable person, considering the game as a whole, would find
appeals to a deviant or morbid interest of minors,” that is “patently
offensive to prevailing standards in the community as to what is suitable for minors,” and that “causes the game, as a whole, to lack serious
literary, artistic, political, or scientific value for minors.”
§1746(d)(1)(A). Violation of the Act is punishable by a civil fine of
up to $1,000. §1746.3.
Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Assn. (2010)
Psychological studies purporting to show a connection between exposure
to violent video games and harmful effects on children do not prove that
such exposure causes minors to act aggressively. Any demonstrated
effects are both small and indistinguishable from effects produced by
other media.
These studies have been rejected by every court to consider them,6 and
with good reason: They do not prove that violent video games cause
minors to act aggressively (which would at least be a beginning). Instead,
“nearly all of the research is based on correlation, not evidence of
causation, and most of the studies suffer from significant, admitted flaws
in methodology.”