
Sperm Meets Egg:
› The egg is released from the ovary
into the body cavity.
› The cervix secretes mucus that
flushes the passageways to prepare
for arrival of the sperm.
› Sperm are capable of swimming
about 1 inch per hour.

Conception usually occurs in the outer third of the fallopian tube:
› Zona Pellucida: Thin, gelatinous layer that surrounds the egg.
› Hyaluronidase: Enzyme secreted by sperm that dissolves the
zona pellucida, permitting one sperm to enter the egg.
› Zygote: Fertilized egg.
 About 36 hours after conception, it begins the process of cell
division.
 For the first eight weeks of gestation the conceptus is
called an embryo.
 From then until birth it is called a fetus.
 The nine-month pregnancy is divided into three equal
trimesters.




Time intercourse so it occurs around the time of ovulation.
› Keep a basal body temperature chart.
Best to have intercourse about four times during the week in
which the woman is to ovulate.
Best position for conceiving is with the woman on her back.
Lubricants and/or suppositories may kill sperm or block their
entrance into the uterus.

During the first eight weeks the inner part of the ball of the cells
implanted in the uterus differentiates into layers:
› Ectoderm –Becomes the nervous system and the skin.
› Endoderm- Becomes the digestive system and the respiratory
system.
› Mesoderm- Becomes muscles, skeleton,
connective tissues, reproductive system,
circulatory system.
The placenta is the mass of tissues that surrounds the conceptus
early in development and nurtures its growth.
› Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is a hormone
manufactured by the placenta.
 The umbilical cord is formed during the fifth week of embryonic
development.
 Amniotic fluid maintains the fetus at a constant temperature and
cushions it against possible injury.




During the first trimester the small mass of cells implanted in
the uterus develops into a fetus.
18th week: Fetal heartbeat can be detected as well as
movement.
7th month: The fetus turns in the uterus to assume a head
down position.
› If the turning does not occur by the time of delivery, there
will be a breech presentation.


A missed menstrual period is usually the first symptom of
pregnancy.
It is important that early, accurate pregnancy tests be
available and that women make use of them.

Increase in placental hormones

Breasts swell

Urination increases

Morning sickness

Vaginal discharges

Progesterone levels increase: Sedative effect

Emotional state during pregnancy varies according to
several factors:
› Women who desire the pregnancy are less anxious than
women who do not.
› Low income
› Supportive partner
› Concerns about miscarriage

Physical problems include constipation and
nosebleeds.

Edema
› Water retention and swelling
› Face, hands, wrist, ankles, and feet

Colostrum
› Thin amber or yellow fluid, may come out of the nipples
beginning about the 19th week.



The uterus is very hard and large.
› It puts pressure on a number of other
organs, causing some discomfort.
The fetus becomes more active and some
women are kept awake at night by its
somersaults and hiccups.
The uterus tightens occasionally in
painless contractions called
Braxton-Hicks contractions.


The average infant at birth weighs 7.5 pounds.
The rest of the weight gain is accounted for by the:
› placenta (1 lb.)
› amniotic fluid (2 lbs.)
› uterus (2 lbs.)
› breasts (1.5 lbs.)
› additional fat and water retained by the woman (8 or
more lbs.)

Psychological well-being is greater among women
who:
› Have social support.
› Have higher incomes.
› Experience fewer concurrent stressful life events.

Some men experience pregnancy
symptoms including:
› indigestion
› gastritis
› nausea
› change in appetite
› headaches


Many couples take classes, which often address the partner’s
role:
› In late pregnancy
› During labor
› During delivery
These joint activities contribute to the
bond between parents.

It is particularly important that a pregnant
woman get enough:
› protein
› folic acid
› calcium
› magnesium
› vitamin A
› iron

Substances that produce negative
consequences on developing fetus.
› Consequences can include serious
malformations.

Alcohol abuse –
› Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

Cocaine abuse –
› Premature birth and low birth weight.

Cigarette smoking –
› Largest and most consistent effects are on children of
white women.

Synthetic Hormones (Progestin):
› Masculinization of a female fetus.

Antibiotics (long-term use):
› May cause damage to the fetus.

Diethylstilbestrol (DES) –
› Has been shown to cause cancer of the vagina in girls
whose mothers took the drug while pregnant.

X-rays –
› Can damage the fetus.
› First 42 days after conception.

Vitamin A (excessive)› Associated with cleft palate.

There may be a discharge of the bloody mucus
plug that was in the cervical opening.

10% of women:
› The membranes containing amniotic fluid rupture, and
there is a rush of warm fluid down the woman’s legs.

In most women, however, the amniotic sac does
not rupture until the end of the first stage of labor.

Contractions produce in the cervix:
›
›


Effacement (thinning out)
Dilation (opening up)
During the transition phase contractions are very strong and
women report pain and exhaustion.
First stage can last from 2 to 24 hours.
› When the cervix is fully dilated the baby’s head begins to
move into the vagina.
› Episiotomy: An incision or slit is made in the perineum (skin
just behind the vagina).
› After the baby is eased completely out of the mother’s
body and takes its first breath of air, blood flows to the
lungs and the baby no longer needs the umbilical cord.




The placenta detaches from the walls of the uterus and the
afterbirth (placenta and fetal membranes) is expelled.
Lasts from a few minutes to an hour.
Several contractions may accompany the placenta’s
expulsion.
The episiotomy and/or any tears are sewn up.

Cesarean section (C section):
› Used when normal vaginal birth is impossible or
undesirable such as when the umbilical cord prolapsed.
› There is a risk of uterine rupture during the attempt,
particularly when labor is induced using drugs.
› Vaginal births are possible after cesareans.

The Lamaze method:
› Involves relaxation and controlled breathing.
› Effleurage: Consists of a light, circular stroking of the
abdomen with the fingertips.
› Lamaze reduces pain in childbirth but does not eliminate it
completely.
 There is often a discrepancy between the positive
expectations of primiparas (women having their first
baby) and the actual outcomes.




The use of anesthetics has been routine
since 1853 when Queen Victoria gave
birth under chloroform anesthesia.
Tranquilizers or narcotics may be
administered when labor becomes
fairly intense.
Regional and local anesthetics are
used most commonly.
Negative effects of anesthesia can
be reduced by using low dosages.

Women experience low levels of estrogen and progesterone.

Postpartum depression:
› Depressed mood
› Insomnia
› Tearfulness
› Feelings of inadequacy
› Fatigue


Couples should wait at least two weeks before resuming
intercourse.
Breastfeeding women report significantly less sexual activity
and lower sexual satisfaction.
›
Lactation suppresses estrogen production, which results in decreased
vaginal lubrication.




Prolactin: Stimulates breasts to produce milk.
Oxytocin: Stimulates breasts to eject milk.
Breastfeeding ensures the best possible health as well as the
best developmental and psychosocial outcomes for the
infant.
Advantages for the mother include quicker shrinking of the
uterus to its normal size and faster loss of the weight gained
during pregnancy.

Ectopic pregnancy –
› When the fertilized egg implants somewhere other
than the uterus.

Pseudodocyesis (false pregnancy) –
› Woman believes she is pregnant and shows the signs
and symptoms of pregnancy without really being
pregnant.

Preeclampsia –
› Elevated blood pressure accompanied by
generalized edema and proteinuria (protein in the
urine).

Certain viruses may cross the placental
barrier from the woman to the fetus and
cause considerable harm.
› German measles (rubella)
› Herpes simplex
› Genital herpes

Miscarriage (spontaneous abortion) occurs when a
pregnancy terminates through natural causes
before the conceptus is viable (capable of
surviving on its own).

Preterm Delivery - prior to 37 weeks gestation
› 11.9 percent of all U.S. births in 2001 were
preterm.

Amniocentesis:
›
Cannot be done until second trimester but is capable of providing an
early diagnosis .
› Most chromosomal abnormalities.
› Some genetically produced biochemical disorders.
› Sex-linked diseases carried by females.

Chorionic villus sampling (CVS):
›
Which can be done in the first trimester, may eventually replace
amniocentesis.

PID (pelvic inflammatory disease):
›

Other causes include:
›
›
›

The most common cause of infertility in women.
Failure to ovulate
Blockage of fallopian tubes
Cervical mucus that blocks the passage of sperm (hostile mucus)
The most common cause in men:
›
Infections in the reproductive system caused by sexually transmitted
diseases.



Artificial Insemination:
› Involves artificially placing semen in the vagina to
produce a pregnancy.
Sperm banks store frozen sperm.
› Some 70 percent of the money spent on
sperm-bank services in 2002 ($65 million) was for purchases
via the Internet.
Embryo Transfer:
› A fertilized, developing egg is transferred from the uterus
of one woman to the uterus of another.

In vitro fertilization (IVF): scientists make sperm and egg unite
outside the human body (in a test tube).

GIFT (gamete intra-fallopian transfer): sperm and eggs
(gametes) are collected and then inserted together into the
fallopian tube.


Cloning: The reproduction of an individual from a single cell
taken from a donor or parent.
There is much interest in techniques that will allow couple to
choose whether to have a boy or girl (gender selection).
The selective progression or removal of specific
desirable or undesirable genes.