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1. Lexical meaning
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1.1 Theories of semantics
1.2 Connotation vs. denotation
1.3 The theory of semantic features
2. Word connection in semantics
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2.1
2.2
2.2
2.4
Homonym
Synonym
Polysemy
Antonym
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3. Compositional meanings
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3.1 Syntactic structure
3.2 Semantic roles
4. Other semantic structures
5. Summary
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Semantics : search of rules for what is behind our
mutual understanding.
Each word means
independently
Lexical meaning
Semantics
Compositional
meaning
Some words are connected
in sounds, forms, or
meanings.
1.1 Theories of semantics
1.2 Connotation vs. denotation
1.3 The theory of semantic features
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Speech communication works on the basis of common
knowledge of what words and morphemes mean.
refer to different
objects
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water, juice, coffee, liquor
share some common
semantic properties
(liquid in nature)
The semantic properties help group words into a
category or a group.
Animate: animals and human
In-animate: stones, wood, and desks
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In the same way, semantic properties distinguish verbs
for animate from those for in-animate.
John was killed. (O)
The desk was killed. (X)
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Apart from words, a morpheme has its own meaning
cups → a plural form
She dances pretty well. → a verb of the 3rd person, singular, and present
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Different theories of lexical meaning:
 (a) mental image
 (b) definition and prototype
 (c) semantics and references
 (d) the theory of semantic features.
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Mental image: the position that the meaning of a word
comes from the image rising from our mind.
Not all nouns or actions can be represented in a
concrete image or picture. e.g. concept, honor, superiority, idea,
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The theory of definition and prototype: language
acquisition begins with vocabulary, which has its own
definition in the first beginning.
Vocabulary in mind

mental lexicon
(like a dictionary)
speak out
Given that every word is well defined, it becomes the
prototyped meaning.
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Cyclic reasoning in rationale:
which goes first, definition, or lexicon?
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Lexicon is formed before the definition.
Many words whose meaning is arbitrarily given.
e.g.
Pineapple
(pine + apple)
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A word is usually defined depending on different contexts.
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The theory of referents: aims to show that the
meaning of a word gets a direct referent or denotation
meaning
of a word
Denotation
dove
Connotation
The Wings of the Dove

extended to meanings in a
innocent
love sense
broader
Connotation: historical, cultural, or literary backgrounds
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the lexical semantics of a word
e.g. Robert Frost’s Mending Wall (foreign to those without equal knowledge)
Denotation: linguistic

e.g. John was asked to paint the wall.
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Extension: the referent (the object that is referred to)
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Intension: sense or the semantic nature of that word
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e.g. John wants to keep a dog. (a whole set of dogs)
e.g. He did not kill your dog. (a specific dog)
In normal cases: most words are meant by a combination
of intension and extension.
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e.g. cup (the cup in its form and in its usage)
extension
a piece of cake
intension
something easy to be done
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Some proper names do not have intension meaning.
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e.g. a fashion store might be named Woodhose.
a hot pot store named Grasshopper.
Some terms are without extension meaning
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The king of the US is a bald.
(There is no king in the US.)
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A Hobbit is running for the president of Taiwan.
(In the real world, there is no Hobbit.)
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Different words may refer the same referent
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John
was put into jail last week.
My neighbor
was put into jail last week.
The one who visited us was put into jail last week.
co-referential
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Function words: preposition or article
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He lives in Taipei.
(Taipei is a big city.)
He lives at Taipei.
(Taipei is just like some places else.)
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Following the theory of distinctive features in
phonology, some semantic scholars try to adapt it and
have it named the theory of semantic distinctive
features.
What is meant to be adult?
What age would be the criterion for adulthood?
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Phonology features: clear and the amount is not too huge
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The features of phonology depend on places and manners of
articulation.
Semantic features:
1. not clear in terms of the correspondence between
features and referents.
e.g. Adulthood: the age & the look
Color naming: black tea (in English) & red tea (in Chinese)
2. semantic features fail to distinguish category from
individual.
e.g. larks, sparrows, cuckoos are all [+bird]
[+lark], [+sparrow], [+cuckoo] has to be adopted
2.1
2.2
2.2
2.4
Homonym
Synonym
Polysemy
Antonym
He lay asleep under the tree.
He lays a book on the table.
→ identical in phonetics
different in meaning
wide ←→ narrow
like ←→ dislike
antonym
homonym
1. a bat for baseball
bench ― sofa
Bat
2. a bat flying at night
synonymy
polysemy
homo
(the same)
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nym
(sound)
homonym
(words with identical sounds
while mean differently)
(a) spelling and pronunciation identical, but meaning
different
(b) spelling and meaning different but pronunciation
identical.
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Homonyms: words with same pronunciation and
spelling but different in semantic meanings
the same spelling and pronunciation
different meaning
the same pronunciation
different in spelling and meaning
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Lewis Caroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland
identically pronounced
[flaur]
homonym might give rise to
communication problems
1. the earth
2. the past participle of grind
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Homographs: homonym sharing the same spelling
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Not all homographs are homonym.
e.g. bow [bo] for arrow
bow [bau] to show one’s respect
the same spelling (homophones
different in meaning and in pronunciation
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Heteronyms: two words spelled identically but different in
pronunciation and meaning
e.g. wind [w nd] vs. wind [waind]
lead [lid] vs. lead [l d]
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Synonym: words with different spelling and
pronunciation, but identical in meanings
the pair of words is sometimes interchangeable
e.g. silly/stupid, wise/clever, big/large, to have/to own
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There are no two words with exact meanings, just like
there are no two leaves with the exact identical shape
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Almost all the words are polysemy, because few words
are confined to one single meaning.
iron → 1. a metal
2. an instrument for clothing
bank →1. side of a river
2. a place for money saving
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Some words are different in meaning because they are
of different categories.
bear → (v.) to tolerate
(n.) kind of animal
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Antonym: words with the opposite meanings
e.g. wide/narrow, stop/continue, dead/live,
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Complementary:
e.g. live vs. dead, present vs. absent.
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only one pole staying
Gradable antonym:
e.g. long/short, sad/happy
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one pole called marked, the other called unmarked. Normally,
the positive one is unmarked.
e.g. long, wide, tall, old
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Unmarked: it is used intuitionally
Marked: only when it is marked or labeled
unmarked
marked
3.1 Syntactic structure
3.2 Semantic roles
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Syntactic rules:
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Semantics plays an equal role of syntactic structures in
sentential expressions.
Semantics is closely associated with word order.
both grammatical and acceptable
sounds weird in semantics but
grammatical
entirely unacceptable in English
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Ambiguous sentences can be made clear by sentence
analysis. e.g. We met a lot of young ladies and gentlemen.
both ladies and gentlemen are young
only ladies are young
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Ambiguous sentences can be made clear by sentence
analysis.
e.g. The boy saw a lady in the library
It is the lady in the
library that the boy saw.
It is the library that that
the boy saw the lady.
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agent
patient
Semantic roles or thematic roles
instrument
a. John broke the door with a stone.
b. The stone broke the door.
experiencer
agent
patient
a. John felt happy with the grades.
b. John drew some pictures.
c. John was satisfied with what you did.
agent
goal
patient
a. John mailed Mary a pack of books.
b. John changed the paper into a bird.
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Focus on the theta role that a word plays in a sentence.
Each word or entry is implied to
get the theta-role assignment
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Focus on the theta role that a word plays in a sentence.
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To summarize, we have the following findings for theta
roles in the field of semantic studies.
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( i ) Compositional meaning is not necessarily a
combination of each lexical meaning, but word order
matters.
( ii ) Semantic ambiguity can be solved by syntactic
structures.
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i.e. Visiting professors may be embarrassing:
(a) It is visiting professors that is embarrassing.
(b) It is embarrassing to pay a visit to professors.
( iii ) Theta roles are mainly subject to the types of verbs or
to the relation that a verb raises.
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Three types of structures that are culture-based:
(a) anomaly
(b) metaphors
(c) idiomatic expressions
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Anomaly: there is a semantic conflict between each
component
semantic conflict
How does a widow
have a husband??
e.g.
a. The widow’s husband treats her gently.
b. The dead man committed a suicide last night.
How can a dead
man committed
suicide??
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Anomaly: there is a semantic conflict between each
component
Other examples
a. Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
paradoxes
b. He killed the dead umbrella.
c. John killed the rabbit, but the rabbit ran away.
d. He wanted to buy a triangular square.
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Metaphor: a figurative language in literature.
It should be decoded from cultural or historical
perspective.
Take time to think it over and figure it out
A brief form, condensing a lot of experiences and wit
into a few words.
A poem should be wordless.
(Ars Poetica, A. Macleish, 1892-1982)
In appearance, a wordless poem is nothing but a blank.
Metaphorically, a good poem is hardly written in words.
Here lies One Whose Name was writ in Water
(in the tombstone of John Keats,1795-1821)
Metaphorically, the name is not noteworthy or is not everlasting.
Wear the mask that grins and lies,
It hides our cheeks and shades our eyes.
(We wear the mask, P. L. Dunbar, 1872-1906)
Metaphorically, we are not ourselves any more in our daily life.
‘a grief ago’
(Dylom Thomas)
It is touching due to the fact that grief always lasts for a long time.
Metaphorically, it means a very long time ago.
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Idiomatic expressions: in the form of sayings, proverbs,
or idioms. e.g. Sam gets up on the wrong side of the bed.
In general, either side of the bed will serve a
right side for one to get up.
It suggests that he do not feel good when he is
getting up.
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Sometimes there is a story for an idiomatic chunk.
e.g. The origin of a baker’s dozen
Normally, a dozen is 12 pieces.
However, a baker’s dozen means 13.