Research on meditation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_on_meditation
Scenes of Inner Taksang, temple hall, built just above the cave where Padmasambhava meditated
The physiological and psychological effects of meditation upon human health are the subject of clinical study
within the medical community.[1][2][3][4]
Meditation refers to the cultivation of positive factors in one's life, through a practice session and/or throughout
one's daily life. Meditation may be compared to a sport, where with practice one develops greater skill in what is
being practiced.[5] There has been an increase in scientific research, experiments, studies, and the like, on how
meditation changes the body, especially the brain.[6] New results show that indeed meditation does change the body
in significant ways which are being scientifically demonstrated using state-of-the-art measuring techniques, such as
fMRI and EEG.[7][8][9]
Meditation has historically been associated with religious traditions, especially eremetic and monastic lifestyles.
Today much of what is considered meditation in the West is no longer religiously affiliated, for example many
[10]
mindfulness-based programs.
See also: Buddhism and psychology
Contents
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1 Western Therapeutic Use
o 1.1 Mindfulness-based stress reduction
2 Flow
3 Meditation and stress
o
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3.1 National Institutes of Health
o 3.2 Goleman: Amygdala and pre-frontal cortex
4 Gray and White Matter
5 Theoria
6 Meditation and EEG
7 Meditation and Perception
8 The Relaxation Response
9 Adverse effects
10 NCCAM studies
11 See also
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12 References
13 External links
Western Therapeutic Use
Meditation has entered the mainstream of health care as a method of stress and pain reduction. As a method of
stress reduction, meditation has been used in hospitals in cases of chronic or terminal illness to reduce
complications associated with increased stress that include depressed immune systems. There is growing
agreement in the medical community that mental factors such as stress significantly contribute to a lack of physical
health, and there is a growing movement in mainstream science to fund research in this area. There are now
several mainstream health care programs which aid those, both sick and healthy, in promoting their inner
well-being, especially those mindfulness based programs.
Mindfulness-based stress reduction
See also: Mindfulness (psychology) and Mindfulness-based stress reduction
A 2003 meta-analysis found that mindfulness-based stress reduction, which involves continuous awareness of
consciousness, without seeking to censor thoughts, concluded that the form of meditation may be broadly useful
for individuals attempting to cope with clinical and nonclinical problems. Diagnoses for which MBSR was found
to be helpful included chronic pain, fibromyalgia, cancer patients and coronary artery disease. Improvements were
noted for both physical and mental health measures.[11]
Flow
Mindfulness meditation, anapanasati, and related techniques, are intended to train attention for the sake of
provoking insight. A wider, more flexible attention span makes it easier to be aware of a situation, easier to be
objective in emotionally or morally difficult situations, and easier to achieve a state of responsive, creative
awareness or "flow".[12] Research from Harvard medical school also shows that during meditation, physiological
signals show that there is a decrease in respiration and increase in heart rate and blood oxygen saturation levels.[13]
Meditation and stress
National Institutes of Health
According to the National Institutes of Health (NIH), "Practicing meditation has been shown to induce some
changes in the body...Some types of meditation might work by affecting the autonomic (involuntary) nervous
system." The sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system are two divisions of the autonomic
nervous system of the body. The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for our reaction to stress or fear and is
colloquially known as the "fight-or-flight" system. The parasympathetic nervous system is active during times of
rest and associated with "rest and digest". The NIH goes on, "It is thought that some types of meditation might
work by reducing activity in the sympathetic nervous system and increasing activity in the parasympathetic
nervous system."
Goleman: Amygdala and pre-frontal cortex
One theory, presented by Daniel Goleman & Tara Bennett-Goleman[14] suggests that meditation[clarification needed] works
because of the relationship between the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex.[15] In very simple terms, the amygdala
is the part of the brain that decides if we should get angry or anxious (among other things), and the pre-frontal
cortex is the part that makes us stop and think about things (it is also known as the inhibitory centre).
The prefrontal cortex is very good at analyzing and planning, but it takes a long time to make decisions. The
amygdala, on the other hand, is simpler (and older [16] in evolutionary terms). It makes rapid judgments about a
situation and has a powerful effect on our emotions and behaviour, linked to survival needs. For example, if a
human sees a lion leaping out at them, the amygdala will trigger a fight or flight response long before the
prefrontal cortex responds.
But in making snap judgments, our amygdalas are prone to error[citation needed], such as seeing danger where there is
none.[citation needed] This is particularly true in contemporary society where social conflicts are far more common than
encounters with predators, and a basically harmless but emotionally charged situation can trigger uncontrollable
fear or anger — leading to conflict, anxiety, and stress.[17]
Gray and White Matter
Studies done by Yale, Harvard, Massachusetts General Hospital have shown that meditation increases gray matter
in the brain and slows down the deterioration of the brain as a part of the natural aging process.
The experiment included 20 individuals with intensive Buddhist "insight meditation" training and 15 who did not
meditate. The brain scan revealed that those who meditated have an increased thickness of gray matter in parts of
the brain that are responsible for attention and processing sensory input. The increase in thickness ranged
between .004 and .008inches (3.175 x 10−6m - 6.35 x 10 −6m) and was proportional to the amount of meditation.
The study also showed that meditation helps slow down brain deterioration due to aging.[18][19]
A study involving the participation of a group of colleges students, who were asked to use a meditation technique
called integrative body-mind training, concluded that "meditating may improve the integrity and efficiency of
certain connections in the brain" through an increase in their number and robustness[20] Brain scans showed strong
white matter changes in the anterior cingulate cortex.[21]
Dr. James Austin, a neurophysiologist at the University of Colorado, reported that meditation in Zen "rewires the
circuitry" of the brain in his book Zen and the Brain (Austin, 1999). This has been confirmed using functional MRI
imaging, a brain scanning technique that measures blood flow in the brain.[citation needed]
Theoria
Fifteen Carmelite nuns came from the monastery to the laboratory to enter a fMRI machine whilst meditating,
allowing scientists there to scan their brains using fMRI while they were in a state known as Unio Mystica (and
also Theoria).[22] The results showed that far-flung parts of the brain were recruited in the sustaining of this
mystical union with God.[22] During a meditation test, using fMRI two states were compared. Activity during the
last 6 minutes of meditation and activity during 6 minutes of controlled meditation. As a result, in the controlled
analysis increases were found in putamen, midbrain, pregenual anterior cingulate cortex and
hippocampal/parahippocampal formation. However, in the last 6 minutes multiple foci of activation within
prefrontal, parietal and temporal cortices as well as in the precentral and postcentral gyri, and
hippocampal/parahippocampal formation were identified. The article [23] shows activation during meditation. The
prompt values were analyzed at the Mind-Body Medical Institute.
Meditation and EEG
Electroencephalograph (EEG) recordings of skilled meditators showed a significant rise in gamma wave activity in
the 80 to 120Hz range during meditation. There was also a rise in the range of 25 to 42Hz. These meditators had
10 to 40 years of training in Buddhist-based mental[clarification needed] training. EEG done on meditators who had received
recent training demonstrated considerably less rise.[24]
The experienced meditators also showed increased gamma activity while at rest and not meditating.[24]
During meditation there is a modest increase in slow alpha or theta wave EEG activity.[24][25]
Chang and Lo found different results, explicable perhaps by the fact they show no sign of even having tested for
gamma.[26] First they classify five patterns in meditation based on the normal four frequency ranges (delta < 4Hz,
theta 4 to <8Hz, alpha 8 to 13Hz, and beta >13Hz). The five patterns they found were:
1) delta
2) delta + theta
3) theta + slow alpha
4) high-amplitude alpha
5) amplitude suppressed ("silent and almost flat")
They found pattern #5 unique and characterized by:
1) extremely low power (significant suppression of EEG amplitude)
2) corresponding temporal patterns with no particular EEG rhythm
3) no dominating peak in the spectral distribution
They had collected EEG patterns from more than 50 meditators over the prior five years. Five meditation EEG
scenarios are then described. They further state that most meditation is dominated by alpha waves. They found
delta and theta waves occurred occasionally, sometimes while people fell asleep and sometimes not. In particular
they found the amplitude suppressed pattern correlated with "the feeling of blessings."
O Nuallain,Sean (2009) [27] in Cognitive Sciences 4(2), is the first to interrelate the work on synchronized gamma
in consciousness with the well-attested work on gamma in meditation in an experimental context. It adduces
experimental and simulated data to show that what both have in common is the ability to put the brain into a state
in which it is maximally sensitive and consumes power at a lower (or even zero) rate, briefly. It is argued that this
may correspond to a “selfless” state and the more typical non-zero state, in which gamma is not so prominent,
corresponds to a state of empirical self. Thus, the “zero power” in the title refers not only to the power spectrum
of the brain as measured by the Hilbert transform, but also to a psychological state of personal renunciation.
Meditation and Perception
Studies have shown that meditation has both short-term and long-term effects on various perceptual faculties.
In 1984, Brown et al. conducted a study that measured the absolute threshold of perception for light stimulus
duration in practitioners and non-practitioners of mindfulness meditation. The results showed that meditators have
a significantly lower detection threshold for light stimuli of short duration.[28]
In 2000, Tloczynski et al. studied the perception of visual illusions (the Müller-Lyer Illusion and the Poggendorff
Illusion) by zen masters, novice meditators, and non-meditators. There were no statistically significant effects
found for the Müller-Lyer illusion, however, there were for the Poggendorff. The zen masters experienced a
statistically significant reduction in initial illusion (measured as error in millimeters) and a lower decrement in
illusion for subsequent trials.[29]
The theory of mechanism behind the changes in perception that accompany mindfulness meditation is described
thus by Tloczynski:
“A person who meditates consequently perceives objects more as directly experienced stimuli and less as
concepts… With the removal or minimization of cognitive stimuli and generally increasing awareness, meditation
can therefore influence both the quality (accuracy) and quantity (detection) of perception.”[cite this quote]
Brown also points to this as a possible explanation of the phenomenon: “[the higher rate of detection of single
light flashes] involves quieting some of the higher mental processes which normally obstruct the perception of
subtle events.” In other words, the practice may temporarily or permanently alter some of the top-down
processing involved in filtering subtle events usually deemed noise by the perceptual filters.
The Relaxation Response
Dr. Herbert Benson of the Mind-Body Medical Institute, which is affiliated with Harvard University and several
Boston hospitals, reports that meditation induces a host of biochemical and physical changes in the body
collectively referred to as the "relaxation response."[30] The relaxation response includes changes in metabolism,
heart rate, respiration, blood pressure and brain chemistry. Benson and his team have also done clinical studies at
Buddhist monasteries in the Himalayan Mountains.[citation needed]
Adverse effects
The following is an official statement from the US government-run National Center for Complementary and
Alternative Medicine:
Meditation is considered to be safe for healthy people. There have been rare reports that meditation could cause or
worsen symptoms in people who have certain psychiatric problems, but this question has not been fully researched.
People with physical limitations may not be able to participate in certain meditative practices involving physical
movement. Individuals with existing mental or physical health conditions should speak with their health care
providers prior to starting a meditative practice and make their meditation instructor aware of their condition.[31]
Both positive rewards and potential benefits of meditation have been noted in academic literature. Adverse effects
[32]
[33]
have been reported, and may, in some cases, be the result of "improper use of meditation". The NIH advises
prospective meditators to "ask about the training and experience of the meditation instructor... [they] are
considering."[31]
Kundalini syndrome is a claimed adverse effect from practicing Kundalini Yoga.
As with any practice, meditation may also be used to avoid facing ongoing problems or emerging crises in the
meditator's life. In such situations, it may be helpful to apply mindful attitudes acquired in meditation while
actively engaging with current problems.[34] According to the NIH, meditation should not be used as a replacement
for conventional health care or as a reason to postpone seeing a doctor.[31]
NCCAM studies
A comparison of the effect of various meditation techniques on systolic blood pressure.[35]
In June, 2007 the United States National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM)
published an independent, peer-reviewed, meta-analysis of the state of meditation research, conducted by
researchers at the University of Alberta Evidence-based Practice Center. The report reviewed 813 studies involving
five broad categories of meditation: mantra meditation, mindfulness meditation, yoga, Tai Chi, and Qi Gong, and
included all studies on adults through September 2005, with a particular focus on research pertaining to
hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and substance abuse.
The report concluded, "Scientific research on meditation practices does not appear to have a common theoretical
perspective and is characterized by poor methodological quality. Firm conclusions on the effects of meditation
practices in healthcare cannot be drawn based on the available evidence. Future research on meditation practices
must be more rigorous in the design and execution of studies and in the analysis and reporting of results." (p.6) It
noted that there is no theoretical explanation of health effects from meditation common to all meditation
techniques.[36]
A further analysis of this data set in 2008 reaffirmed the weaknesses of the research, finding that "Most clinical
trials on meditation practices are generally characterized by poor methodological quality with significant threats to
validity in every major quality domain assessed". This was the conclusion despite a statistically significant increase
in quality of all reviewed meditation research, in general, over time between 1956-2005. Of the 400 clinical studies,
10% were found to be good quality. A call was made for rigorous study of meditation.[37] These authors also noted
that this finding is not unique to the area of meditation research and that the quality of reporting is a frequent
problem in other areas of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) research and related therapy research
domains.
In 2006 NCCAM revised their definition of meditation, emphasizing the experience of the “suspension of
thought activity". This definition led to the possibility of comparing mental silence oriented meditation with resting
alone and one study found significant physiological differences between the two.[38]
See also
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Meditation
Buddhist meditation
Transcendental Meditation research
References
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Apr;41(2): 149–53. PubMed Abstract PMID 9142560
2.
^ Peng CK, Mietus JE, Liu Y, Khalsa G, Douglas PS, Benson H, Goldberger AL. (1999) Exaggerated
heart rate oscillations during two meditation techniques. Int J Cardiol. 1999 Jul 31;70(2):101–7. PubMed
Abstract PMID 10454297
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^ Lazar, S.W.; Bush, G.; Gollub, R. L.; Fricchione, G. L.; Khalsa, G.; Benson, H. Functional brain
mapping of the relaxation response and meditation" NeuroReport: Volume 11(7) 15 May 2000 pp. 1581–1585
PubMed abstract PMID 10841380
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^ Carlson LE, Ursuliak Z, Goodey E, Angen M, Speca M. (2001) The effects of a mindfulness
meditation-based stress reduction program on mood and symptoms of stress in cancer outpatients: 6-month
follow-up. Support Care Cancer. 2001 Mar;9(2):112-23.PubMed abstract PMID 11305069
5.
^ "Train Your Mind Change Your Brain" by Sharon Begley pages 229-242, in the chapter
"Transforming the Emotional Mind"
6.
^ There has been a dramatic increase in the past 10 or 15 years or so of studies on the impact of
meditation upon one's health. Translator for The Dalai Lama, interviewed in a video here
7.
^ Davidson, Richard J.; Kabat-Zinn J, Schumacher J, Rosenkranz M, Muller D, Santorelli SF,
Urbanowski F, Harrington A, Bonus K, Sheridan JF. (2003 Jul-Aug). "Alterations in brain and immune
function produced by mindfulness meditation". Psychosomatic Medicine 65 (4): 564–570.
doi:10.1097/01.PSY.0000077505.67574.E3. PMID 12883106.
8.
^ Physiological Effects of Transcendental Meditation by Wallace @
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/167/3926/1751 published in 1970!
9.
^ Kabat-Zinn, Jon; Lipworth L, Burney R. (1985). "The clinical use of mindfulness meditation for the
self-regulation of chronic pain". Journal of Behavioral Medicine 8 (2): 163–190. doi:10.1007/BF00845519.
PMID 3897551.
10.
^ The following was taken from MBSR... "Jon Kabat-Zinn has said that his program has nothing at all
to do with Buddhism, it is not spiritually based, and is therefore open to everyone no matter what life
circumstances they are in.[reference-> In this video Jon Kabat-Zinn can be seen giving a speech at Google
Headquarters about mindfulness, including the benefits shown by scientific study, the practice and principles
of mindfulness, and how it relates to modern life in general
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rSU8ftmmhmw Mindfulness-based stress] MBSR is practiced by those old
and young, sick and healthy, professionals and monks alike. Jon Kabat-Zinn has also said that the principles of
mindfulness, on which MBSR is based, have been most clearly articulated by those in Buddhist
traditions.[reference-> In this video Jon Kabat-Zinn can be seen giving a speech at Google Headquarters about
mindfulness, including the benefits shown by scientific study, the practice and principles of mindfulness, and
how it relates to modern life in general http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rSU8ftmmhmw Mindfulness-based
stress][reference->Jon also has said this in his 2 cd talk called "Mindfulness for Beginners"] Today
mindfulness has gained widespread practice in the medical community, and has many modern applications in
health science.
11.
^ Grossman, P.; Niemann, L.; Schmidt, S.; Walach, H. (2004). "Mindfulness-based stress reduction
and health benefitsA meta-analysis" (pdf). Journal of Psychosomatic Research 57 (1): 35–43.
doi:10.1016/S0022-3999(03)00573-7. PMID 15256293.
http://www.epilepsiezentrum.uniklinik-freiburg.de/medmed/live/literatur/MBSR_MA_JPR_2004.pdf.
Retrieved 2010-07-07. edit
12.
^ .ref name="flow">Commentary: In the Zone: A Biobehavioral Theory of the Flow Experience
13.
^ .ref name="flow">Functional brain mapping of the relaxation response and meditation
14.
^ Bennett-Goleman, Tara, 2001. Emotional Alchemy: How the Mind can Heal the Heart, Harmony,
1st Edition: Jan 9, 2001, ISBN 978-0609607527
15.
^ The Emotionally Intelligent Workplace, Chapter Three
16.
^ Sagan, Carl. The Dragons of Eden; Random House, New York. 1977
17.
^ Social Anxiety and Social Phobia:Symptoms, Treatment and Support
18.
^ Harvard University Gazette: Meditation found to increase brain size
19.
^ Meditation Associated With Increased Grey Matter In The Brain
20.
^ "Meditation boosts part of brain where ADD, addictions reside". Ars Technica.
http://arstechnica.com/science/news/2010/08/meditation-boosts-part-of-brain-where-add-addictions-reside.ars.
Retrieved 2010-08-22.
21.
^ "Integrative body-mind training (IBMT) meditation found to boost brain connectivity".
ScienceDaily. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/08/100816155000.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
22.
^ a b M. Beauregard & V. Paquette (2006). "Neural correlates of a mystical experience in Carmelite
nuns". Neuroscience Letters (Elsevier) 405 (3): 186–90. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2006.06.060. ISSN 0304-3940.
PMID 16872743.
23.
^ .ref name="flow">Functional brain mapping of the relaxation response and meditation
24.
^ a b c Lutz, Antoine. "Breakthrough study on EEG of meditation".
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^ Bhattathiry, M.P.. "Neurophysiology of Meditation".
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^ Chang, Kanf-Ming (2005-07-15). "Meditation EEG Interpretation based on novel fuzzy-merging
strategies and wavelet features". http://bme.ntu.edu.tw/abc/17.4/17-4-2.pdf. Retrieved 2006-08-14.
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^ O'Nuallain, Sean. "Zero Power and Selflessness: What Meditation and Conscious Perception Have
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^ Brown, Daniel, et al. "Differences in Visual Sensitivity Among Mindfulness Meditators and
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^ a b c Meditation: An Introduction on the National Center for Complementary and Alternative
Medicine's webpage, NCAAM is a subdivision of NIH.
http://nccam.nih.gov/health/meditation/overview.htm#meditation
32.
^ From a clinical study of twenty-seven long term meditators, Shapiro found that subjects reported
significantly more positive effects than negative from meditation. However, of the twenty-seven subjects,
seventeen (62.9%) reported at least one adverse effect, and two (7.4%) suffered profound adverse effects.
Among these we find: relaxation-induced anxiety and panic; paradoxical increases in tension; less motivation
in life; boredom; pain; impaired reality testing; confusion and disorientation; feeling 'spaced out'; depression;
increased negativity; being more judgmental; and, ironically, feeling addicted to meditation Shapiro 1992,
cited in Perez-De-Albeniz, Alberto and Holmes, Jeremy. Meditation: concepts, effects and uses in therapy.
International Journal of Psychotherapy, Mar 2000, Vol. 5 Issue 1, p49, 10p
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^ Hayes, 1999, chap. 3; Metzner, 2005
35.
^ Ospina p.130
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^ Ospina MB, Bond TK, Karkhaneh M, Tjosvold L, Vandermeer B, Liang Y, Bialy L, Hooton
N,Buscemi N, Dryden DM, Klassen TP. "Meditation Practices for Health: State of the Research". Evidence
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^ Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M, et al. (December 2008). "Clinical trials of meditation practices
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^ Manocha R, Black D, Ryan J, Stough C, Spiro D, [1] "This study demonstrates a skin temperature
reduction on the palms of the hands during the experience of mental silence, arising as a result of a single 10
minute session of Sahaja yoga meditation." [Changing Definitions of Meditation: Physiological Corollorary,
Journal of the International Society of Life Sciences, Vol 28 (1), Mar 2010]
External links

Meditation Practices for Health: State of the Research Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality

This page was last modified on 14 June 2011 at 10:14.