A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ON
MANAGEMENT COMPETENCIES IN THE SPORTS INDUSTRIES
A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
ON MANAGEMENT COMPETENCIES IN THE
SPORTS INDUSTRIES
Ling-Mei Ko
Department of Leisure, Recreation, and Tourism Management, Southern Taiwan University
Tainan, TAIWAN
E-mail: lmko@mail.stut.edu.tw
Abstract. Competency studies with the aim to determine the knowledge and skills needed to perform a
job have been a major research area in sports management. This paper introduces a “Systematic
Review” approach to undertake a literature review on management competencies required for sports
industry which will contribute to an understanding of competencies research in sports management field.
Keywords: Competency, Sports Management, Systematic Review
1 INTRODUCTION
The sports management industry is growing
worldwide with an expansion in employment
potential and academic preparation programmes.
It is believed that in order to prepare competent
sports managers adequately, the requisite
competencies must first be identified. As a result,
competency studies with the aim to determine the
knowledge and skills needed to perform a job
have been a major research area in sports
management and have received attention from a
wide range of scholars. The aim of this paper is
thus to introduce a “Systematic Review” approach
to review literature on management competencies
required for sports industry which will contribute
to an understanding of competencies research in
sports management field. This paper starts with an
overview of the systematic review method. Then it
goes on to provide a step-by-step description of
the processes involved in undertaking a systematic
review in this study.
2 THE INTRODUCTION OF
SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
Conducting a review of literature is an
essential and important part of any research study.
The aim of a literature review is to understand the
existing intellectual field, and to identify research
questions for developing or investigating the
existing knowledge further. However, the
traditional literature review has been criticised for
a lack of thoroughness[1] and for employing a “
“biased” sample of the full range of the literature
on the subject” . Torgerson[2] argues that the
selection of papers to be included or excluded in a
traditional literature review is often not made
explicit and may reflect the biases of the reviewer
because the decision to select material for
inclusion is usually made by the reviewer who
gathers and interprets the studies. The systematic
review; on the other hand, offers a more explicit
alternative methodology for a literature review.
The systematic review methodology was
initially developed in the medical sciences where
it has been used to summarise all the available
evidence, normally to assess the effect of a
treatment. It differs from traditional narrative or
descriptive reviews by adopting a transparent and
replicable audit trail of decision making and
procedures throughout the reviewing process[1].
This means that anyone using the same reviewing
process should end with the same search results.
Systematic reviews follows a review protocol to
synthesise the findings of a great amount of
primary studies employing several “strategies” to
minimise bias by the reviewer such as the use of
expert-identified keywords and databases and the
use of explicit criteria in the inclusion of articles
for review. There are three main stages suggested
to be conducted in a systematic review[1]. Table 1
outlines the stages which should be conducted in a
systematic review.
Table 1: Stages of Systematic Review
Stage
Phase
Stage 1─
Planning the Review
Form a review panel
Phase 0 – Identification of the need
for a review
Phase 1 – Preparation of a proposal
for a review
Phase 2 – Development of a review
protocol
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Phase 3 – Identification of research
Phase 4 – Selection of studies
Phase 5 – Study quality assessment
Phase 6 – Data extraction and
monitoring progress
Phase 7 – Data synthesis
Stage 3 ─ Reporting Phase 8 – The report and
recommendations
and Dissemination
Phase 9 – Getting evidence into
practice
Source: Transfield et al. [1]
Stage 2─
Conducting a Review
Stage 1─ Planning the Review
The first stage of conducting a systematic
review is planning the review. The purpose of
forming a review panel is to hold regular meetings
in order to direct the reviewing process and
discuss disputes over the inclusion and exclusion
of studies. Review panel members should include
experts in methodology and theory, and
practitioners working in the field. An initial
scoping study is conducted at this stage with the
aim at establishing a brief overview of the related
topics in the field, including theoretical, practical,
and methodological history and key discussions
[1]
.
Following these actions, a review protocol is
formed. A review protocol is a plan providing
explicit descriptions of each step which will need
to be taken, allowing the reviewer to conduct the
review with minimal bias, and ensuring greater
efficiency in the review process. It should include
the specific questions discussed by the study, the
sample and search strategy adopted by the study,
and the criteria for inclusion and exclusion of
studies. These elements should be transparent
enough to allow anyone else to repeat the process.
Although a review protocol is set up at the initial
stage, the protocol can still be modified through
the review process, but the reasons for any such
modification should be explicitly stated.
Stage 2─ Conducting a Review
The main feature of a comprehensive,
unbiased systematic review is that the search
strategy must be addressed in sufficient detail to
allow replication. It should include information
concerning each step taken in the search. The first
step is to identify appropriate databases to be
searched for relevant articles. Electronic databases
render searching much more systematic and
efficient, though they have the limitation that most
databases include only abstracted journal articles
and thus a significant limitation is that books and
book chapters are excluded, after the initial
‘manual’ search for the scoping study. Clearly a
limitation of the systematic review procedure is
that it can exclude reports and other grey
literature, together with books and book chapters
(depending on the databases searched). However,
in the scoping exercise which preceded the
systematic review proper, such items were
included where available.
Inclusion in the expert panel of an information
scientist or an expert in relation to the literature in
the field is thus important if appropriate selection
of databases is to be achieved. After databases
have been selected, choice of search terms, key
words and search strings are required. Here again
some knowledge of the strengths and weaknesses
of search strategies for particular databases is
required. Then, a full listing of articles and papers
should be made which consists of all output of this
search.
Only a study which meets all inclusion criteria
decided in the review protocol will be
incorporated into the review. As the decision of
inclusion and exclusion can be a relatively
subjective process, the review panel should be
closely involved through the process. The
researcher initially conducts an overview of the
full list of references identified in the search. In
order to assess inclusion status, relevant sources
will be retrieved and the abstract or full text will
be reviewed. At this point, each exclusion made is
reported with reasons for exclusion. Such reasons
might include that an article is not relevant to the
subject or the article is not in English.
The
data-extraction
process
requires
documentation of all steps taken which aims to
provide a historical record of decisions made
during the review process. Tranfield et al.[1]
mention that systematic reviews employ dataextraction forms in order to reduce human error
and bias. Moreover, double-extraction procedures
may be employed by two independent researchers
and results compared and reconciled, if required.
A primary aim of the protocol is thus replicability
(any researcher employing the same criteria would
arrive at the same sample of literature to review),
transparency and accountability (all decisions are
explicit and need to be defended), and
auditability.
The final stage is to report the findings of a
systematic review. A well-conducted systematic
review should synthesise extensive primary
research findings in a manner which will allow for
readers to easily understand the research. A twostage report is proposed to be made within
management research[1]. The first is a ‘descriptive
analysis’ in gathering the basic data of research
papers such as the name of authors, title, and
abstract. The second is a ‘thematic analysis’ which
references the broad themes apparent across the
literature reviewed. The reporting should focus on
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linking themes which range across various core
contributions.
In relation to the topic of management
competencies in the sport industry, despite the
significant number of studies that have been
conducted in this field, little attempt has been
made to translate these findings into a
comprehensive review of current knowledge.
Hence, a systematic review was executed with the
aim at exploring all aspects of the existing
literature and empirical evidence relating to
management competencies and their relative
importance in sports management. This would
then provide a basis on which to develop a
methodology
for
the
investigation
of
competencies in the Taiwanese sports industry.
3 THE SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
PROCESS
The following section will describe the stages
conducted in this systematic review.
Stage 1─ Planning the Review
Step 1: Forming a Review Panel
The members of a review panel were chosen
based on their background to encompass the
expertise related to the field of study, to
information services and also their involvement
within the PhD process. The panel members
include the author of this paper, Professor Ian
Henry who works in the Institute of Sports and
Leisure Policy at Loughborough University, and
Louise Fletcher who is a librarian specialized in
sports at Loughborough University.
The first panel meeting was held on 18
August, 2005. During the meeting, the panel
identified the aim of the systematic review, the
appropriate databases and key terms. Subsequent
discussions in the group were conducted by both
face-to-face meetings and via email discussion.
This will be discussed later.
Step 2: Mapping the Field of Study
In order to gain a broad perspective of the
field and to clarify and delimit the aims and
objectives of the review, a process of literature
mapping was undertaken. This so- called ‘scoping
study’ included a brief overview of the concept of
competency.
Step 3: Developing a Review Protocol
The systematic review aims to answer the
following question: ‘What are the important
professional and managerial competencies to the
successful conducting of a sports manager’s job?’
In order to achieve focus in the review, the panel
decided, in relation to the search strategy, to
combine several keywords. Furthermore, core
criteria for inclusion and exclusion were
established: (1) time frame: 1985-2005; (2)
academic relevance to the topic; (3) language in
English; (4) pages: 3 pages or more.
Stage 2─ Conducting a Review
Step 4: Identification of Research
First, a number of keywords relating to the
competencies of sports managers were identified
by the panel based on their prior experience
(Table 2).
Table 2: Keywords
Sports
Management
Competency
Skill
Job analysis
Task analysis
Role analysis
Marketing
Finance
Human resource
Person specification
Occupational personality
Work profile
Job description
Education
Curriculum
Programme
Course
However, in order to reduce volume and
increase relevance, the panel decided to combine
keywords into search strings rather than use a
single keyword. There were 8 search strings
identified (Table 3).
Table 3: Combinations of Keywords
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
sport* AND manag* AND (job analysis OR task
analysis OR role analysis)
sport* AND manag* AND (skill* OR competenc*)
sport* AND manag* AND (skill* OR competenc*)
AND (finance OR marketing OR human resource)
sport* AND manag* AND (work profile OR job
description OR person specification OR
occupational personality)
sport* AND manag* AND (education OR
curricul* OR program* OR course*) AND (job
analysis OR task analysis OR role analysis)
sport* AND manag* AND (education OR
curricul* OR program* OR course*) AND (skill*
OR competenc*)
sport* AND manag* AND (education OR
curricul* OR program* OR course*) AND (skill*
OR competenc* ) AND (finance OR marketing
OR human resource)
sport* AND manag* AND (education OR
curricul* OR program* OR course*) AND (work
profile OR job description OR person
specification OR occupational personality)
As for the databases, the panel identified 14
databases to search for keywords based on the
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relevance to sports and management fields (ABI
Research (OCLC), ALTIS, ASSIA (CSA
Illumina), Article First (OCLC), Emerald Fulltext,
Google
scholar,
IBSS
(BIDS),
Leisuretourism.com, PsycINFO (CSA Illumina),
Science Direct, SOSIG, SportDiscus, Web of
Science, and Zetoc). When applying the keyword
strings in databases, some databases did not have
any result or the results were not relevant to the
study. These included ALTIS, ASSIA (CSA
Illumina), Google scholar, PsycINFO (Illumina),
and SOSIG, and Zetoc. Therefore, the 14
databases were reduced to 8 (Table 4).
Table 4: Databases
Article First (OCLC)
ABI Research (OCLC)
Emerald Fulltext
IBSS (BIDS)
Leisuretourism.com
SportDiscus
Science Direct
Web of Science
After keyword combinations and databases
were finally defined, a search was performed by
entering keyword combinations in each database
during September and October 2005.
Step 5: Evaluation of Studies
The title and abstract of all papers from the
results of searches were screened for inclusion by
one reviewer (Ling-Mei Ko). If there was any
indecision, it would be brought for discussion
with another reviewer (Professor Ian Henry). This
manual inclusion and exclusion was based on the
criteria agreed by the panel. A full copy of all
identified articles was then retrieved. It is
acknowledged that at this stage the decision of
inclusion based on academic relevance and the
decision to subject a choice to exclude to further
discussion with another reviewer were relatively
subjective.
Step 6: Conducting Data Extraction
The systematic literature search was conducted
on 8 databases, from which 1193 results were
returned. A data-extraction form was created to
present details of these returned results (Table 5).
The number of results was then reduced to 1113
documents by eliminating duplication. After the
assessment of each result, 128 documents were
identified for further examination and the full
articles were reviewed for relevance.
Table 5: Data Extraction Statisitcs
Databases
ArticleFirst (OCLC)
ABI Research (ProQuest)
Emerald Fulltext
IBSS (BIDS)
Total
8
235
24
3
Included
1
5
2
0
Leisuretourism.com
SPORTDiscus
Science Direct
Web of Science
sub-total
(duplication)
Total
274
564
2
83
1193
80
1113
39
94
0
4
145
17
128
Step 7: Conducting Data Synthesizing
After extracting data, the next step is data
synthesising. Data synthesising is aimed at
achieving a greater level of understanding of the
field of study by summarising and integrating
relevant studies. The knowledge generated
through the review is reported in the following
section.
Stage 3─ Reporting and Dissemination
Step 8: Reporting Findings
1.
Definition and Dimensions of Competency
Competencies are generally used as a hiring
criterion, a training plan, and a framework for
evaluation [3,4]. The term ‘competency’ has been
defined in a variety of ways in the literature. In
general, the term competency implies that an
individual must have a specific ability or
capability needed to perform a particular job
effectively[5,6]. Many researchers indicate that
competencies should include skills, knowledge
and personal characteristics. A competency
consists of two elements which are “the actual
performance of a required skill” and “the personal
attributes which underline such performance”[7: 99].
Lambrecht[8] defines a competency as a
knowledge, skill or attitude needed to carry out
properly an activity to succeed in one’s
professional life.
In addition, competencies include certain
motives, traits, skills and abilities that are
attributed to an individual who behaves in specific
ways consistently[9]. Koustelios[10] highlights a
competency as an essential characteristic of an
individual to perform a job effectively.
Furthermore, the term ‘competency’ is also
defined as unconscious personal characteristics
and traits which include motivations, values and
attitudes[7]. Drawing on such approaches, for the
purposes of this study the following definition of a
competency will be used. The definition thus
focuses on skills and knowledge rather more than
the more tenuous concerns with attitude.
‘Competencies are the combination of
knowledge, skills, abilities, and personal traits
which are utilised to perform a variety of
activities and behaviours effectively’
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2.
Overview of Competency-Based Approach
Boucher[11] notes that in the field of
management study there has been a significant
movement towards a competency-based approach.
As a result, the competency-based approach to
management has generated much attention in
recent years. Horch and Schutte[12: 71] describe
“the competency-based approach as drawing on
the knowledge of current practising managers”.
There are two main contributions of the
competency-based approach. One contribution is
to gain knowledge of a particular profession by
identifying the knowledge and skills needed for an
individual to perform in a particular professional
role[3,8,11,13,14]. The other contribution is to be
predicated on education. McLagan and Bedrick[15]
state in Birdir and Pearson [16: 205] that a
“competency study is a major step toward
professionalisation of the very important field of
training and development”. First, competencies
can be used for curriculum design in order to
educate students with the necessary skills and
knowledge of the various occupations. Second,
the identification of job-specific competencies can
be utilised as a basis for in-service training. Third,
competencies can also provide guidelines for
individuals who want to build up their own ability
to enter this field. Dubois[17] concludes that the
development of competency models is crucial to
the
development
of
competency-based
performance and curricular plans.
Many researchers have acknowledged the
development of competency-based education in
sports management. Since, sport industries have
experienced expansion over recent decades, much
research has been needed to ensure that people are
trained appropriately to effectively manage the
various components of the sports industries in the
future[18-21]. As academic preparation programmes
in sport management began to proliferate on
college and university campuses, competency
studies have become one of the most important
research areas in determining the body of
knowledge needed to prepare competent sports
managers in so called competency-based
education[13,22-28]. In addition, Ellard[22] has
stressed that the difference between competencybased education (CBE) and a traditional approach
to learning is that the learning tasks of CBE are
not copied from textbooks, but are based on
identifying specific competencies needed by the
learner to accomplish the tasks at hand. It seems
likely that the competency approach to the sports
management will continue to be a trend of note in
the 21st century.
3.
Competencies
Research
in
Sports
Management
Specific competency-based studies in sports
management include, but are not limited to, the
studies summarised in Table 6.
Table 6: List of Competencies Research in
Sports Management
Year Authors
Nation
1980 Jamieson
U.S.
1984 Jennings
U.S.
1985 Ellard
U.S.
1986 Parks and Quain
U.S.
1987 Davis
U.S.
1987 Hatfield, Wrenn, and Bretting U.S.
1987 Lambrecht
U.S.
1989 Farmer
Australia
1990 Skipper
U.S.
1990 Coalter and Potter
U.K.
1991 Cuskelly and Auld
Australia
1993 Afthinos
Greece
1993 Chen
Taiwan
1993 Cheng
Taiwan
1993 Tait, Richins, and Hanlon
Australia
1993 NASPE-NASSM
U.S.
1995 Irwin, Cotter, Jenson, and White
Australia
1995 Nikolaidis
Europe
1997 Kim
Korea
1997 Toh
India
2000 Peng
U.S.
2003 Case and Branch
U.S.
2003 Horch and Schutte
German
2004 Barcelona and Ross
U.S.
Step 9: Getting Evidence into Practice
An understanding of relevant competency
research conducted in sports management not only
provides the insights into the issues surrounding
the
competency-related
field
in
sports
management, but also helps to define the research
problem, research purpose and research methods
of this study. The studies reviewed in this
systematic review present several points of
interest. First, although much research has been
conducted in the required competencies of a
sports manager, most previous studies suffer from
two main deficiencies. The first deficiency is that
most of previous studies regarding sports
management competencies were mainly focused
on a particular setting, such as collegiate
athletics[28-30], sports clubs[8,12,31], sports centres [32],
sports facility settings[13,33,34], and sports events[13].
Since the settings are different, it is not expected
that there will be similar and generic
competencies for all. Although Barcelona and
Ross[28] argue
that
sports
management
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professionals working in different settings often
require different skills and knowledge, other
researchers have argued that sports managers must
possess generalised skills to be able to adapt to
many types of settings[8,14]. Moreover, sports
management programmes are often not aimed to
train their students only for a particular sports
setting although we do see increasing
specialisation, in the UK with for example sport
event management; sport development degrees.
Instead, sports management curricula tend to be
designed to educate students with necessary
competencies to perform a sports management
role in a variety of managerial settings. As a
result, it is important to conduct more competency
studies within a wide range of settings in order to
determine if the competencies are generalisable
across such settings.
The second deficiency is that there is a
methodological weakness in current competency
studies in the sports management field. Most
competency studies utilise quantitative survey
techniques which it has been argued limit the
responses of respondents in a simple checklist.
Therefore, many researchers suggest survey based
research should not be the only method used in
competency studies, additional data collection
techniques such as the Delphi method, focus
group, or multi-method triangulation procedures,
it is argued, should be used to validate the
findings of the research in this field[28,35].
While there have been many studies
investigating the perceptions of important
competencies of a sport manager, there have been
none to date that specifically look at studies in
relation to national context. Culture and context
will be significant in respect of what competencies
are required and what competencies are perceived
as important by practitioners and academics.
Taking this perspective into consideration, we
seek to identify if competencies are perceived
differently across regions of the world. In an
examination of 24 competency-based studies in
English on sports management shown in Table 6,
we are also able to access the cultural context of
the reviewed competency research. By region,
there were 12 studies conducted in the United
States, 4 in Europe, 4 in Australia, and 4 in Asia
identified within our systematic review. Table 7
presents the ranking of competencies with respect
to referenced frequency in studies by region.
Referenced frequency of a competency represents
how many studies identified it as a critical
competency required by a sports manager.
There were certain similarities and differences
in the ways respondents from U.S., Europe,
Australia, and Asia perceived competencies.
Communication and human resource management
are perceived as highly significant across all
regions. Facility management, sports-related
theory and foundations, first aid and safety
prevention, and administration skills while
considered as important competencies across all
regions, were not as significant in the Australian
studies as in the other three regions. In the
European rankings, some competencies were
perceived as less important compared to the other
regions, for example, information technology and
writing skills. In addition, public speaking is a
competency favoured in Asia but less highly
regarded in the US, Europe and Australia. The
discussion supports the notion that for these 24
studies at least, the importance of competencies is
perceived differently from region to region. We
have taken a global perspective, but the fact that
most studies examined were conducted in the US
may have biased our results to favour
competencies in the US context.
In addition, the systematic review not only
reviews studies from different countries but across
the period from 1980 to 2005. The ranking of
competencies by published year using a similar
format to that of Table 7 is presented in Table 8.
It is not surprising to find the continuous emphasis
on basic business managerial competencies such
as communication, management techniques,
administrative
skills,
human
resource
management,
marketing,
accounting,
and
budgeting. Also, particular competencies related
to the context of sports management were also
emphasised over time which included sportsrelated theory and foundations, research in sports,
facility management, event management, first aid
and safety prevention, and programming
techniques.
The analysis also presented some insights into
the competencies emphasised during different
periods. There were several new management
topics emerging in importance in the 1990s and
the early 2000s which included risk management,
crisis response and stock management. In
addition, a growing emphasis was found on the
importance of information technology and
financial competencies such as financial
management, fund raising and sponsorship, and
economics. However, emphasis on supervision
skills, and controlling and monitoring was found
to decline after the 1990s. The growing emphasis
on flatter, non-bureaucratic structures in the
management literature might be expected to
reduce the emphasis on those skills associated
with bureaucratic procedures. However, the
importance of interpersonal skills seems to have
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been enhanced, for example in relation to human
relations, coordinating, and conflict resolution.
Although there were only 24 studies selected to
examine the influence of culture and time on the
perceptions of competencies, the discussion
suggests that the perceptions of competencies may
differ from region to region and over time. Thus,
it is suggested that further research should take
these considerations into investigating the
competencies.
4 CONCLUSION
From the development of this systematic
review we are able to identify and reflect on three
key themes. The first is to summarise the range,
type and frequency of skills and competencies
identified as significant. The second is the
identification of the cultural context of the
competency research conducted. The third is to
identify the changes globally in terms of
competencies that emerge or decline in
importance over time.
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[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
[26]
[27]
[28]
[29]
[30]
[31]
[32]
[33]
Options: Australian Journal of Leisure and
Recreation, 4(2): 23-30.
Ellard, J.A., 1985. A Competency Analysis
of Managers of Commercial Recreational
Sport Enterprises. Indiana University,
Unpublished doctoral dissertation.
Parks, J.B. and Quain, R.J., 1986.
Curriculum perspectives., Journal of
Physical Education, Recreation and Dance,
57(4): 22-26.
Quain, R.J. and Parks, J.B., 1986. Sport
management
survey:
employment
perspectives.,
Journal
of
Physical
Education, Recreation and Dance, 571821.
Jamieson, L.M., 1987. Competency-based
approaches to sport management., Journal
of Sport Management, 1(1): 48-56.
Ulrich, D. and Parkhouse, B.L., 1982. An
alumni oriented approach to sport
management curriculum design using
performance ratings and a regression model.,
Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport,
53(1): 64-72.
Bontigao, E.N., 1995. Competencies Needed
to Assume the Role of Director of Morale,
Welfare, Recreation and Commumity
Activities Services. Temple University,
Unpublished doctoral dissertation.
Barcelona, B. and Ross, C.M., 2004. An
analysis of the perceived competencies of
recreational sport administrators., Journal of
Park and Recreation Administration, 22(4):
25-42.
Jennings,
W.,
1984.
Entry
level
competencies for recreational sports
personnel as identified by chairs of
preparatory institutions. North Texas State
University,
Unpublished
doctoral
dissertation.
Hatfield, B.D., Wrenn, J.P. and Bretting,
M.M.,
1987.
Comparison
of
job
responsibilities of intercollegiate athletic
directors and professional sport general
managers., Journal of Sport Management,
1(2): 129-145.
Davis, K.A., 1987. Selecting qualified
managers: Recreation/sport management in
the private sectors, Journal of Physical
Education, Recreation and Dance, 58(5):
81-85.
Kim, H.S., 1997. Sport Management
Competencies for Sport Centers in the
Republic of Korea. United States Sports
Academy, Unpublished doctoral dissertation.
Skipper, W.T., 1990. Competencies for
collegiate
sports
facility
managers:
Implication for a facility management
curricular model. University of Arkansas,
Unpublished doctoral dissertation.
[34] Case, R. and Branch, J.D., 2003. A study to
examine the job competencies of sport
facility managers., International Sports
Journal, 7(2): 25-38.
[35] Cuskelly, G. and Auld, C., 1991. Perceived
importance of selected job responsabilities
of sport and recreation managers: An
Australian perspective, Journal of Sport
Management, 5(1): 34-46.
L.M.Ko
1
2
3
4-8
4-8
4-8
4-8
4-8
9-10
9-10
11-12
11-12
13-15
13-15
13-15
16-20
16-20
16-20
16-20
16-20
21-23
21-23
21-23
24-25
24-25
26-27
26-27
28-33
28-33
28-33
28-33
28-33
28-33
34-37
34-37
34-37
34-37
38-41
38-41
38-41
38-41
42-46
42-46
42-46
42-46
42-46
47-52
47-52
47-52
47-52
47-52
47-52
53-58
53-58
53-58
53-58
53-58
53-58
Communication
Facility Management
Sports-Related
Theory
and
Foundations
Budgeting
First Aid and Safety Prevention
Human Resource Management
Legal Aspects
Marketing
Administrative Skills
Public Relations
Financial Management
Information Technology
Accounting
Event Management
Self Management
Decision Making
Employee
Relations/Labour
Relations
Management Techniques
Programming Techniques
Writing Skills
Customer Relationship Management
Evaluation skills
Research in Sports
Fund Raising and Sponsorship
Governance
Goal Setting
Leadership
Coaching
Economics
Problem Solving
Public Speaking
Purchasing
Risk Management
Field
Experience
in
Sports
Management
Planning
Resource Management
Service Provision and Development
Crisis response
Coordinating
Mass Communication/Mass Media
Staff Meetings
Ethics in Sports Management
Language
Management Theory
Personal Fitness
Sports Practice
Foresight
Human Relations
Implement
Negotiation Skills
Organising
Supervision Skills
Conflict Resolution
Controlling and Monitoring
Personal Attributes
Political Awareness
Stock Management
Training and Educating
Referenced
%
Referenced
Frequency
(rank)
Asia
(N=4)
Referenced
%
Referenced
Frequency
(rank)
Australia
(N=4)
Referenced
%
Referenced
Frequency
(rank)
Europe
(N=4)
Referenced
%
USA
(N=12)
Referenced
Frequency
(rank)
Competency
Referenced
%
Worldwide
(N=24)
Referenced
Frequency
World Rank
Table 7: Summary of Critical Competences by Region
19
17
79%
71%
10 (1-3)
10 (1-3)
83%
83%
2 (7-12)
3 (1-6)
50%
75%
4 (1)
1 (15-30)
100%
25%
3 (1-8)
3 (1-8)
75%
75%
16
15
15
15
15
15
13
13
12
12
11
11
11
10
67%
63%
63%
63%
63%
63%
54%
54%
50%
50%
46%
46%
46%
42%
9 (4-6)
9 (4-6)
8 (7-10)
7 (11-14)
9 (4-6)
8 (7-10)
10 (1-3)
7 (11-14)
5 (19-23)
8 (7-10)
8 (7-10)
4 (24-29)
5 (19-23)
6 (15-18)
75%
75%
67%
58%
75%
67%
83%
58%
42%
67%
67%
33%
42%
50%
3 (1-6)
1 (13-36)
3 (1-6)
3 (1-6)
2 (7-12)
3 (1-6)
1 (13-36)
2 (7-12)
2 (7-12)
0 (37-58)
1 (13-36)
3 (1-6)
1 (13-36)
1 (13-36)
75%
25%
75%
75%
50%
75%
25%
50%
50%
0%
25%
75%
25%
25%
1 (15-30)
2 (5-14)
1 (15-30)
2 (5-14)
2 (5-14)
3 (2-4)
0 (31-58)
2 (5-14)
3 (2-4)
2 (5-14)
1 (15-30)
2 (5-14)
2 (5-14)
2 (5-14)
25%
50%
25%
50%
50%
75%
0%
50%
75%
50%
25%
50%
50%
50%
3 (1-8)
3 (1-8)
3 (1-8)
3 (1-8)
2 (9-23)
1 (24-47)
2 (9-23)
2 (9-23)
2 (9-23)
2 (9-23)
1 (24-47)
2 (9-23)
3 (1-8)
1 (24-47)
75%
75%
75%
75%
50%
25%
50%
50%
50%
50%
25%
50%
75%
25%
10
10
10
10
9
9
9
8
8
7
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
42%
42%
42%
42%
38%
38%
38%
33%
33%
29%
29%
25%
25%
25%
25%
25%
25%
7 (11-14)
6 (15-18)
6 (15-18)
6 (15-18)
5 (19-23)
5 (19-23)
7 (11-14)
3 (30-40)
5 (19-23)
4 (24-29)
4 (24-29)
4 (24-29)
4 (24-29)
3 (30-40)
3 (30-40)
3 (30-40)
4 (24-29)
58%
50%
50%
50%
42%
42%
58%
25%
42%
33%
33%
33%
33%
25%
25%
25%
33%
1 (13-36)
2 (7-12)
1 (13-36)
0 (37-58)
1 (13-36)
1 (13-36)
1 (13-36)
2 (7-12)
1 (13-36)
1 (13-36)
0 (37-58)
1 (13-36)
1 (13-36)
1 (13-36)
0 (37-58)
1 (13-36)
0 (37-58)
25%
50%
25%
0%
25%
25%
25%
50%
25%
25%
0%
25%
25%
25%
0%
25%
0%
0 (31-58)
1 (15-30)
2 (5-14)
3 (2-4)
1 (15-30)
2 (5-14)
0 (31-58)
1 (15-30)
1 (15-30)
0 (31-58)
1 (15-30)
0 (31-58)
0 (31-58)
1 (15-30)
0 (31-58)
0 (31-58)
0 (31-58)
0%
25%
50%
75%
25%
50%
0%
25%
25%
0%
25%
0%
0%
25%
0%
0%
0%
2 (9-23)
1 (24-47)
1 (24-47)
1 (24-47)
2 (9-23)
1 (24-47)
1 (24-47)
2 (9-23)
1 (24-47)
2 (9-23)
2 (9-23)
1 (24-47)
1 (24-47)
1 (24-47)
3 (1-8)
2 (9-23)
2 (9-23)
50%
25%
25%
25%
50%
25%
25%
50%
25%
50%
50%
25%
25%
25%
75%
50%
50%
5
5
5
5
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
21%
21%
21%
21%
17%
17%
17%
17%
13%
13%
13%
13%
13%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
4%
4%
4%
4%
4%
4%
2 (41-46)
3 (30-40)
3 (30-40)
3 (30-40)
2 (41-46)
3 (30-40)
3 (30-40)
3 (30-40)
2 (41-46)
2 (41-46)
3 (30-40)
1 (47-52)
2 (41-46)
0 (53-58)
1 (47-52)
1 (47-52)
1 (47-52)
1 (47-52)
2 (41-46)
0 (53-58)
0 (53-58)
0 (53-58)
0 (53-58)
0 (53-58)
1 (47-52)
17%
25%
25%
25%
17%
25%
25%
25%
17%
17%
25%
8%
17%
0%
8%
8%
8%
8%
17%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
8%
1 (13-36)
1 (13-36)
1 (13-36)
1 (13-36)
0 (37-58)
0 (37-58)
0 (37-58)
0 (37-58)
0 (37-58)
1 (13-36)
0 (37-58)
0 (37-58)
0 (37-58)
0 (37-58)
0 (37-58)
0 (37-58)
0 (37-58)
0 (37-58)
0 (37-58)
0 (37-58)
1 (13-36)
0 (37-58)
1 (13-36)
1 (13-36)
0 (37-58)
25%
25%
25%
25%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
25%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
25%
0%
25%
25%
0%
1 (15-30)
1 (15-30)
0 (31-58)
0 (31-58)
0 (31-58)
0 (31-58)
0 (31-58)
0 (31-58)
0 (31-58)
0 (31-58)
0 (31-58)
0 (31-58)
0 (31-58)
1 (15-30)
0 (31-58)
0 (31-58)
0 (31-58)
1 (15-30)
0 (31-58)
1 (15-30)
0 (31-58)
1 (15-30)
0 (31-58)
0 (31-58)
0 (31-58)
25%
25%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
25%
0%
0%
0%
25%
0%
25%
0%
25%
0%
0%
0%
1 (24-47)
0 (48-58)
1 (24-47)
1 (24-47)
2 (9-23)
1 (24-47)
1 (24-47)
1 (24-47)
1 (24-47)
0 (48-58)
0 (48-58)
2 (9-23)
1 (24-47)
1 (24-47)
1 (24-47)
1 (24-47)
1 (24-47)
0 (48-58)
0 (48-58)
0 (48-58)
0 (48-58)
0 (48-58)
0 (48-58)
0 (48-58)
0 (48-58)
25%
0%
25%
25%
50%
25%
25%
25%
25%
0%
0%
50%
25%
25%
25%
25%
25%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
L.M.Ko
67%
33%
1 (12-32)
33%
1 (12-32)
33%
1 (12-32)
33%
1 (12-32)
1 (12-32)
1 (12-32)
1 (12-32)
1 (12-32)
33%
33%
43%
14%
14%
29%
1 (26-45)
2 (18-25)
3 (10-17)
1 (26-45)
14%
29%
43%
14%
1 (26-45)
2 (18-25)
14%
29%
1 (26-45)
1 (26-45)
1 (26-45)
14%
14%
14%
1 (26-45)
14%
1 (26-45)
14%
1 (26-45)
14%
1 (26-45)
14%
1 (26-45)
14%
1 (26-45)
14%
100%
100%
67%
100%
100%
100%
100%
67%
100%
100%
67%
100%
67%
100%
100%
67%
67%
33%
67%
33%
67%
67%
67%
100%
67%
100%
100%
67%
67%
33%
67%
67%
100%
33%
1 (35-46)
2 (17-34)
3 (1-16)
2 (17-34)
1 (35-46)
2 (17-34)
1 (35-46)
33%
67%
100%
67%
33%
67%
33%
2 (18-27)
25%
2 (18-27)
1 (28-42)
1 (28-42)
25%
13%
13%
1 (28-42)
3 (11-17)
2 (18-27)
13%
38%
25%
1 (28-42)
13%
1 (28-42)
1 (28-42)
1 (28-42)
1 (28-42)
13%
13%
13%
13%
1 (28-42)
1 (28-42)
13%
13%
33%
33%
33%
1 (28-42)
13%
1 (28-42)
13%
1 (28-42)
13%
Referenced
%
3 (10-17)
1 (26-45)
1 (26-45)
2 (18-25)
3 (1-16)
3 (1-16)
2 (17-34)
3 (1-16)
3 (1-16)
3 (1-16)
3 (1-16)
2 (17-34)
3 (1-16)
3 (1-16)
2 (17-34)
3 (1-16)
2 (17-34)
3 (1-16)
3 (1-16)
2 (17-34)
2 (17-34)
1 (35-46)
2 (17-34)
1 (35-46)
2 (17-34)
2 (17-34)
2 (17-34)
3 (1-16)
2 (17-34)
3 (1-16)
3 (1-16)
2 (17-34)
2 (17-34)
1 (35-46)
2 (17-34)
2 (17-34)
3 (1-16)
1 (35-46)
6 (1-2)
4 (7-10)
5 (3-6)
3 (11-17)
3 (11-17)
5 (3-6)
5 (3-6)
5 (3-6)
1 (28-42)
4 (7-10)
6 (1-2)
3 (11-17)
2 (18-27)
4 (7-10)
3 (11-17)
1 (28-42)
2 (18-27)
2 (18-27)
2 (18-27)
4 (7-10)
3 (11-17)
2 (18-27)
2 (18-27)
3 (11-17)
2 (18-27)
Referenced
%
2 (10-11)
1 (12-32)
75%
50%
63%
38%
38%
63%
63%
63%
13%
50%
75%
38%
25%
50%
38%
13%
25%
25%
25%
50%
38%
25%
25%
38%
25%
71%
57%
57%
71%
43%
57%
29%
71%
57%
43%
29%
57%
43%
14%
14%
57%
43%
43%
29%
43%
29%
29%
14%
14%
14%
14%
2001-2005
(N=3)
Referenced
Frequency
(rank)
33%
33%
33%
33%
33%
100%
100%
33%
67%
33%
100%
Referenced
Frequency
(rank)
1 (12-32)
1 (12-32)
1 (12-32)
1 (12-32)
1 (12-32)
3 (1-9)
3 (1-9)
1 (12-32)
2 (10-11)
1 (12-32)
3 (1-9)
5 (1-3)
4 (4-9)
4 (4-9)
5 (1-3)
3 (10-17)
4 (4-9)
2 (18-25)
5 (1-3)
4 (4-9)
3 (10-17)
2 (18-25)
4 (4-9)
3 (10-17)
1 (26-45)
1 (26-45)
4 (4-9)
3 (10-17)
3 (10-17)
2 (18-25)
3 (10-17)
2 (18-25)
2 (18-25)
1 (26-45)
1 (26-45)
1 (26-45)
1 (26-45)
1996-2000
(N=3)
Referenced
%
100%
100%
100%
33%
100%
33%
100%
33%
100%
33%
Referenced
Frequency
(rank)
3 (1-9)
3 (1-9)
3 (1-9)
1 (12-32)
3 (1-9)
1 (12-32)
3 (1-9)
1 (12-32)
3 (1-9)
1 (12-32)
1991-1995
(N=8)
Referenced
%
Communication
Facility Management
Sports-Related Theory and Foundations
Budgeting
First Aid and Safety Prevention
Human Resource Management
Legal Aspects
Marketing
Administrative Skills
Public Relations
Financial Management
Information Technology
Accounting
Event Management
Self Management
Decision Making
Employee Relations/Labour Relations
Management Techniques
Programming Techniques
Writing Skills
Customer Relationship Management
Evaluation skills
Research in Sports
Fund Raising and Sponsorship
Governance
Goal Setting
Leadership
Coaching
Economics
Problem Solving
Public Speaking
Purchasing
Risk Management
Field Experience in Sports Management
Planning
Resource Management
Service Provision and Development
Crisis response
Coordinating
Mass Communication/Mass Media
Staff Meetings
Ethics in Sports Management
Language
Management Theory
Personal Fitness
Sports Practice
Foresight
Human Relations
Implement
Negotiation Skills
Organising
Supervision Skills
Conflict Resolution
Controlling and Monitoring
Personal Attributes
Political Awareness
Stock Management
Referenced
%
Competency
1986-1990
(N=7)
Referenced
Frequency
(rank)
1 (19)
2 (17)
3 (16)
4-8 (15)
4-8 (15)
4-8 (15)
4-8 (15)
4-8 (15)
9-10 (13)
9-10 (13)
11-12 (12)
11-12 (12)
13-15 (11)
13-15 (11)
13-15 (11)
16-20 (10)
16-20 (10)
16-20 (10)
16-20 (10)
16-20 (10)
21-23 (9)
21-23 (9)
21-23 (9)
24-25 (8)
24-25 (8)
26-27 (7)
26-27 (7)
28-33 (6)
28-33 (6)
28-33 (6)
28-33 (6)
28-33 (6)
28-33 (6)
34-37 (5)
34-37 (5)
34-37 (5)
34-37 (5)
38-41 (4)
38-41 (4)
38-41 (4)
38-41 (4)
42-46 (3)
42-46 (3)
42-46 (3)
42-46 (3)
42-46 (3)
47-52 (2)
47-52 (2)
47-52 (2)
47-52 (2)
47-52 (2)
47-52 (2)
53-58 (1)
53-58 (1)
53-58 (1)
53-58 (1)
53-58 (1)
1980-1985
(N=3)
Referenced
Frequency
(rank)
1980-2005 Rank /
Referenced
Frequency
Table 8: Summary of Critical Competences by Year
2 (7-24)
3 (1-6)
2 (7-24)
3 (1-6)
3 (1-6)
2 (7-24)
2 (7-24)
2 (7-24)
2 (7-24)
2 (7-24)
2 (7-24)
2 (7-24)
3 (1-6)
2 (7-24)
3 (1-6)
2 (7-24)
2 (7-24)
1 (25-41)
1 (25-41)
1 (25-41)
67%
100%
67%
100%
100%
67%
67%
67%
67%
67%
67%
67%
100%
67%
100%
67%
67%
33%
33%
33%
2 (7-24)
1 (25-41)
1 (25-41)
1 (25-41)
2 (7-24)
2 (7-24)
67%
33%
33%
33%
67%
67%
1 (25-41)
2 (7-24)
1 (25-41)
3 (1-6)
2 (7-24)
33%
67%
33%
100%
67%
2 (7-24)
1 (25-41)
1 (25-41)
67%
33%
33%
1 (25-41)
33%
1 (25-41)
33%
1 (35-46)
1 (35-46)
1 (35-46)
33%
33%
33%
1 (25-41)
1 (25-41)
33%
33%
1 (35-46)
1 (35-46)
33%
33%
1 (25-41)
33%
1 (25-41)
33%
1 (25-41)
33%
L.M.Ko
53-58 (1)
Training and Educating
1 (12-32)
33%