1. What are eight unique properties of living things? Why are the terms "uses energy" or
"reproduces" not unique to living things?
2. Define a good hypothesis and describe how a hypothesis is formulated. Why are multiple hypotheses preferable in every single scientific study? What type of hypothesis cannot be evaluated by the scientific method (give an example)?
3. What is the difference between induction (inductive reasoning) and deduction (deductive reasoning)? Where is each type used in the scientific process? Which one is fallible?
4. What are the steps of the scientific method and the important rules to be observed in each step?
5. What rules should be employed during experimentation to avoid sampling error and incorrect conclusions?
6. Describe the different levels of biological complexity, from atoms to the biosphere. How are emergent properties important to this discussion?
7. What are the three Domains of life? What types of organisms are in each Domain? How are living things further subdivided into kingdoms within Eukarya? Know the hierarchy of taxons.
Be able to give the common name of an organism belonging to each kingdom,
8. What is binomial nomenclature, and who invented it? What is the correct format for naming a specific organism? How are common and scientific names different?
10.
What are the most common chemical elements in living things?
2. Describe the structure of an atom and the relationship between the numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
3. What is an isotope, and how are isotopes useful in investigating biological phenomena? Which isotopes are likely to be used with proteins? With DNA? Small molecules?
4. How do C, H, N,O, and P bond? How many bonds per atom?

5. Describe the differences in strength and composition of covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonds.
6. What are the properties of water that make it especially suitable for biological life? What is the fundamental principle underlying most of the properties of water?
7. What is the relationship between hydrophobic and hydrophilic and the terms polar and nonpolar? What does "like dissolves like" mean?
8. Describe the pH scale and the two key ions that play a role in determining pH value. How do the relative concentrations of hydroxide and hydrogen ions change in different solutions? What constitutes an acidic, basic, or neutral solution?
9. What is the function of a buffer? Describe the buffer system common in mammalian blood and in ocean water and how it prevents pH change. Why are low or high pHs a problem for living things?
10. What makes a molecule "organic"? Describe a hydrocarbon.
11. Describe the structure, chemical behavior (polarity, ionizability), and biological importance of hydroxyl (alcohol), amino, carboxyl, sulfhydryl, and phosphate groups.
12. What is the biological importance of different optical isomers of the same compound? What does the term "structure is correlated to function" mean?
13. What is the typical structure of a macromolecule? By what common chemical reaction are macromolecules synthesized? Degraded? What are the four major classes of biological macromolecules?
14. What are the general names for a monomer or polymer belonging to the carbohydrate group of macromolecules? Specifically name two or three of the monomers and 5 different polymers in this group.
1. How are monosaccharides used living things? How are the different polysaccharides we studied (five in all) used in living things and where are they found?
2. Which polysaccharides are used for storage, and what is their structure? What monomers are they made of? What types of glycosidic bonds do they have? What is the structural differences between the storage polysaccharides? Where are each found in nature?

3. Which polysaccharides are used for structural support in living things? How are they constructed with regards to monosaccharides and types of glycosidic bonds? Where are each of these polysaccharides found and what is their function there?
1. What are the two monomers that make up all lipids? How do different fatty acids differ from one another?
2. Describe how the saturation (number of double bonds) affects the flexibility or "kinkiness" of a fatty acid. How does this play a role in the fluidity of triglycerides at room temperature? What types of triglycerides are liquid, and what types are solid at room temperature, and why?
3. How are triglycerides built and what is their function in living things? How do they vary in solidity/fluidity? Name a specific triglyceride.
4. What is the structure of a phospholipid? What is the function of this lipid in the natural world, and where is it found? Why do phospholipids form micelles and bilayers? Name a specific type of phospholipid.
5. What is the structure of a sterol? What is the function of most sterols? What function does cholesterol have in animal cells? Can you name at least two sterols?
6. Describe the structure and function of at least one type of photosynthetic pigment.
1.
What are the monomers and polymers of protein called?
2.
What are the components of an amino acid, and how are they arranged in this molecule?
What two important functional groups are part of this molecule? What is a side group
(variable group) and how is this group important in the folding of a protein? Why aren't the carboxyl and amino groups of the amino acid important in driving folding reactions?
3.
Describe how amino acids are connected to form polypeptides and the types of bonds that are formed during connection.
4.
What are the four levels of folding and the important bonds and structures formed found at each level? How are disulfide bonds important in maintaining protein shape? Be able to predict which residues (peptides) would be found on the exterior or interior of a protein.
5.
Name a protein whose highest folding level is tertiary and another whose highest level is quaternary. What is the difference in structure between these two proteins? What is another name for "unfolding"?

6.
Name and describe at least five different functions of proteins in a living organism.
1.
What is the difference between a ribonucleotide and a deoxyribonucleotide? Draw a diagram of each one showing the components. What does the C
2
' OH refer to, and why is this significant?
2.
What are the nitrogenous bases used in deoxyribonucleic acids vs. ribonucleic acids? How are pyrimidines different from purines, and which bases belong to which category? Which bases can hydrogen bond to each other?
3.
Name the three ways in which the structure of DNA differs from RNA.
4.
Diagram the structure of DNA or RNA using the words "sugar", "phosphate", and "base" and indicating covalent bonds with solid lines and hydrogen bonds with dotted lines.
5.
What is the biological function of each type of nucleic acid?
Cell Structure and Function
1.
What are the two basic tenets of the cell theory?
2.
Explain how cell structure is strongly correlated to its function.
3.
Describe four differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. What is the difference between a nucleoid (nuclear area) and a nucleus? Between a prokaryotic and a eukaryotic ribosome?
4.
Give two reasons why cells rarely exceed 100 micrometers in size. How does surface area to volume ratio change with increasing cell size? Why is SA/V important in this discussion?
5.
Describe the structure (including names of any membranes and spaces within) and function of the cytoplasm, nucleus, ribosome, smooth ER, rough ER, Golgi Body, lysosome, vacuole, mitochondria, chloroplast, centrioles, cilia and flagella.
6.
What types of proteins are likely to be made by ribosomes on the rough ER? Describe the route these proteins take from synthesis to their final destination, and the structures they encounter. What are the three possible destinations of proteins made on the rough ER?

7.
Draw a eukaryotic plant or animal cell and add all the major organelles. Draw arrows to name each space and membrane. Name three differences between a plant and an animal cell.
8.
Which groups of organisms (by kingdom) have cell walls, and what are they made of?
9.
Write the chemical equation performed by the mitochondrion. What metabolic process is this?
10.
Write the chemical equation performed by the chloroplast. What metabolic process is this?
11.
How are microtubules different from microfilaments? What are microtubules used for in the cell? Microfilaments?
12.
What are the structural differences between centrioles and cilia/flagella? What does
9+2 and 9+3 mean?
13.
What are the functions of glycoproteins and glycolipids on the outsides of animal cells?
Membrane Structure and Function
1.
What is the structure of a biological membrane? How is this different from a simple phospholipid bilayer with respect to composition and permeability?
2.
How is simple diffusion different from facilitated diffusion? What types of molecules can diffuse simply across a membrane?
3.
What factors drive the diffusion of water across a membrane and what is this process called? What makes a hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic solution? How do these different solutions affect the flow of water into or out of a cell? What is the difference between solute and solvent? What is a "concentration gradient"?
4.
How do membrane proteins regulate traffic into or out of a cell?
5.
Name and describe the three types of transport proteins or "ports".
6.
What is the difference between active and passive transport? Which uses an energy source? Does the energy source necessarily have to be ATP (what else can it be)?
7.
Explain how an electrical as well as a chemical gradient can drive transport.
8.
What is the difference between endocytosis and exocytosis?

Energetics and Reactions
1. What is the connection or relationship between catabolism and anabolism inside a cell?
Which type of metabolism tends to be endergonic? Exergonic? What is the delta G for these two types of reactions?
2. How does the delta G (change in free energy of reaction) predict the "spontaneity" of a reaction? Which types of reactions require energy to move them forward?
3. What is the universal energy molecule used to drive non-spontaneous reactions, and how much energy does it have upon hydrolysis? What is the process called where hydrolysis of the energy molecule is used to drive a reaction? Describe how the universal energy molecule "carries" energy.
Enzymes
1.
What "machine" facilitates the occurrence of both spontaneous and non-spontaneous reactions? Describe the steps of catalysis, using the special terminology for "reactant" and "reaction cleft".
2.
Why might a "spontaneous" (negative delta G) reaction require a catalytic molecule to move it more quickly forward? How does this catalytic molecule remove energy barriers?
3.
Name three factors that influence the rate of an enzyme catalyzed reaction, and explain
how they exert their influence. How completely does an enzyme have to denature before it loses its function?
4.
Are the effects of high temperature the same as low temperature on an enzyme catalyzed reaction? Do both temperature cause the same molecular events to occur?
5.
Are the effect of pH the same at high and low values on an enzyme catalyzed reaction?
What is happening in molecular terms as pH changes? Could even a small change in pH alter the rate of an enzyme catalyzed reaction (how?).
6.
What is the difference between reversible and irreversible inhibitors? Between noncompetitive and competitive inhibitors?
1. How does bacterial reproduction differ from eukaryotic cell reproduction? How does the bacterial genome differ in structure and size from the eukaryotic genome? Which one has nucleosomes made of histone proteins?
2. Why are chromosomes copied (replicated) before cellular division? In what phase of the cell cycle does this occur? What is the difference in structure between a single chromosome and a replicated chromosome? What is a centromere? A (sister) chromatid?

3. Name the phases of the cell cycle and what cellular events occur in each phase. Which phases can collectively be grouped together as "interphase"?
4. What is the purpose of mitosis? When does it occur in a living organism? Where does it occur? How often is the average cell actively engaged in mitosis? What type of cell begins mitosis, and what are the products of this process?
5. Describe the four phases of mitosis. What cellular events occur in each phase?
6. Which phase is cytokinesis most closely associated with? What is cytokinesis?
7. Describe the mitotic spindle and how it is formed. What is it made of? Where does it come from? How do plants make the spindle? What is the spindle's function and how does it work?
8. What controls the progress of the cell cycle? Which two points of the cycle are dependent on cellular "triggers' to move them forward? When does cell size come into play? When do levels of cyclin (and therefore active MPF) come into play?
9. What does contact inhibition mean? What is the definition of a cancerous cell?
1. What is the purpose of meiosis? How is this different from mitosis? Where in an animal body does meiosis occur? A plant? What is fertilization and the zygote?
2. Explain the biological advantages and disadvantages of asexual versus sexual reproduction.
3. How is a diploid cell different from a haploid cell? What are the mathematical abbreviations for these two conditions? Which type of cell begins mitosis? Which begins meiosis? Which type of cell is found at the end of mitosis? At the end of meiosis?
4. What is a homologous pair of chromosomes? How is a homologous pair different from two sister chromatids? Can two chromosomes be both homologous and have sister chromatids at the same time?
5. How does the process of meiosis alter the "ploidy" number (diploid vs haploid), the total number of chromosomes, and the genetic composition of the product cells?
6. What are the phases of meiosis? Are the events in Part I the same as the events of Part II?
What happens in each phase? Practice this with simulated chromosomes or draw it out!
7. What do the chromosomes look like during synapsis when they form tetrads? When do they do this? Why do they do this?

8. Where are the two places in meiosis where genetic variation (gene scrambling) is increased?
Describe how this variation is introduced.
9. Disregarding crossing over, how many possible unique cell combinations can arise by meiosis, if a cell has 8 chromosomes?
10. Be able to recognize the phase of a cell in either meiosis or mitosis if given the diploid number of the cell.
11. What is the difference between a centrosome, centriole, and centromere?
12. How does female meiosis different from male meiosis in mammalian animals?
Cellular Respiration: Glycolysis
1. What is the ultimate purpose of catabolic reactions like cellular respiration? What is the delta G of cell respiration --- is it exergonic or endergonic overall? Is it an oxidative or reductive process?
2. What does it mean to say that glucose is oxidized? What are the products of oxidation?
How are these products transported around the cell? What are these products used for?
3. Describe the function of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD + ) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD + ) and how they can be oxidized and reduced. How are these two molecules written when they are reduced? Exactly how do they carry electrons?
4. Name the three parts of cellular respiration and write a general chemical equation for part. Where in a prokaryotic cell is each process performed? Where in a eukaryotic cell is each process performed?
5. Describe the process of glycolysis with regards to the starting molecule, ending molecule(s), and the other reactants used and products produced. How many carbons are in the product molecule? How many ATP are invested? How many net ATP are produced overall? By what mechanism are these ATP produced? How many carbons are in the product molecule?
Cellular Respiration: Krebs Cycle and Electron Transport Chain
1.
What is Coenzyme A (CoA) and where does it play a part in cellular respiration?
2.
When pyruvate is converted to an acetyl group, what two things are produced in this reaction?
3.
Write the overall equation for the Krebs Cycle, including the pyruvate to Acetyl CoA step. How many NADHs are produced per pyruvate? Per glucose? How many FADHs are made per pyruvate? Per glucose? How many carbon dioxide molecules are released

per pyruvate and per glucose? How many ATP made, and by what phosphorylation process?
4.
How many ATP are made by substrate level phosphorylation) )per glucose in glycolysis?
In the Krebs Cycle? Where is most of the energy from the glucose molecule stored after it has been fully oxidized to carbon dioxide?
5.
Which electron carrier holds electrons in very high energy states, NADH or FADH
2
?
How does this difference effect how these carriers release their "loads" to the electron transport chain? How many protons are pumped by NADH electrons? FADH
2 electrons? How many ATP are made per NADH? How many per FADH
2
?
6.
Explain why electrons "flow" between the membrane proteins in the electron transport chain. What drives this flow? How is this flow coupled to proton pumping?
7.
Where do electrons go at the end of the electron transport chain in aerobic organisms?
What is the general name for this ultimate receiver of electrons? In anaerobic bacteria, the "ultimate receiver" molecules are different ---what are they? What molecules are formed when the "ultimate receiver" is reduced?
8.
Describe the structure and function of the ATP synthetase. Where is it located in mitochondria? Where is the F
1
(stem) and F
0
(ball) part located? How many protons are needed to drive the condensation of ADP and Pi?
9.
Why are anaerobic conditions a problem for aerobic organisms? How do these conditions affect the different parts of cellular respiration, and in what order are they affected? Why?
10.
How does fermentation solve the problems imposed by anaerobic conditions? Does fermentation create the same results? What is the difference between alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid fermentation, and what types of cells do which? How is the rising of bread, the making of beer and yogurt, and the development of muscular pain related to fermentation?
11.
What other types of molecules other than glucose can be used to create ATP? How are these alternate fuels incorporated into cellular respiration?
12.
Where are the key points of control for the cellular respiration process? Which enzymes are affects at which points?
List the following molecules in order of energy level according to the way they are used in cellular respiration: NADH, H
2
O, CO
2
, ATP, FADH
2
, C
6
H
12
O
6
, pyruvate, Acetyl CoA.

1. Name two or three of the characteristics used in his legendary experiments. What plant did he use?
2. Describe the difference between dominant and recessive genes, between homozygous, heterozygous, and hemizygous gene combinations, and between genotype and phenotype.
3. What is an allele? How many alleles are possible per characteristic, according to Mendel?
How many genes are carried per cell for a particular characteristic, according to Mendel? Where are these genes carried?
4. Show how to write the genes present in the gametes arising from a one factor cross, like Pp x
Pp. Show how to make a Punnett Square and figure out the genotypic vs phenotypic ratios if P= purple and p= white.
5. Show how to write the genes present in the gametes arising from a two factor cross, like YsYs x YsYs, where Y= yellow, y= green, S= smooth, s= prickly. Show how to make the Punnett
Square and calculate the genotypic and phenotypic ratios. How can the binomial solving algorithm known as F.O.I.L. help you here?
6. Be able to solve any problem similar to those on the practice set assigned to you for homework. Try the practice problems in this review section and those in your book.
1. Define the nature and give an example of incomplete dominance, codominance, multiple alleles, pleiotropy, epistasis, and polygenic inheritance. Which type of inheritance involves the suppression of one locus over another? Which type involves more than two "gene forms" per characteristic? Which one involves a heterozygote with an intermediate phenotype?
2. Is phenotype entirely due to the genes an organism carries? What other factors might influence phenotype? Give and example of this.
3. What is Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment? What type of gene locus arrangement would cause this "law" to be false? What types of ratios are seen in the F
1
of a cross where
Mendel's Law fails? What does "linked genes" mean?
4. If linked genes stay together (sort together) during meiosis, why how could any offspring be produced where the linked genes have been shuffled or switched? What process would cause this? When in meiosis does this happen? Would the distance between the two linked genes have any effect on the frequency of shuffling by this method?
5. How is gender (sex) determined in humans? In birds? How are autosomes different from the sex chromosomes?

6. What chromosome combination results in Kleinfelters Syndrome? In Turner's Syndrome? In
Trisomy 21 (Down's Syndrome)? Which deviation from normal is better "tolerated" by the human body -- extra or too few chromosomes?
7. Be able to write a sex-linked cross correctly using X and Y chromosome symbols and superscripts. Show how to write the possible gametes, use a Punnett Square, and figure out the genotypic and phenotypic ratios.
8. Name two different genetic diseases that are X (sex) linked. Are these diseases expressed more often in males than females, and why is this?
9. What is a Barr Body? What types of cells have Barr Bodies. How does this explain the different colors of fur on a female calico cat? How many Barr Bodies would a Kleinfelters man have? A person with Turner's Syndrome?
———————————————————————————————————————
EXTRA PRACTICE PROBLEMS FOR CELL DIVISION AND GENETICS a. If there are 12 chromosomes in an animal cell in G
1
, what is the diploid number of chromosomes for this organism? b. A cell containing 92 chromatids at the start of mitosis would, at its completion, produce cells containing how many chromosomes? c. If the haploid number for a species is 3, each dividing diploid cell will have how many chromatids at metaphase? d. What are the differences between mitosis and meiosis with respect to function, type of parent cell, number of products, genetic relationship between products and the parent cell, and the ploidy number of the products (1n vs 2n)? e. A couple has 3 children, all of whom have brown eyes and blonde hair. Both parents are homozygous for brown eyes (BB), but one is a blond (rr) and the other is a redhead (Rr). What is the probability that the next child will be a brown-eyed redhead? f. Black fur in mice (B) is dominant to brown fur (b). short tail (T) is dominant to long tail (t).
What proportion of the progeny of the cross BgTt and BBtt will have black fur and long tails? g. Sickle cell anemia is the result of a single recessive gene in the homozygous state (Hb
S
Hb
S
), yet this disease has a complex set of symptoms affecting many parts of the body. What type of genetic inheritance best describes the sickle cell gene expression?

h. An Rh positive women whose mother was Rh negative marries an Rh negative man, both of whose parents were Rh negative. What percentage of their children will be expected to be Rh positive? i. A person has the sex chromosomes XXXXYY. How many Barr bodies would each cell have in its nucleus? j. In tomatoes, round fruit shape is dominant over elongate, and smooth fruit skin is dominant over "peach skin". Crosses of individuals heterozygous for fruit shape and skin, when testcrossed, gave the results: smooth-round 12, smooth-long 123, peach-round 1333, and peach-long
12. Are fruit shape and fruit skin characters linked? k. A woman carries a sex-linked gene that is lethal (in utero) to affected offspring long before they are born. She marries a normal man and they have 15 children. How many boys are they likely to have? l. A man and a woman are expected to give birth to children with the following blood type ratios:
25% Type B, 25% Type AB, 50% Type A. What are the blood types of the parents? Can the genotypes be fully determined? m. Define Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment. n. Define Mendel's Law of Segregation.
———————————————————————————————————————
ANSWERS TO EXTRA PRACTICE PROBLEMS a. Also 12, even after S phase. Replication does not change the ploidy of a cell. b. A cell with 92 chromatids has 46 chromosomes. Mitosis retains the same number of chromosomes as there are at the start. c. The diploid number is 6 (2n=6) if 1n=3. At metaphase there must be 6 replicated chromosomes or 12 chromatids d. Function Parent Cell # Products Relationship Ploidy of Products
mitosis growth, repair somatic
(1n or 2n)
2 genetically identical same as parent (2n or 1n)
meiosis gamete production germ cells
(2n)
4 genetically different always haploid (1n) e. 1/2 or 50% f. 8/16 g. Pleiotropy. Sickle cell anemia also demonstrates incomplete dominance so a slight degree. h. 50% i. 3 Barr Bodies, leaving 1 X active.

j. They are indeed linked because assortment is not independent. (They are about 8.5 mu apart) k. 5 l. Blood Types A (I A i) and AB (I A I B ) m. Alleles of one characteristics will be placed at random into different gametes without affected the sorting of alleles of other characteristics in to the gametes. n. The two alleles for a characteristic are placed into separate gametes in meiosis.
———————————————————————————————————————
1.
What does it mean that DNA is antiparallel? What do the designations 5' end and 3' end refer to, and how do these labels show the antiparallelism in DNA?
2.
Explain the differences between a deoxyribonucleotide and a ribonucleotide.
3.
Name three differences between DNA and RNA.
4.
What does semi-conservative replication mean? Explain how DNA replicates according to this idea.
5.
Describe how DNA is replicated differently on the leading strand as it is on the lagging strand.
6.
What is the difference between RNA primase and RNA polymerase, and where are each used?
7.
What does DNA polymerase require in order that it can begin synthesizing DNA from a single-stranded template? In what direction does this enzyme synthesize new DNA?
9. What is a primer and what is it made of? Why is it produced during replication?
1. Describe how genetic instructions flows from the nucleus to the creation of a protein. How many genes produce a single polypeptide? What intermediates are used? What is the name of the chemical process that produces the intermediate? The process that produces the polypeptide?
2. What enzyme performs transcription? Is the transcript identical to the DNA gene sequence?
What is the transcript made of? Be able to correctly write a transcript made from the DNA gene, using the base-pairing rules. What is meant by the phrase "complementary copy"?
3. What are the three types of RNA and how are they all involved, directly or indirectly, in protein synthesis? Which type forms hydrogen bonds with itself?

3. Describe how a ribosome reads the bases on a piece of messenger RNA. What is a codon, and where is it found? What is an anticodon, and where it found?
4. Describe the parts of and holes in a ribosome.
5. What steps occur during the initiation phase of protein synthesis? What molecules are present?
6. What steps occur during the elongation phase of protein synthesis? Describe what happens, in the correct sequence.
7. What steps occur during the termination phase of protein synthesis? What causes termination to begin?
9. What is the universal start codon? What amino acid is always inserted first? How many stop codons are there? What does it mean to say that the genetic code is redundant or has synonyms?
10. What three types of protein mutations are caused by the DNA mutation known as a point mutation/base substitution? How dramatic would the effects of each of these mutations be on the function of the resultant protein?
11. What type of protein mutation is caused by insertions or deletions in the DNA? How deleterious is this mutation?
12. When do mutations occur normally in cells? How often does this occur? Are mutations beneficial in any way? What factors increase the rate of mutation in cells?
13. What is an oncogene? How many oncogenes does it usually take to cause cancer?
14. Define cancer and state two possible molecular/cellular causes.
1. What are some applications of biotechnology in the fields of medicine, food production, agriculture, criminal investigation, and genetic research?
2. What is a restriction enzyme, and what does it catalyze? How do restriction enzymes differ in what they cleave? What do they "look for"? Name an example of a restriction enzyme.
3. Describe the steps of cloning (transferring a gene to bacteria for purposes of "growing" DNA or protein). What enzymes are used in the process? What form of bacterial gene transfer is used in the lab to facilitate gene insertion?
4. What is a plasmid, and how is it used in cloning?

5. What is DNA fingerprinting? What molecular and laboratory tools are used to produce a
"fingerprint"? What is the basis of concluding that different individual organisms should have different fingerprints? Is this always true?
6. What is the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)? How has this process become important in forensics (criminal investigation) and DNA research? What are the unique features of the polymerase enzyme used in this process?
7. How do you interpret the results of electrophoresis? What kinds of DNA migrate the farthest?
What kinds of DNA migrate least far in a gel?
8.
What is gene therapy and what does it promise to do?
9. What is the Human Genome Project and what are its goals?
1.
Define the term “evolution” from the standpoint of biology.
2.
Describe the difference between the evidence of evolution and the theory of evolution
(natural selection).
3.
Explain how fossils and biogeography (locations of living things in certain places) support the idea of evolution.
4.
Describe the Theory of Uniformity, and it was critical to Darwin’s Theory of Natural
Selection.
5.
Define the term “artificial selection”.
6.
Describe Larmarck’s Theory of Acquired Characteristics and why his Theory doesn’t work.
7.
Name the four basic tenets of Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection.
8.
Describe what “differential reproductive success” means.
9.
Explain how variation is important to the process of natural selection.
10.
Describe the evolution of the black and peppered moths in England and how this story supports the notion of natural selection.
1.
Define the terms “gene pool” and “allelic frequency”
2.
Name all the requirements for a population to remain in “genetic equilibrium”.
3.
Explain why the peppered/black moth population was not in genetic equilibrium, and what type of selection was operating.
4.
Explain the difference between directional, stabilizing, and disruptive selection using graphs showing numbers of individuals Vs phenotypes.
5.
Define “sexual dimorphism” and give an example of a species with such characteristics.
6.
Define the terms “gene flow”, “non-random mating”, and “genetic drift”.

1.
Explain the difference between the two types of genetic drift: the founder effect and a genetic bottleneck.
2.
Give an example of a story in nature where the founder effect was evident. Describe the population problems that result from this effect.
3.
Give an example of a story in nature where a genetic bottleneck was operating. Describe the population problems that result from this effect.
4.
Explain the importance of variation on the survival and health of species.
5.
Describe problems that could results from the introduction of genetically similar species into the environment.
6.
State the biological definition of a species.
7.
Explain the difference between allopatric and sympatric speciation.
8.
Give an example of allopatric and sympatric speciation in nature.
9.
Explain how speciation can occur gradually or “suddenly” in geologic time.
10.
Define the term “extinction” and how this term applies to global events and the activities of the human population.
1.
Describe how the position of the continents have changed over time.
2.
Name the ancient supercontinent and ocean that existed 200 million years ago.
3.
Describe the forces which create continental drift.
4.
Explain how continental drift contributed to the development of new species.
5.
Describe how comparing the developmental stages of organisms can be used to evaluate evolutionary relatedness.
6.
Describe how comparing anatomical structures of organisms can be used to evaluate evolutionary relatedness.
7.
Describe the difference between analogous and homologous anatomical structures.
8.
Describe how comparing the genes or proteins found in different animals can be used to determine evolutionary relatedness.
9.
Define the terms “phylogenetic tree” and “binomial nomenclature”
10.
What are the taxons or groupings used in the classification scheme invented by Carolus
Linnaeus?
11.
Describe the difference between a common name and a scientific name for a species.
12.
Correctly write the scientific name for a species using proper format and conventions.
1.
Describe the characteristics of a prokaryote with respect to size, shape, cell construction, and means of motility (movement).
2.
Name the different metabolic groups of bacteria and describe how they differ from each other.
3.
Name and describe the two major taxonomic groups of prokaryotes.

4.
Describe the environments where archaebacteria (Domain Archaea) are found.
5.
Describe the kinds of eubacteria (Domain Eubacteria).
6.
What is the major ecological role of bacteria?
7.
What problems do the human populations face with regards to bacterial diseases and drug treatment?
8.
Describe the properties of a virus.
9.
State whether you believe viruses to be living or non-living, and defend your answer.
10.
Name some diseases that are caused by viruses in humans.
11.
Explain why treating viral diseases with antibiotics won’t work.
12.
State the type of host cell and health problems caused by the HIV (AIDS) virus.
1.
Describe the features of a protist with regards to size, cell composition, and nutritional modes.
2.
Name and describe the three types of protists.
3.
Explain how protozoans are grouped.
4.
Give an example of a disease caused by a protozoan.
5.
Describe some unique features of slime molds.
6.
Describe the unique features of algae
7.
Explain the global ecological importance of algae.
8.
Name some unicellular and some multicellular algaes.
9.
Describe the features of a fungus with regards to size, cell composition, growth patterns, and reproductive habits.
10.
Describe the ecological importance of fungi.
11.
Define “saprophytic” and “parasitic”.
12.
Name some beneficial uses or aspects of yeast and fungi.
13.
Name some diseases caused by fungi.
14.
Define the terms “hyphae” and “mycelia”.
15.
Describe how a mushroom can have dikaryotic stage to its life cycle.
7.
Describe and name the anatomical structures that allow plants to absorb and transport water as well as capture sunlight energy.
8.
Define the term “vascular system” and name the groups of plants that have vascular systems.
9.
Describe the difference between the diploid (sporophyte) and haploid (gametophyte) life stages of a plant.
10.
Name the plant groups with a diploid (sporophyte) dominant life history.
11.
Name the plant groups with a haploid (gametophyte) dominant life history.
12.
Describe what “alternation of generations” means.
13.
Define the terms “pollen”, “ovule”, and “seed”.
14.
Describe the features of mosses (bryophytes), including root structure, vascular system, and life cycle.
15.
Describe the features of ferns, including root structure, vascular system, and life cycle.

16.
Describe the features of gymnosperms, including vascular system, reproductive structures, and life cycle.
17.
Describe the features of angiosperms, including vascular system, reproductive structures, and life cycle.
18.
Name the parts of a flower.
19.
How is a monocot different from a dicot?
20.
Describe where plants get their carbon and energy from.
Kingdom Animalia: The Invertebrate Animals
13.
Name five or six unique characteristics of all animals
14.
Describe the different types of symmetry an animal might have.
15.
Describe the different kinds of body cavities an animal might have.
16.
Describe the different types of digestive systems an animal might have.
17.
Describe the 3-4 features of sponges and name a specific type of sponge.
18.
Define the terms “collar cell” and “filter feeder”
19.
Describe the 3-4 features of cnidarians and name a specific type of cnidarian.
20.
Define the terms “nematocyst” and “tentacle”.
21.
Describe the 3-4 features of flatworms and name a specific type of flatworm.
22.
Describe the 3-4 features of roundworms and name a specific type of roundworm.
23.
Describe the 3-4 features of segmented worms and name a specific type of segmented worm.
24.
Name at least one advantage to being a segmented animal.
25.
What new evolutionary feature appeared in the roundworms?
26.
What new evolutionary feature(s) appeared in the segmented worms?
27.
Describe the 3-4 features of molluscs and name a specific type of mollusk.
28.
Describe the 5 features of arthropods and name a specific type of arthropods.
29.
What Class of animals contains the greatest diversity and number of species?
30.
Describe the 3-4 features of echinoderms and name a specific type of echinoderm.
Kingdom Animalia: The Vertebrate Animals
1.
Name four features of a chordate animal.
2.
Describe the specific unique features of vertebrate chordate animals.
3.
Describe the trends in vertebrate evolution with respect to jaws, fins, respiratory organs, brains, and legs.
4.
Describe the 3-4 features of jawless fish and name a specific type of jawless fish.
5.
Describe the 3-4 features of Cartilaginous fish and name a specific type of Cartilaginous fish.
6.
Describe the 3-4 features of bony fish and name a specific type of bony fish.
7.
Describe the 3-4 features of amphibians and name a specific type of amphibian.
8.
Describe the 3-4 features of reptiles and name a specific type of reptiles.
9.
Describe the 3-4 features of birds and name a specific type of birds.
10.
Describe the 3-4 features of mammals and name a specific type of mammal.
11.
Describe the advantages of lungs versus gills.
12.
Describe the advantages of internal versus external fertilization.
13.
Describe the advantages of the amniotic egg.
14.
Describe the advantages of having scaly skin.
15.
Describe the advantages of having fur or hair covering the body.

16.
Describe the advantages of having feathers.
17.
Describe the importance of the lobe-finned fish (like the coelacanth) in vertebrate evolution.
18.
Describe the difference between endotherms and ectotherms, naming which vertebrate groups have which form of temperature regulation.
Digestion and Nutrition I
1.
Name the parts of the human digestive system and the function of each part.
2.
Where does most of the mechanical digestion occur?
3.
Where does most of the chemical digestion occur?
4.
Where is water absorbed?
5.
What is bile, and what purpose does it serve?
6.
What is an RDA? How would you find out the value of a specific RDA?
7.
What are the recommended amounts of carbohydrates for a healthy diet? How are these amounts measured?
8.
What are good sources of carbohydrate? Complex carbohydrate?
9.
What are the recommended amounts of protein in a healthy diet? Is all protein equally good?
What are good sources of protein?
10.
Define protein complementarity in combining food sources.
11.
What are the recommended amounts of lipids in a good diet?
12.
What are the essential fatty acids, and what foods contain them?
13.
What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats? What are the RDAs for these two fats?
14.
What is the purpose of cholesterol in the body? What are the problems associated with high cholesterol?
Digestion and Nutrition II
1.
Name the water soluble vitamins and some foods in which each can be found.
2.
Name the fat soluble vitamins and some foods in which each can be found.
3.
What are the key minerals that should be watching in a healthy diet?
4.
How does one read a modern food label? How do you decide whether to each the food or not? How much to eat?
5.
How does activity and exercise affect the way food is handled in the body?
6.
Define basal metabolic rate. Why are activity and food intake important factors to evaluate with metabolic rate?
7.
What are the dietary and exercise recommendations for avoiding heart disease?
8.
What are the dietary and exercise recommendations for avoiding cancer?
9.
What are the two leading causes of death in the United States?
Animal Nervous System and Senses
Study questions still being developed for this lecture.
Excretory System in Animals
Study questions still being developed for this lecture.

1.
What is the difference in gamete production between human men and women?
2.
What is the acrosome and how is it important in fertilization?
3. What are primary and secondary spermatocytes?
3.
What are primary and secondary oocytes?
4.
In what organs are gametes formed in men and women?
5.
What is a polar body and why does it form? Does it have a function?
6.
What is the relationship between an ovum and a follicle?
7.
Where in the process of reproduction do sperm meet the ovum?
8.
Explain how the fertilization membrane prevents multiple fertilizations by several sperm
9.
Order the following stages in embryonic development: gastrula, blastula, neurula, morula, 2 cell stage.
10.
What is the purpose of gastrulation, and what is formed?
11.
What is the purpose of neurulation and what is formed?
12.
What is the placenta?
13.
What is the function of the amniotic cavity?
14. Describe at least two kinds of adult tissue that arise from each of the three different germ layers: endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm.
Population Ecology
1.
Describe the differences between clumped, uniform, and random population distribution.
2.
Define the terms “population size” and “population density”.
3.
Describe the way natural populations grow using a graph of numbers of individuals versus time.
4.
Define the term “carrying capacity”
5.
Name two or three density dependent controls on population size.
6.
Name at least one density independent controls on population size.
7.
Describe the life history of a Type I (prudent, equilibrium) organism, including a graph of numbers of survivors versus age in your description.
8.
Describe the life history of a Type II (intermediate) organism, including a graph of numbers of survivors versus age in your description.

9.
Describe the life history of a Type III (prodigal, opportunistic) organism, including a graph of numbers of survivors versus age in your description.
10.
Explain why human population growth has increased so dramatically over the last two centuries.
11.
Explain how age structure diagrams show whether a population is growing, stable, or decreasing.
12.
Describe how the stages of economic development can be linked to population growth.
13.
Name some of the social barriers to slowing population growth.
14.
Describe the factors that limit human population growth.
15.
Using biological principles, explain why the human population is destined to experience a
“population crash”.
Community Interactions
1.
Define the terms “community”, “habitat”, and “niche”.
2.
Describe the difference between the symbioses known as commensalism, mutualism, predation, and parasitism.
3.
Explain how competition can lead to competitive exclusion.
4.
Explain how resource partitioning can allow several species to coexist in the same habitat.
5.
Describe how predator and prey populations are linked and why they rise and fall together in cycles.
6.
Define the term “coevolution” with respect to predators and prey, and parasites and hosts.
7.
Name strategies that prey might develop over time to escape being eaten.
8.
Name and describe the steps of primary and secondary succession, giving an example of specific plants that would be present in a Northwest evergreen forest ecosystem.
9.
Name and describe some factors that affect the stability and diversity of a community.
10.
Define the term “biodiversity” and explain its importance to community stability.
11.
Name some factors that affect the biodiversity of a habitat.
Ecology and Ecosystems
1.
Define the term “ecosystem” and “food chain”.
2.
Describe the difference between the biotic and abiotic elements of an ecosystem.
3.
Name the source of energy for all living things in the biosphere.
4.
Describe how nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorous are recycled and reused in different living things.
5.
Name examples of consumers, decomposers, carnivores, herbivores, and omnivores.
6.
Construct a food chain from a real ecosystem, naming the different trophic levels.
7.
Describe the difference between a food chain and a food web.
8.
Define the term “primary productivity” and describe its importance to an ecosystem.
9.
Define the term “biomass” and explain how this quantity changes for successive trophic levels.
10.
Explain the shape of an energy pyramid and what it means.
11.
Explain how energy is transferred or lost between successive trophic levels and how this affects the biomass of organisms at higher trophic levels.
12.
Draw a diagram showing the cycling of water in the biosphere (the hydrologic cycle).
13.
Draw a diagram showing the cycling of carbon in the biosphere.

14.
What human activities are especially adding to the concentration of carbon in the atmosphere?
15.
Draw a diagram showing the cycling of nitrogen in the biosphere.
16.
Draw a diagram showing the cycling of phosphorous in the biosphere.
17.
Define the term “eutrophication”, describing what causes it and why it is an environmental problem.
18.
Define the term “biological magnification”, describing what causes it and why it is an environmental problem.
Parts of the Biosphere: Biomes
1.
Explain how solar heating causes different temperature and moisture on earth.
2.
Define the term “biome”.
3.
Describe the geographical location, temperature and moisture conditions, and typical plants found in a tropical rainforest.
4.
Describe the geographical location, temperature and moisture conditions, and typical plants found in a savanna.
5.
Describe the geographical location, temperature and moisture conditions, and typical plants found in a desert.
6.
Describe the geographical location, temperature and moisture conditions, and typical plants found in chaparral.
7.
Describe the geographical location, temperature and moisture conditions, and typical plants found in a temperate grassland.
8.
Describe the geographical location, temperature and moisture conditions, and typical plants found in a temperate deciduous forest.
9.
Describe the geographical location, temperature and moisture conditions, and typical plants found in a coniferous forest
10.
Describe the geographical location, temperature and moisture conditions, and typical plants found in tundra.
11.
Describe the geographical location, temperature and moisture conditions, and typical primary producers found in freshwater provinces.
12.
Describe the geographical location, temperature and moisture conditions, and typical primary producers found in oceanic (marine) provinces.
13.
Define the terms “estuary”, “hydrothermal vents”, and “coral reefs”, showing on a map of
14.
the earth where these ecosystems can be found.
Human Impact and Global Concerns I
1.
Name and describe four different kinds of air pollution.
2.
Explain the greenhouse effect, what causes it, and how it is altering the biosphere.
3.
Why is ozone destruction a problem, and what causes this destruction?
4.
Describe why land is deforested and explain the environmental problems that result.
5.
Define “desertification”, what causes it, and why this is an environmental problem.
6.
Describe the present situation with landfills and the handling of garbage, and problems resulting from landfills.
7.
Describe environmental problems that have resulted from evaporation of water from agricultural land.

8.
Describe how the use of long-lived chemicals and metals causes environmental problems.
9.
Explain how and why sewage is treated before being released into the environment.
Human Impact and Global Concerns II a.
Name the principles sources of energy used in the world today and the future outlook for these resources. b.
Describe some alternate energy resources and the feasibility of these resources. c.
Describe how biodiversity is decreasing in the biosphere and name some factors that are contributing to this. d.
Name some problems that result from biodiversity loss. e.
Define the term “aesthetic resource” and its importance to you as an individual. Argue whether such a resource is worth protecting or not. f.
List at least 5-6 specific, tangible ways in which you can reduce your impact on the biosphere as an individual. g.
Explain the meaning of “eating lower on the food chain”. h.
Explain the meaning of “sustainable practices”. i.
Explain the importance of the ordering of words in the phrase “reduce, reuse, recycle”. j.
Describe the aspects of the natural world that are most important to you. k.
Name and describe the problems or inhibitions you personally have in changing to a lower impact lifestyle. l.
Name one way in which you might alter your lifestyle as a result of taking this class.