CHAPTER 8
Solutions
General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry
Janice Gorzynski Smith
CHAPTER 8: Solutions
Learning Objectives:
 Define solutions: possible states, solvent vs solute
 Solubility: saturated vs unsaturated, effects of temperature &
pressure
 Electrolytes vs non-electrolytes
 Concentration: %w/v, %v/v, ppm, Molarity
 Dilution calculations
 Colligative Properties:
 Boiling point elevation
 Freezing point depression
 Osmotic pressure
2
Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed.
Mixtures
Solutions
•A heterogeneous mixture does not have a uniform
composition throughout the sample.
Salad dressing is a heterogeneous mixture.
•A homogeneous mixture has a uniform composition
throughout the sample.
Solutions are homogeneous mixtures.
Solutions consist of two parts:
1. The solute is the substance present in a lesser
amount.
2. The solvent is the substance present in a larger
amount.
•An aqueous solution has water as the solvent.
Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed.
3
Solutions
2 Types of Solutions
Three different types of solutions:
a solution of
gases (O2, CO2,
and N2)
Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed.
an aqueous
solution of NaCl
(a solid in a liquid)
Hg(l) dissolved
in Ag(s)
(a liquid in a
solid)
4
Solutions
Electrolytes
A substance that conducts
an electric current in water
is called an electrolyte.
NaCl(aq) dissociates into
Na+(aq) and Cl−(aq)
Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed.
A substance that does
not conduct an electric
current in water is
called a nonelectrolyte.
H2O2 does not
dissociate
5
Solutions
Solubility
•Solubility is the amount of solute that dissolves in a
given amount of solvent.
•A saturated solution contains the maximum
number of grams of solute that can dissolve.
•An unsaturated solution contains less than the
maximum number of grams of solute that can
dissolve.
Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed.
6
Solutions
Solubility
•Solubility can be summed up as “like dissolves like.”
•Most ionic and polar covalent compounds are soluble
in water, a polar solvent.
Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed.
7
Solutions
Solubility
•Small neutral molecules with O or N atoms that
can hydrogen bond to water are water soluble.
•Example: ethanol can hydrogen bond to water.
Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed.
8
Solutions
Solubility
•Nonpolar compounds are soluble in nonpolar
solvents (i.e., like dissolves like).
•Octane (C8H18) dissolves in CCl4 because both are
nonpolar liquids that exhibit only London dispersion
forces.
octane
Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed.
CCl4
octane + CCl4
9
Solutions
Effects of Temperature & Pressure
•For most ionic and molecular solids, solubility
generally increases as temperature increases.
•By dissolving a solid in a solvent at high
temperature and allowing it to cool slowly, a
supersaturated solution can be made.
•A supersaturated solution contains more than
the predicted maximum amount of solute at a
given temperature.
•In contrast, the solubility of a gas decreases with
increasing temperature.
Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed.
10
Solutions
Effects of Temperature & Pressure
•Henry’s law: The solubility of a gas in a liquid is
proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above
the liquid.
•The higher the pressure, the higher the solubility
of a gas in a solvent.
closed can of soda
higher CO2 pressure
higher CO2 solubility
Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed.
open can of soda
lower CO2 pressure
lower CO2 solubility
11
Solutions
Concentration: w/v %
Weight/volume percent concentration, (w/v)%, is
the number of grams of solute dissolved in 100 mL
of solution.
Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed.
12
Solutions
Concentration: v/v %
Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed.
13
Solutions
Concentration: ppm
When a solution contains a very small concentration
of solute, it is often expressed in parts per million.
Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed.
14
Solutions
Concentration: Molarity
Molarity is the number of moles of solute per liter of
solution, abbreviated as M.
Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed.
15
Solutions
Dilution
Dilution is the addition of solvent to decrease the
concentration of solute. The solution volume changes,
but the amount of solute is constant.
M1V1
=
initial values
Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed.
M2V2
final values
16
Solutions
Colligative Properties
•Colligative properties are properties of a solution
that depend on the concentration of the solute but
not its identity.
•Thus, the number of dissolved solute particles
affects the properties of the solution, but the
identity of the solute does not.
•Colligative properties include the elevation of the
boiling point, the lowering of the melting point,
and the pressure due to osmosis.
Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed.
17
Solutions
Colligative Properties: Boiling Point Elevation
•A volatile solute readily escapes into the vapor phase
while a nonviolatile solute does not .
•Boiling point elevation: A liquid solution that
contains a nonvolatile solute has a higher boiling
point than the solvent alone.
•The amount that the boiling point increases
depends only on the number of dissolved particles.
•One mole of any nonvolatile solute raises the
boiling point of 1 kg of H2O the same amount,
0.51 oC.
Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed.
18
Solutions
Colligative Properties:
Freezing Point Depression
•Freezing point depression: A liquid solution that
contains a nonvolatile solute has a lower freezing
point than the solvent alone.
•The amount of freezing point depression depends
only on the number of dissolved particles.
•One mole of any nonvolatile solute lowers the
freezing point of 1 kg of H2O by the same amount,
1.86 oC.
Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed.
19
Solutions
Colligative Properties: Osmosis
•The membrane that surrounds living cells is a
semipermeable membrane.
•Semipermeable membranes allow water and small
molecules to pass across, but ions and large
molecules cannot.
•Osmosis is the passage of water and small
molecules across a semipermeable membrane from
a solution of low solute concentration to a solution
of higher solute concentration.
Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed.
20
Solutions
Colligative Properties: Osmosis
•Osmotic pressure is the pressure that prevents
the flow of additional solvent into a solution on
one side of a semipermeable membrane.
Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed.
21
Solutions
Colligative Properties: Osmosis
Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed.
22
Solutions
Colligative Properties: Osmosis
isotonic
solution
Same osmotic
pressure as the
body:
•0.92% (w/v) NaCl
•5.0% (w/v) glucose
Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed.
hypotonic
solution
Lower osmotic
pressure as the
body:
Higher osmotic
pressure as the
body:
Water diffuses
into the cell
Water diffuses
out of the cell
hypertonic
solution
23
Solutions
Colligative Properties: Osmosis
hemodialysis
•In the human body, blood is filtered through the kidneys by the
process of dialysis.
•In dialysis, water, small molecules, and ions can pass through
the semipermeable (dialyzing) membrane; only large biological
molecules like proteins and starch molecules cannot.
•This allows waste products like urea to be removed from the
bloodstream and eliminated in the urine.
24
Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed.