Topic Summary for Chapters 16, 18 and 20-24
Chem 103, Winter 2006
Chapter 16:
Types of carbohydrates: mono-, di- and polysachharides
Classification of carbohydrates: aldoses, ketoses and prefixes
D and L sugars and Fischer projections
Structures and sources of glucose, galactose and fructose
Cyclic sugars: drawing Haworth structures, mutorotation and anomers
Oxidation of sugars (reducing sugars): Benedict’s and Tollens’ tests
Reduction of monosaccharides: sugar alcohols
Acetal formation (glycosidic bonds): methylation and disaccharide synthesis
Structures, sources and reducing ability of maltose, lactose and sucrose
Hydrolysis (methods, enzymes and products) of maltose, lactose and sucrose
Specific rotations of sugars (how to use them to analyze processes like mutorotation)
Fermentation: overall reaction for glucose or fructose
Structures and source of starch: amylose and amylopectin
Structure and source of glycogen
Structure and source of cellulose
Hydrolysis of polysaccharides
Iodine test
Chapter 18:
Definition of a lipid
General structures (diagrams) of fatty acids, prostaglandins, waxes, triacylglycerols,
glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, glycosphingolipids and steroids
Fatty acids: saturated, monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, cis and trans
Physical properties of fatty acids: melting points and intermolecular forces
Prostaglandins: source and functions, NSAIDS (how they work)
Waxes: sources and function
Triacylglycerols: structure and functions
Fats and oils: sources, melting points vs. fatty acid composition
Hydrogenation of unsaturated oils: method, reaction and formation of trans fats
Oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids in oils and fats: reaction and rancidity
Hydrolysis of triacylglycerols: reaction and saponification
Glycerophospholipids: locations and functions (and how related to structure)
Sphingolipids: locations and functions
Glycosphingolipids: cerebrosides and gangliosides (locations and functions)
Steroids: steroid nucleus
Cholesterol: sources, locations and functions
Lipoproteins (HDL and LDL): structure and functions
Bile salts: source, location and functions
Steroid hormones: source, location and functions
Cell membranes: lipid bilayer and fluid mosaic model
Transport across cell membranes: simple, facilitated and active transport
Chapter 20:
Amino acids: structures and classification (nonpolar, polar, acidic and basic)
D and L amino acids and Fischer projections
Acid and base properties of amino acids: zwitterions, isoelectric point (pI)
Structures of amino acids at various pH’s
Electrophoresis: general methods and applications
Peptide formation: reaction and peptide bonds (resonance structures and stability)
Naming peptides: three-letter abbreviations for amino acids
Levels of protein structure: primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary
Structures of alpha-helices, beta-pleated sheets and triple helices
Cross-linking in proteins: hydrophobic interactions, hydrophilic interactions, salt bridges,
hydrogen bonding and disulfide bonds
Globular vs. fibrous proteins
Protein hydrolysis (enzymes and resistance to acid hydrolysis)
Denaturation of proteins: heat, acids and bases, organic compounds, heavy metal ions and
agitation
Chapter 21:
Enzymes as catalysts (effects on activation energy and reaction rates)
Classification of enzymes: names, substrates and type of reaction catalyzed
Enzyme specificity: active site, substrate binding and types of specificity
Lock-and-key and induced-fit models of enzyme activity
Writing enzyme-catalyzed reactions and the ES complex
Factors affecting enzyme activity: temperature, pH and concentrations
Drawing and interpreting plots of reaction rate vs. substrate concentration
Enzyme inhibition: reversible (competitive and noncompetitive) and irreversible
Enzyme regulation:
Zymogens (insulin and digestive enzymes)
Allosteric enzymes (positive and negative regulators and feedback control)
Metal ions as cofactors: roles in catalysis
Water-soluble vitamins as coenzymes: vitamins and associated coenzymes
Water-soluble vitamins: sources, functions and results of deficiency for B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B12,
C and folic acid
Fat-soluble vitamins: sources, functions and results of deficiency for A, D, E and K
Chapter 22:
Basic structure of DNA and RNA
Recognize purines, pyrimidines, ribose, deoxyribose and phosphate groups
Nucleosides and nucleotides: names and abbreviations (3-letter and 1-letter)
Mono-, di- and tri-phosphates as high energy molecules
Primary structures of DNA and RNA: reading and writing sequences
Secondary structure of DNA: double helix and base-pairing
Complementary base-pairing and writing complementary sequences
DNA replication: general process and replication forks
Types of RNA: general structures and functions of rRNA, mRNA and tRNA
Transcription: general process and sequence and processing of mRNA
Regulation of transcription: the lactose operon (control site and repressors)
The genetic code: know how to use table of codons, implications of redundancy
Translation: activation of tRNA, initiation and termination
Genetic mutations: substitutions and frame shifts and their effects
Genetic diseases and cancer: somatic vs. germ cell mutations, dominant and recessive
Recombinant DNA: general process, restriction enzymes and applications
DNA fingerprinting: general process and applications
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): general process and applications
Viruses: mechanism of infection, retroviruses, treatments for HIV
Chapter 23:
Metabolism: catabolic and anabolic reactions
Stages of metabolism: digestion, glycolysis, citric acid cycle
Cell structure: general structure of cell and of mitochondria
Energy from hydrolysis of ATP (hydroylsis reactions and reaction coupling)
Metabolic coenzymes: general structures and functions of NAD+, FAD and CoA
Digestion of carbohydrates: general process, polysaccharides to monosachharides
Glycolysis: general process, location, overall reaction and products
Regulation of glycolysis: role of ATP, reactions 1, 3 and 10
Pathways for pyruvate: acetyl CoA, lactate and ethanol (aerobic and anaerobic)
Glycogenesis: general process and role of UDP
Glycogenolysis: general process
Regulation of glycogen metabolism: glucagon, epinephrine and insulin
Gluconeogenesis: general process, where glucose is synthesized and where required
Overall reaction of gluconeogenesis (energy cost)
Cori cycle: general process and role of lactate
Role of glucose in regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
Chapter 24:
Citric acid cycle: general process, overall reaction and products
Regulation of citric acid cycle: roles of ATP, ADP, NADH and succinyl CoA
Electron carriers: general structures and redox reactions of FMN, Fe-S, Q and cyt
Electron transport chain: electron carriers and reactions of complexes I-IV
Oxidative phosphorylation: chemiosmotic model and ATP synthase
Synthesis of ATP through electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation
Regulation of electron transport chain: roles of ADP, Pi, O2 and NADH
Overall reaction and products for oxidation of glucose
Control of ATP levels through control of glucose metabolism