A Brief History of the English Language
Before English: The British Isles were first occupied by prehistoric tribes of megalithic people. They’re called “megalithic”
because of the complex arrangements of giant stones or megaliths that they created. Stonehenge is the most famous of
the megaliths. Then, between 1500 and 500 BC, Celtic people arrived from continental Europe. These tribes spoke Celtic
languages, a branch of the ancient Indo-European family of languages, of which English is also a member. The southern
Celts were conquered by Latin-speaking invaders from Rome in 43 AD. Calling their colony “Britannia” (Britain) and its
capital “Londinium” (London), the Romans achieved control of the regions now known as England and Wales. By about
400 AD, they had to give up this territory and withdraw to continental Europe as the Roman Empire collapsed.
Old English grew out of various dialects spoken by Germanic tribes: the Angles (after which England is named), the
Saxons, and the Jutes, who started populating the British Isles in the 6th century. These invaders from Denmark and
northern Germany drove many Celtic-speaking inhabitants out of England into Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. Celtic
languages are still spoken by small minorities in these areas. Basic English grammar and vocabulary derive from the
Anglo-Saxon languages, but they were modified by the Celts and by Scandinavian Vikings or Norsemen, who began
invading northeast England in the late 8th century. The most famous literary work of this period, the epic poem Beowulf, is
basically a Norse saga or legend. The Old Norse language seems to have been comprehensible to Old English speakers.
Old English would probably be at least partly understandable to today's Icelanders, since Vikings also settled in Iceland,
where their isolation prevented the cultural contacts that transformed English.
Communication between Celtic, Norse, and Anglo-Saxon people gradually led to a simplification of English. Most European
tongues use genders (masculine and feminine) and inflection, changes in word form that show syntax (the grammatical
relationships between words), but in English these changes were slowly lost. This process continued during the evolution of
Middle English until it became a language whose syntax is indicated almost entirely by word order. Old English survived
until shortly after the Norman Conquest of 1066, when Nordic people from Normandy (northern France) took over England.
Middle English was the product of Norman influence. For almost 300 years, speakers of French (a Romance language)
controlled schools, churches, and courts. French was the language of the king and aristocracy, and English remained the
language of commoners, though each studied the other’s language and often intermarried. Thousands of sophisticated
French words were absorbed into English. Technical words like “observe” and “possess,” for instance, could be substituted
for the simple Germanic words “see” and “have.” The Catholic church also contributed Latin and Greek vocabulary. English
lost several archaic letters: “ð” and “þ” were replaced by “th,” and “æ” was replaced by “e.” The language changed
radically. Late Middle English-speakers could not have understood Old English, yet written Middle English can be
understood today with a bit of effort. Its greatest literary work is The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer.
In the 14th century, the disease known as the Plague or the Black Death killed nearly half the population of Europe and
many people in positions of power. As a result, English speakers were allowed to rise from the working classes to fill
leadership roles, displacing French speakers. Conflicts grew between England and France, and battles ravaged both
nations during the Hundred Years War (1337-1453). In 1362, Middle English – specifically the dominant dialect of London
– was chosen to replace French as the language of government and trade. At the coronation of King Henry IV in 1399, the
ruler made an address in Middle English. It was the first time a monarch had spoken English in public in 333 years.
Modern English arose in the 15th and 16th centuries with the Great Vowel Shift, a fundamental transformation in the
pronunciation of vowels. For example, words like “house,” “fine,” and “same,” which sounded like “hoosa,” “feena,” and
“sahma” in Middle English, developed blended vowels or diphthongs and dropped the final “e” sound. Such words as
“see” and “to” lost the sounds “say” and “toh.” English speakers also stopped pronouncing hard Germanic consonants like
the “g” in “night” and “light.” Most scholars date Modern English from around 1500, when the invention of the printing
press and a flood of books permitted linguistic standardization. This development occurred shortly before the Elizabethan
period, in which English power reached a high point. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, the plays and poetry of
William Shakespeare (1564 – 1616) set the standards by which all English literature is judged.
The grammar and pronunciation of English have been essentially the same since Shakespeare’s time, with a few
exceptions. Gone are pronoun forms (“thou,” “thee,” “thy,” and “thine” – meaning “you,” “your,” and “yours”) and
corresponding verb forms (art, dost, hast, shalt, wilt, etc). Also, a regularization of spelling has been encouraged by
universal education and the introduction of dictionaries. The first major English dictionary was published by Samuel
Johnson in 1755, and the first dictionary of American English was compiled by Noah Webster in 1808.
Modern English is subdivided into two phases: the Early Modern Period, during which Wales, Scotland, and Ireland were
Anglicized by force; and the Late Modern Period, beginning around 1800, when British conquests throughout the world
added tens of thousands of new words used by native peoples. Colonists in North America, Australia and New Zealand,
South Asia, Africa, and other regions also developed their own dialects of English. Since English has continued to adopt
foreign and technical words, it is thought to have the largest vocabulary of any language in the world. The second mostspoken language after Chinese, the most-used as a second language, and the common language of science, medicine,
business, and the Internet, English is vital to international communication.
A Brief History of the English Language: Outline
Introduction
1. all languages have long histories and belong to related families
2. English is a member of the Indo-European language family, which includes Germanic languages (German,
Dutch, Norwegian, etc.) and Romance languages (French, Spanish, Italian, etc.)
Before English
1. prehistoric megalithic people: Stonehenge is the most famous megalithic site
2. Celts: 1500-500 BC, spoke Celtic (an Indo-European language, like English)
3. Romans: 43-400 AD, spoke Latin, controlled England and Wales, “Britannia” (Britain), “Londinium” (London)
4. Romans gave up control as their empire collapsed, giving other groups an opportunity to invade England
Old English
1. grew out of Germanic dialects spoken by Angles (after which England is named), Saxons, and Jutes, 6th c.
2. Celtic-speakers driven into Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, where Celtic languages are still spoken by minorities
3. basic English grammar and vocabulary modified by the Celts and Scandinavian Vikings or Norsemen, 8 th c.
4. simplification of English: gender and inflection (word form changes) slowly lost, syntax indicated by word order
5. most famous Old English literary work: the epic poem Beowulf, a Norse saga or legend
6. Old Norse understood by Old English speakers and probably today's Icelanders, where Vikings also settled
Middle English
1. Norman Conquest: 1066, England invaded by Nordic people from Normandy (northern France)
2. Middle English the product of almost 300 years of Norman influence
3. French king, French spoken in schools, churches, and courts, English spoken by commoners
4. French words absorbed into English; ex: “observe” and “possess” for “see” and “have”
5. Catholic church contributed Latin and Greek vocabulary
6. Several letters lost: “ð” and “þ” replaced by “th”; “æ” replaced by “e”; English changed radically
7. the Plague or Black Death: 14th c., killed people in positions of power, English speakers rose to leadership
8. conflicts between England and France: the Hundred Years War (1337-1453)
9. London’s Middle English replaces French: 1362; King Henry IV makes first speech in Middle English: 1399
10. greatest Middle English literary work: The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer
Modern English
1. the Great Vowel Shift: 15th and 16th c., transformed vowel pronunciation; ex: “house,” “fine,” and “same,”
sounded like “hoosa,” “feena,” and “sahma” in Middle English, developed diphthongs (blended vowels) and
dropped final “e” sound; “see” and “to,” sounding like “say” and “toh,” were modernized
2. consonants like “g” in “night” and “light” no longer pronounced
3. English grammar and pronunciation similar since this time, with exceptions; ex: pronoun forms (“thou,” “thee,”
“thy,” and “thine” – meaning “you,” “your,” and “yours”) and verb forms (art, dost, hast, shalt, wilt, etc) gone
4. invention of printing press and spread of books permitted linguistic standardization: around 1500, shortly
before Elizabethan period; English power at high point; plays and poems of William Shakespeare (1564-1616)
5. regular spelling encouraged by universal education and dictionaries; first major English dictionary published
by Samuel Johnson in 1755; first dictionary of American English published by Noah Webster in 1808
6. Modern English divided into Early Modern Period, when Wales, Scotland, and Ireland were Anglicized by
force, and Late Modern Period, beginning around 1800, when British world conquest added many words
7. colonists in North America, Australia, New Zealand, South Asia, and Africa developed their own dialects
8. English has continued to adopt foreign and technical words and has the largest vocabulary of any language
9. the second most-spoken language after Chinese, the most-used as a second language, and the common
language of science, medicine, business, and the Internet, English is vital to international communication
A Map of the British Isles and Pictures from the History of the English Language
Scotland (a few *Gaelic speakers)
Hadrian’s Wall (Roman barrier)
England (Latin: Britannia)
Ireland (Northern Ireland is British
territory: a few *Irish speakers)
Area of Roman, Norse (Viking) and
Norman (French) occupation
Wales (a few *Welsh speakers)
London (Latin: Londinium)
Area of Celtic, Roman, Anglo-Saxon
and Norman occupation
*Gaelic, Irish, and
Welsh are all
Celtic languages.
France (Normandy: French speakers)
Stonehenge (a megalithic site)
Celts (spoke Celtic languages)
Romans (spoke Latin)
Anglo-Saxons (spoke Old English)
Norsemen or Vikings (spoke Norse)
Norman Conquest (spoke French)
Catholic Church (spoke Latin)
Plague or Black Death
Shakespeare (spoke Modern English)
Quiz on “A Brief History of the English Language”
1. What are “megaliths,” and what is the name of the most famous megalith?
2. When did Celtic people occupy the British Isles, and where is Celtic still spoken?
3. What people conquered Britain in the year 43, and for about how long did they occupy it?
4. Which tribes invaded Britain in the 6th century?
5. Where did the Vikings come from, and when did they start to invade Britain?
6. What is the most famous poem in Old English?
7. Where in the world might people be able to understand some Old English today?
8. What did the Anglo-Saxon language lose as it was simplified into English?
9. Which people invaded England in 1066, and what language did they speak?
10. Why did common people take over government positions during the Middle English period?
11. What languages added to the vocabulary of Middle English?
12. What was the greatest work of literature during the Middle English period, and who wrote it?
13. When did Henry IV become king, and why was the speech he made special?
14. What major change created Modern English?
15. Why was Modern English able to spread so quickly?
16. Who was the greatest author of Modern English, and when was he born?
17. Who wrote the first major English dictionary, and when was it published?
18. Wales, Scotland, and Ireland were Anglicized during the period of Early Modern English?
What does the word “Anglicized” mean?
19. What was added to English during the Late Modern period, and were did it come from?
20. Which important fields use English as a common language today?
Key:
1. giant stones / Stonehenge
11. French, Latin, Greek
2. 1500 – 500 BC / Wales, Scotland, Ireland
12. The Canterbury Tales / Chaucer
3. Romans / 350 years
13. 1399 / He spoke English
4. Angles, Saxons, Jutes
14. Great Vowel Shift / pronunciation changed
5. Scandinavia / the late 8th century
15. printing press, books, military power
6. Beowulf
16. Shakespeare / 1564
7. Iceland
17. Johnson / 1755
8. genders, inflections, letters
18. forced to learn, speak, or use English
9. Normans / French
19. new words, dialects / colonies (India, etc.)
10. Plague (the Black Death) killed leaders
20. science, medicine, business, Internet