Chapter 1: Introduction
The Egyptian political sphere of Mubarak's regime used to impose censorship on
all mass media outlets, although the margin of freedom of expression has increased
compared to previous regimes. Due to the different measures of control imposed by
Mubarak’s government, Islamists were depending only on the Internet or the private
television satellite channels to express their views and ideologies.
Before the 25th of January revolution, the massive technical and artistic
developments in the media, particularly the Internet and satellite television channels,
have represented a fertile field for the Islamic media (Sultan, 2012). The Islamic
media, in field of journalism and broadcasting, benefit from Internet because among
the main characteristics of the Internet are ease of use, low cost especially in the
infrastructure costs (Sultan, 2012). Also, the advent of the Internet helped the Islamic
media to be spread because the Internet surpasses many barriers, such the
infrastructure costs and official permits which make it difficult to get a license for
newspaper, magazine or broadcasting channel (Sultan, 2012).
Moreover, the Islamic channels before the revolution were focusing only on the
education and interpretation of Islam, and were not used as a tool to propagate for the
political ideologies of Islamic movements. Yet, after the revolution, and in the midst
of this "uncontrolled wave of expansion, because of modern technical means and
relative low cost of launching a satellite channel, some of purely Islamic channels
have appeared" (Hroub, 2012). Before the Arab Spring, Islamic mass media in
1
different forms have been a crucial tool in the process of Islamizing the society, and in
the strategy that adopted and promoted by Islamists movements (Hroub, 2012).
At the beginning of these Islamic channels such as al-Majd satellite channel and
Iqra' satellite channel, they focus on religion education and interpretation. However,
after the 25th of January revolution, the Islamists channels such as al-Hafaz satellite
channel and al-Nas satellite channel start to act as a forum for the politics of the
Islamists groups. Mainly, the early Islamic channels in the Arab countries were about
discussing religious rules and explaining the Islamic teachings, which mean they
insist on non-political issues. "Religious channels in pre-revolution times avoided
covering politics and kept to their orthodox discourse of the religion" (Hroub, 2012).
In pre-revolution times, these Islamic channels preoccupied the audiences with
religious, social, and other issues, away from criticizing the practices of the political
regimes (Hroub, 2012). This means that the main policy of these Islamic satellite
channels was avoiding political issues (Hroub, 2012). "In the realm of Islamism,
mainstream Salafi movements have for a long time been apolitical, focusing on
bringing Muslims back to what they perceived as a pure path of Islam" (Hroub, 2012).
The goal of these Islamic satellite channels lies at the heart of the 'Islamisation'
endeavor; they did not show interest in challenging the corrupt political rulers in their
countries (Hroub, 2012).
2

Statement of the Problem
It is noticeable that there are not a lot of studies examining the Islamists media
outlets whether Internet websites or Islamic satellite channels. "There are certain
tendencies in the broadcasting, including religious tendencies, have not attracted as
much attention and research as they really merit" (Hroub, 2012).
Before the Arab Spring Islamists assumed that politics is corrupt, so that it would
corrupt religion if politics brought into it (Hroub, 2012). After the Arab Spring and
when the Islamists become the rulers, the Islamists started to control the media and
there is a fear of reaching the masses in the country by their Islamic ideologies. "It is
obvious that the Arab countries are mostly dominated by movements and discourses
which are shaped or influenced by political Islam" (Hroub, 2012). After Arab Spring
there is a worry of replacing the "police state" with "religious state", the Islamists can
apply the religious or Islamic state by utilizing the mass media because audiences
mainly convinced by preachers who speak according to religion (Hroub, 2012).
Islamic broadcasting has been playing a greater role than other types of
broadcasting in communicating values and promoting particular social and cultural
models that correspond to the current political and cultural projects advocated by
Islamic movements (Hroub, 2012). In the revolutionary cases of Arab Spring such as
Egypt, Islamic political parties have invested a massive effort to mobilize the public
in order to gain control of the political system of the country through mass media
(Hroub, 2012). "Moderate and fanatical Islamists, in their pursuit of power and
3
control, have joined forces to deploy all the resources at their disposal, including, of
course, mass media” (Hroub, 2012).
This study aims to analyze and examine the content of mass media of Muslim
Brotherhood group and Freedom and Justice Party. The theoretical framework of this
research is the Agenda Setting Theory with the focus of media Priming. Also, this
research aims to study how the Muslim Brotherhood group and Freedom and Justice
Party use their media to present their ideologies and goals to the Egyptian public. The
Islamization project of Islamic movements such as Muslim Brotherhood group,
believes that the political system of the Muslim world should be re-Islamized, so they
can use mass media to reach this goal (Hroub, 2012). "The Islamic movements focus
on the use of all sorts of media to reach out more audiences and to deliver their
message" (Hroub, 2012).
4
Chapter 2: Historical Background and Ideology
1- Hassan al-Banna and the Foundation of Muslim Brotherhood
The Muslim brotherhood group was established by Hassan Al-Banna in 1928, he
believed that the Islamic community at that time was at an important crossroads, and
he maintained that Muslim countries would get their strength from applying the rules
of Islam (Bajoria, 2012). Adhering to the vision of God’s supremacy, Al-Banna and
his six friends established Al-Ikhwan al-Muslimoon, the Muslim Brotherhood, "The
Brotherhood took the oath to be “troops [Jund] for the message of Islam, brothers in
the service of Islam; hence, we are the Muslim Brothers" (Piason, 2007).
The creator of the Muslim Brotherhood, Al-Banna, represented an organization
that equipped people with means of political expression, and a positive path towards
social improvement by applying the rules of Islam (Piason, 2007). The Muslim
Brotherhood group, at the beginning, wanted to present the Islamic rules and concepts
in order to counter the phenomenon of Westernization; they were different from their
prior generations of Egyptian Islamic reformers who preferred to imitate the Western
countries to achieve development of Egypt (Zollner, 2009). Hasan al-Banna instead,
promoted Islam as an inclusive and independent solution to the decline of Islamic
development and civilization, and to counter Westernized Egyptians who were
considered an apparent threat as the British colonialists (Ghanem, 1992).
Al-Banna's ideology provided the Egyptian society with the essential method to
be independent country, without the pressure of the West, by the use of Islam and the
path that God provides (Piason, 2007). As Egyptians had rejected the Western
imperialism in the country, the Muslim Brotherhood group had a rapid growth and
5
popularity; within twenty years the total number of members of the group reached two
million and about 2,000 branches were established across Egypt (Piason, 2007).
Al-Banna, supported the application of Islamic Shariah, and believed that the
revival of Islam was the sole method of achieving the social and political regeneration
of Egyptian society (Ghanem, 1992). The program of Brotherhood worked to identify
the significance of Islamic Shariah and its importance to the social, economic, and
political objectives of a lot of Egyptians (Zollner, 2009). Al-Banna promoted a
number of economic developments that included the redistribution of land, the start of
social benefit programs, and the support of local investment instead of foreign capital
(Ghanem, 1992).
Under al-Banna’s leadership, the Muslim Brotherhood developed into an
organized group, providing social services for people under the morals of Islam, and
participating in political struggle against the British and Zionist colonization
(Ghanem, 1992). Throughout the Second World War, al-Banna supported the proAxis side, and then al-Banna and his followers were banished from Cairo (Ghanem,
1992). After this conflict, the political conflict gave a way to use violence by the
Muslim Brotherhood group’s “Special Apparatus” (Ghanem, 1992). According to
Rogan (2009), for the period of the Arab-Israeli war of 1948, Muslim Brotherhood
group dispatched volunteers troops to battle against the Israeli armed groups in
Palestine (Islamopedia Online, Hassan al-Banna and the Early Muslim Brotherhood,
2012)
Moreover, the members of Muslim Brotherhood group played a part in fighting
against the British troops in Egypt and the group was charged of encouraging
uprisings against the government (Ghanem, 1992). Egyptian Prime Minister Mahmud
Sami al-Nukrashi confirmed a military law which led to the dissolving of Muslim
6
Brotherhood group on December 8, 1948 (Islamopedia Online, Hassan al-Banna and
the Early Muslim Brotherhood, 2012). On December 28, 1948, al-Nukrashi was killed
by a member of the Muslim Brotherhood group (Islamopedia Online, Hassan alBanna and the Early Muslim Brotherhood, 2012). According to Rogan, on February
12, 1949, Al-Banna was assassinated by the police in Egypt. After Al-Banna was
killed, his successor was Hassan al-Hodaybi who was elected as Murshied-Aam
[general guide] of the group (Piason, 2007).
2- Muslim Brotherhood and King Farouk
The Muslim Brotherhood group in the beginning supported King Farouk when he
came to rule and they called him the Caliphate of Muslims because they believed that
the King would apply the Islamic rule and government (Ramadan, 1982). On the other
hand, the group’s support to King Farouk decreased after he signed the AngloEgyptian treaty in 1936 with the British occupation (Fathi, 2010).
Through the early years of World War II, British policy towards the Muslim
Brotherhood group in Egypt essentially involved efforts to suppress the group
(Ramadan, 1982). However, at this time the group, that was associated to the political
right, also enjoyed the support and aid of the pro-British Egyptian kingdom, that had
started to fund the Muslim Brotherhood group in 1940 (Ramadan,1982). "King
Farouk saw the Brothers as a useful counter to the power of the major political party
in the country the secular, nationalist Wafd Party and the communists" (Curtis, 2010).
A British intelligence report of the year 1942 stated that King Farouk had started to
benefit from the group of Muslim Brotherhood (Curtis, 2010). Throughout this period,
a lot of Islamic societies in Egypt were supported by the authorities to resist rivals or
promote the British interests, the King or other effective groups (Ramadan, 1982).
7
"The first known direct contact between British officials and the Brotherhood
came in 1941, at a time when British intelligence regarded the organization's mass
following and sabotage plans against the British as the most serious danger to public
security in Egypt" (Curtis, 2010). In 1941, Egyptian government sent al-Banna to
prison and this act was under the pressure of British officials; however, he was
released later at the same year after some contacts between the British and the Muslim
Brotherhood group (Ramadan, 1982). According to some sources at that period, the
British officials in Egypt offered to aid the Muslim Brotherhood group which means
that the British officials purchased the group's support (Ramadan, 1982). There are no
official sources about whether al-Banna agreed or rejected the offer of the British
support, but the Muslim Brotherhood group did not fight against the British for some
time after this period, so it is possible that British aid to the group was accepted
(Curtis, 2010).
The Egyptian Prime Minister Mahmoud El-Noqrashi in December 1948 applied a
military order to dissolve the Muslim Brotherhood group, because the group was
accused of secretly plotting to bring down the kingdom (Curtis, 2010). Moreover, ElNoqrashi prohibited the members of Muslim Brotherhood group from travelling to
Palestine to participate in the war against Israeli troops (Ramadan, 1982). One month
after the dissolving of the group by one month, El-Noqrashi was assassinated by a
member of the Muslim Brotherhood group; later on, the Egyptian government
revenged from the group by assassinating El-Banna in February 1949 (Ramadan,
1982).
After El-Noqrashi assassination, his successor Ibrahim Abdel-Hadi dealt severely
with the Muslim Brotherhood group through jailing a lot of its members (Ramadan,
1982). In July 1949, the government of Abdel-Hadi changed and 4000 members of
8
the group were imprisoned. However, the Egyptian government believed that it is
appropriate to try to accommodate the group of Muslim Brotherhood (Ramadan,
1982). As a result, the court released the members of the Muslim Brotherhood who
were accused of conspiracy to overthrow the kingdom (Ramadan, 1982). On April 30,
1951, when the political party al-Wafd won the parliamentary elections, the Muslim
Brotherhood group was banned (Ramadan, 1982). The Muslim Brotherhood group
participated with the Free Officers who led by Gamal Abdel Nasser, who forced King
Farouk of Egypt to step down (Ramadan, 1982).
3- Nasser's Regime and the Muslim Brotherhood
At the beginning of the 23rd of July Revolution in 1952, the connection between
the Free Officers and the Muslim Brotherhood group was positive (Islamopedia
Online, The Brotherhood and Politics during Nasser Regime, 2012). Muslim
Brotherhood group participated in fighting against the British troops in Egypt, and
they played a part in the war against the Israel troops in Palestine in 1948 (Ramadan,
1982). The members of both the Free Officers and Muslim Brotherhood had a close
relationship before the revolution in 1952; however, very soon the conflicts appeared
over the political system of the country (Ramadan, 1982). These disagreements
between Muslim Brotherhood group and Free Officers soon expanded to apparent
hostility and sometimes aggressive confrontations (Islamopedia Online, The
Brotherhood and Politics during Nasser Regime, 2012).
During the year 1953 the Egyptian political parties were eliminated, so that the
Muslim Brotherhood group had the permit to persist its activities as an “organization”
(AL-Awadi, 2009). Muslim Brotherhood group believed that their famous ideologue
Sayyid Qutb, had a leadership position in the Liberation Rally with the Free officers,
but after a short time the relationships between him and the regime weakened swiftly
9
(Islamopedia Online, The Brotherhood and Politics during Nasser Regime, 2012). The
Muslim Brotherhood members protested against the system of military rule in Egypt,
demanded for shaping a civilian regime, and rejected to admit the legitimacy of the
Egyptian regime that did not apply Islamic law (AL-Awadi, 2009). The members of
Muslim Brotherhood participated with the Communists in organizing demonstrations
against Nasser regime, and calling for the return to civilian regime (AL-Awadi, 2009).
The turning point of the relationship between Nasser and Muslim Brotherhood
happened in October 1954, when a member of the group tried to assassinate President
Nasser; this event added to Nasser’s popularity (Ramadan, 1982). After the attempt of
assassinating Nasser, the Muslim Brotherhood group was banned, and a large number
of its members were detained, tortured, and put on trial; several members received
lengthy prison sentences with hard labor (AL-Awadi, 2009). Seven members of the
Muslim Brotherhood group received death sentences, and one of them was the
General Guide of the group at that time that was Hassan al-Hudeiby (Islamopedia
Online, The Brotherhood and Politics during Nasser Regime, 2012). According to
Soage and Franganillo (2010), the punishment of Al-Hudeiby later on was changed
from death sentence to life imprisonment (Islamopedia Online, The Brotherhood and
Politics during Nasser Regime, 2012).
4- Sayyid Qutb and Nasser's Era politics
One of the most important and influential men within the Muslim Brotherhood
was Sayyid Qutb; as Al-Banna is viewed as the founder of the group, Qutb is
considered to be the creator of its dogma (Piason, 2007). Sayyid Qutb's writings were
very influential in the radicalization of ideology of the Muslim Brotherhood group;
they believed that he is a very important Egyptian educator; Qutb joined the group
when he returned from a trip to the United States (Islamopedia Online, Sayyid Qutb
10
and the Radicalization of the Brotherhood, 2012). "In the United States he was
shocked by what he perceived as moral decay of American society, he subsequently
came to reject Western values altogether, and under the banner of the Brotherhood
sought to protect Egypt from the dangerous threat of Westernization" (Islamopedia
Online, Sayyid Qutb and the Radicalization of the Brotherhood, 2012).
At the beginning, Qutb supported the Free Officers headed by Nasser, because
they were opposing the Egyptian kingdom which was pro-Western (Ramadan, 1982).
However, Qutb and the Muslim Brotherhood rapidly became dissatisfied with Nasser
because of Nasser’s policy of Pan-Arab socialism (Ramadan, 1982). Qutb believed
that the policy of Pan-Arab socialism is incompatible with the principles of Islam
(Ramadan, 1982). As Nasser in year 1954 started the crackdown on the Muslim
Brotherhood group, Qutb was jailed for some years (Ramadan, 1982). During his
prison, and under the torture of security forces, the Islamic ideology of Qutb
developed into more radicalism, and his ideology was concluded in his famous book
Ma’alim fi-l-Tariq (Milestones on the Road) (Ramadan, 1982).
"In this text, he argued that Egyptian society was not truly Islamic, but instead
steeped in jahiliyya, a state of ignorance characterized by pre-Islamic Arabia"
(Islamopedia Online, Sayyid Qutb and the Radicalization of the Brotherhood, 2012).
Qutb advocated the development of a vanguard consisted of loyal Muslims who can
effectively struggle against the harmful effects of jahaliyya, by the active jihad
(Ramadan, 1982). "Sayyid Qutb publicly opposed the Anglo- Egyptian Pact that
Gamal Abdel Nasser, the first president of the Arab Republic of Egypt, entered into
with the British government in July of 1954" (Bajoria, 2012). The Egyptian military
responded to Qutb’s opponent statements by prohibiting Muslim Brotherhood in
September, 1954 (Piason, 2007). As Nasser had a fear from the ideology of Qutb on
11
his political regime, he executed Qutb in 1966 (Islamopedia Online, Sayyid Qutb and
the Radicalization of the Brotherhood, 2012).
The writings of Qutb made a division among the members of the Muslim
Brotherhood (Ramadan, 1982). After the detention and execution of Qutb by Nasser
regime, many young members of Muslim Brotherhood became more dissatisfied with
the passive status of the Muslim Brotherhood toward the Nasser regime's oppression
(Islamopedia Online, Sayyid Qutb and the Radicalization of the Brotherhood, 2012).
According to Soage and Franganillo (2010), after this event the members of the group
separated and shaped new militant groups which was inspired by the ideology of Qutb
(Islamopedia Online, Sayyid Qutb and the Radicalization of the Brotherhood, 2012).
In contrast, the normal members of the Muslim Brotherhood, who did not,
participated in the new militant continued to be anti-violence and preferred to
participate in the social and political life within the existing system (Ramadan, 1982).
The moderate ideology of these members of Muslim Brotherhood was represented by
the book of, General Guide of Muslim Brotherhood, Hassan al-Hudeiby in 1971
which named Du’a la Quda (Preachers, Not Judges) (Islamopedia Online, Sayyid
Qutb and the Radicalization of the Brotherhood, 2012). This book criticized the takfir
(expiation) of the Egyptian society which was the ideology of Sayyid Qutb
(Islamopedia Online, Sayyid Qutb and the Radicalization of the Brotherhood, 2012).
The militant groups of Muslim Brotherhood created the Western fear and
criticism of these groups and called them terrorist groups (Islamopedia Online, Sayyid
Qutb and the Radicalization of the Brotherhood, 2012). However, these militant
groups had left the Muslim Brotherhood in the 1970s because they believed that the
group favored the moderate ideology and participating in the political sphere
(Ramadan, 1982).
12
5- Politics and the Muslim Brotherhood in the Sadat Era
Egyptian president Anwar Sadat released Islamists from prison, so the Muslim
Brotherhood acted on its temporary freedom and in its effort to unify the Egyptian
nation through the slogan: “Religion is for God and the Nation is for all' (Piason,
2007). The defeat of the 1967 war was one the reasons that led to encouragement of
spreading Islamist politics (AL-Awadi, 2009). The Egypt's defeat in the 1967 war was
generally described by Islamists as the punishment of God because the Nasser regime
did not apply the Islamic law; it replaced religion by secularism, and the continuous
persecution of the government towards Islamists (AL-Awadi, 2009).
The Egyptian President Sadat did not have a charisma like Nasser, and he
realized that Nasserites and nationalist groups were strong and had the ability to
weaken his regime’s authority (AL-Awadi, 2009). In order to counter the power of
these groups, Sadat allowed the Islamists to participate in the political sphere in Egypt
through releasing their leaders from detention, and they supported them to dominate
the unions of student and trade to take the place of pro-Nasser groups (AL-Awadi,
2009).
In 1976, Sadat permitted the political opposition parties to participate in the
Egyptian political sphere (AL-Awadi, 2009). At that period, the Muslim Brotherhood
General Guide was Umar al-Tilmisany (1972-1986), he preferred the moderate
political ideology and opposed the Jihadi ideology of Qutb; however, he did not
succeeded in ending the 1954 banning of the Muslim Brotherhood (AL-Awadi, 2009).
Consequently, the Muslim Brotherhood group continued to be a banned group,
but they were able to gain some recognition in political and social sphere in Egypt.
(AL-Awadi, 2009). A few years later, some of the militant groups opposed Sadat
because they believed that he failed to apply Islamic law after he signed a peace treaty
13
with Israel (AL-Awadi, 2009). One of these militant groups which is al-Gama'ah alIslamiyah [the Islamic group], and not the Muslim Brotherhood, was responsible for
Sadat’s assassination in 1981(Piason, 2007).
6- Politics and the Muslim Brotherhood in the Mubarak Era
"In 1980s Hosni Mubarak, exhibited the commitment toward expanding the
freedom of opposition parties, whose number expanded to thirteen by the mid-1980s"
(Piason, 2007). During the 1980s, the Muslim Brotherhood group developed more
than before and they became one of the main participants on the Egyptian political
sphere (AL-Awadi, 2009). At the beginning, Mubarak's regime was tolerant toward
the Muslim Brotherhood group, but it created some restrictions on the group, and the
Muslim Brotherhood continued to be banned (AL-Awadi, 2009).
Until the Egyptian Supreme Court ruled that the Party List electoral system was
unauthorized, the candidates of the Muslim Brotherhood were not allowed to
participate on parliamentary elections, only through one way which is joining political
party on the list of known parties (BBC News, 2012). In 1984, the Muslim
Brotherhood candidates joined Al-Wafd Party to be able to participate in the
parliamentary elections (AL-Awadi, 2009). The alliance between Al-Wafd Party and
the Muslim Brotherhood obtained a little over 15 percent of the vote, or 58 seats, of
which 8 went to members of the group (Piason, 2007). In 1987, the Muslim
Brotherhood formed a united front with the Labor and Liberal parties; the alliance
won 17 percent of the vote, or 56 seats, 36 of which were occupied by members of the
Muslim Brotherhood (Piason, 2007).
Although the Muslim Brotherhood group approved the non-confrontational way
in their communication with the Egyptian government, a conflict started in the 1990s
relating to the group’s opinion toward Egypt’s involvement in the second Gulf War to
14
force out Iraqi armed forces from Kuwait (AL-Awadi, 2009). The professional
organizations which were managed by the Muslim Brotherhood group stated
declarations against the military interference that was led by America (AL-Awadi,
2009).
The turning point in the relationship between Muslim Brotherhood group and
Mubarak regime was the Earthquake in Egypt in October 1992. This earthquake gave
a golden opportunity to the Muslim Brotherhood's members to prove their ability for
helping the Egyptian citizens (AL-Awadi, 2009). The incompetence of the
government’s reaction to this event of Earthquake was compared with a rapid and
effective response of Muslim Brotherhood group in providing shelters, food services,
medical services, schools, cloths, and money for the victims (AL-Awadi, 2009).
As a response of the Egyptian government to the effective reaction of Muslim
Brotherhood after the Earthquake, the government started to take some actions such
as raiding of businessmen offices that belong to the group, detention of their main
leaders, interference in the student's union's elections to prevent the members of the
group from participating (AL-Awadi, 2009). Furthermore, the government approved
the 1993 union law which ended the professional unions' boards that the members of
Muslim Brotherhood directed and made them under a selected administrative board
(AL-Awadi, 2009).
The 1993 union law insisted on the elections of the union impose that in order to
the elections to be valid, half of the members should vote; one time the Muslim
Brotherhood members won the boards of some of unions through less than half the
members voting (AL-Awadi, 2009). The response of Muslim Brotherhood after this
law was raising terrorist actions in 1990s; then Mubarak system did not differentiate
15
between the diverse political groups that established under Islamic banner, his regime
alleged that it was targeting Islamic militants (AL-Awadi, 2009).
7- Muslim Brotherhood Electoral Success and the 2007 Platform
In the 2005 parliamentary elections, under pressure from the Bush Freedom
Agenda, the Mubarak regime gave the Brotherhood a wider space in the media and
more freedom to conduct their electoral campaign (Piason, 2007). The Muslim
Brotherhood group won a surprising 20 percent of the votes, which means it won the
majority seats of any opposition group, without regarding the absolute cases of
rigging of the parliamentary elections (BBC News, 2012). The electoral success of
candidates of Muslim Brotherhood placed the group under spotlight (BBC News,
2012). The Mubarak regime initiated a campaign against the Muslim Brotherhood
through targeting its main leaders (BBC News, 2012). The group was under pressure
from different groups such as Egyptian political parties, political intellectuals, and
other civil society groups to expose the Muslim Brotherhood group's opinion on some
of topics it had formerly continued to be silent such as political issues (AL-Awadi,
2009).
In 2006, the Muslim Brotherhood declared a comprehensive plan for the
Consultative Assembly elections, and in September of 2007, a complete party
platform was issued by the group (AL-Awadi, 2009). The Muslim Brotherhood party
platform showed a serious challenge for the group’s reliability (AL-Awadi, 2009).
There were some disagreements inside the Muslim Brotherhood group between
modernist and conservative members of the group because this 2007 platform will
place the group under the spotlight (AL-Awadi, 2009). Moreover, the Muslim
Brotherhood formerly was able to remain unclear about some issues for example, the
16
rights of women and minority groups, citizen rights, the relationship between religion
and government, and the explanation of Islamic law (BBC News, 2012).
The 2007 party platform of Muslim Brotherhood was inclusive regarding the
issues that it contained, this platform consisted of 128 pages, and it is considered the
largest programmatic report that is declared by the group (AL-Awadi, 2009).
Regarding the economic issues in the 2007 platform, Muslim Brotherhood stated they
prefer to apply the interventionist economic system that would reduce the
consequences of free trade system (AL-Awadi, 2009). Regarding the political issues,
the 2007 platform suggested a partial role of the state, and unlimited role of civil
society organizations (AL-Awadi, 2009). Although, the 2007 platform had a lot of
details of these suggestions, its issues were considered to be mainly overshadowed by
extreme differences and disagreements about "guarantees for the implementation of
Article 2 of the Constitution and the suitability of women and Christians for the
presidency and prime minister" (BBC News, 2012).
The Muslim Brotherhood group suggested the forming of the Ulama (scholars)
Council in order to stress on a strict and exact applying of Islamic law (AL-Awadi,
2009). This council according to Muslim Brotherhood shows a variation from the
earlier practice of Islam which was just a frame of reference (marja’) (AL-Awadi,
2009). The Ulama Council was projected as a board that would be elected through the
complete participation of all scholars of religion in Egypt; the function of this council
is to give advice for the legislative and executive authorities on all issues through
religious explanation (AL-Awadi, 2009). Nevertheless, this Ulama Council was
supposed to play an important role more than consultation; which means that its
decisions were recommended to be obligatory in issues where Islamic jurisprudence is
obvious and cannot be matter to explanation (AL-Awadi, 2009).
17
8- Muslim Brotherhood and the Revolution of 25 of January
In the first parliamentary elections after the 25th of January revolution which
forced Mubarak to resign in February 2011, the new political party Freedom and
Justice Party (FJP) which is the political wing of the Muslim Brotherhood won about
half of the seats in the Egyptian parliament (BBC News, 2012). In April 2012, the
Muslim Brotherhood group proclaimed that it would participate in the presidential
elections although the group previously assured it would not have a candidate in these
elections (BBC News, 2012). The group's decision about participating in the
presidential elections increased worries among political liberals, political secularists
and the Egyptian military because the Muslim Brotherhood could become excessively
powerful (BBC News, 2012). The first Egyptian President after the 25th of January
revloution was Mohamed Morsi who was the candidate of Freedom and Justice Party
(BBC News, 2012).
9- Historical background of Freedom and Justice Party and its ideology
In February 21, 2011, after the resignation of Mubarak, Dr Mohammad Badie, the
General Guide of Muslim Brotherhood, announced that the group will establish a
political party that represents the ideology of the group and adopts the group's vision
in the political field in Egypt (FJP Internet website). The freedom and Justice party
(FJP), is the political wing of the Muslim Brotherhood group in Egypt, this group
could not launch a political party without the revolution of 25th of January in Egypt
(Ahram Online, 2011). Before the revolution at Mubarak era, the Egyptian Muslim
Brotherhood group was the most organized Islamist group; moreover, it was not
allowed to form a political party and it was a banned group that didn't have the right
to participate in political life. (Ahram Online, 2011).
18
Formally, the Freedom and Justice party was established in June 6, 2011, the
party declared that it is intending to "a modern state, democracy, women’s rights, and
national unity" (Ahram Online, 2011). The Freedom and Justice Party has nine
thousand members which includes one thousand women and one hundred of Copts
(Ahram Online, 2011).
According to FJP Internet website, the goals of the party are "working to rebuild
state institutions on the basis of a strong and sound commitment to the will of the free
Egyptian people, including the institution of the presidency, the government,
parliament and local councils". Moreover, "the party works to establish institutions of
civil society; trade unions, public groups, associations and human rights organizations
to enhance the unity of the nation".
According to FJP Internet website, "the party asserts that Egypt is a civil state with
an Islamic reference; our party believes in the liberalization of the Egyptian national
will, the political independence of the decision-making process and dealing with
external international powers on the basis of mutual respect; and we state that such
trends cannot be relinquished". This quote proves that the Freedom and Justice Party
applies the ideology of al-Banna, which was discussed above, this ideology is about
establishing an Islamic state and freeing it from Western dominance.
10- Religious ideology of Muslim Brotherhood group
"Our duty as Muslim Brothers is to work for the reform of selves, of hearts and souls
by joining them to God the all-high; then to organize our society to be fit for the
virtuous community which commands the good and forbids evil-doing, then from the
community will arise the good state" (Piason, 2007).
Muslim brotherhood is a Sunni religious group; this movement believes that
Islam is an inclusive ideology for individual and public life, and consequently the
19
base for Muslim state and society (Piason, 2007). The ideology of Muslim
Brotherhood is the principles of Islam provide the public with the essential services
for a healthy living, while remaining regular with the teachings of the belief (Piason,
2007).
The Muslim Brotherhood group is considered as the oldest and largest Islamist
organization; its ideology is derived from the tradition of the Qur'an (BBC News,
2012). The group primarily intended simply to extend Islamic morality and good
works; however, after a short time the group concerned about politics, mainly the
battle against British colonial control of Egypt and get rid of Western influence (BBC
News, 2012). Although the Muslim Brotherhood group declares that it supports
democratic rule, one of its declared goals is creating an Islamic state ruled by Islamic
law (Shariah) (BBC News, 2012). The most famous motto of Muslim Brotherhood
group is: "Islam is the solution" (BBC News, 2012).
"Muslim Brotherhood called for a return to the Qur’an and the Sunna and the
practice of the early community to establish an Islamic state and system of
government through means of preaching the unity of din, religion, and Dawla [the
state]" (Piason, 2007). The main beliefs of the Muslim Brotherhood is there is no
difference between religious and secular law, or the inhabitant and the believer, in
consequence establishing a single state and society ruled by Islam (Piason, 2007).
The credo of Muslim Brotherhood is, "Allah is our objective; the Quran is our
law, the Prophet is our leader; Jihad is our way; and death for the sake of Allah is the
highest of our aspirations" (Piason, 2007). The Ikhwanweb, the official English
language website of Muslim Brotherhood describes the rules of the Muslim
Brotherhood as containing firstly the prologue of the Islamic Shariah as "the basis for
controlling the affairs of state and society" and secondly, works to unite "Islamic
20
countries and states, mainly among the Arab states, and liberating them from foreign
imperialism."
Muslim Brotherhood's initiator Al-Banna believed that the Quran and Sunnah of
the Prophet compose an ideal way of life such as the social and political organization
that God has created for human being (Ghanem, 1992). Islamic government must be
based on this system and eventually unified in an Islamic Caliphate (Piason, 2007).
The main goal of Muslim Brotherhood, as mentioned by its initiator Hassan al-Banna,
was to regain Islam's obvious future, an empire (Ghanem, 1992). The belief of
Muslim Brotherhood is Islam help or direct individuals to achieve social justice,
eradicate corruption and poverty, and apply political freedom according to Islamic
principles (Ghanem, 1992).
11- Political ideology of Muslim Brotherhood
The ideological messages of Al-Banna, described his organization as a group of
believers whose main aim is establishing an Islamic state that based on the Quran
“law of Allah” (Ghanem, 1992). One of the main objectives of Al-Banna is liberating
the Muslim society from any kind of foreign ruling, then shaping a Muslim state ruled
by Islamic religious law (Ghanem, 1992). According to Al-Banna, the founding of
such a Muslim state is not considered a final goal (Ghanem, 1992). On the other hand,
the new Islamic state is obliged to realize its social order in agreement with Islamic
law, and become an origin for spreading Islam through the whole world, ultimately
concluding in the emergence of Islamic supremacy around the world (Ghanem, 1992).
Al-Banna planned seven phases in order to accomplish all these goals, and each
objective to be carried out in a regular fashion (Ghanem, 1992). The seven phases are
divided into both social and political phases (Ghanem, 1992). The three social phases
are based on informing people, family, and the whole society of the Muslim world in
21
order to apply Islamic laws in every aspect of individuals' daily life (Ghanem, 1992).
The four political phases included: supposing power throughout elections,
determining an Islamic state, freeing Islamic nations from the burden of both physical
and ideological western occupation, uniting Islamic countries into one Islamic state
(“new caliphate”), and broadening the Islamic morals throughout the whole world
(Ghanem, 1992).
Muslim Brotherhood group has specific implications to achieve the principle of
liberating the Muslim countries from the foreign occupation powers (Ghanem, 1992).
Muslim Brotherhood’s attitude towards Israel, they believed that its establishment is a
central part of the main goals of Western countries to defeat and divide the Muslim
world (Ghanem, 1992). Muslim Brotherhood group rejected the right of Israel to be
existed, and the group applied a determined resistance to any sign of normalization in
relations with Israel (Ghanem, 1992).
At the time of al-Banna, he believed that political practices in Egypt were an
imitation of the Western liberal model (Ghanem, 1992). As al-Banna had a
conservative culture and he was versed in the issues of Islamic political ideology, he
thought that the Western liberal model can lead to tension and competition among the
political parties in Egypt (Ghanem, 1992).
Al-Banna didn't support the idea of the political opposition should be organized
and be permanent such as the example of shadow government in the Western
democracy (Ghanem, 1992). On the other hand, al-Banna believed that the organized
opposition against the ruling regime of the country makes the power as a main goal of
all political parties which cannot lead to country stability (Ghanem, 1992).
Furthermore, al-Banna did not believe in the permanent surrender for the existing
political system without conditions or restrictions (Ghanem, 1992). This concept was
22
obvious in his statement which is: Islam does not admit the idea of second leadership,
but it encourages Muslims to be united together; moreover, according to al-Banna
Islam does not recommend the unofficial popular oppositions or civil leadership
except in only one case which is when the existing system is deviated from the
straight path and the Islamic law (Ghanem, 1992). Al-Banna determined that the
Islamic ruling system should be based on three main rules which are: the
responsibility of ruler, nation unity and respect for the will of the nation (Ghanem,
1992).
12- Al-Banna ideology about woman issue
Another issue that represents the ideology of al-Banna is the issue of woman. He
had three main beliefs regarding the issue of woman (Ghanem, 1992). The first issue,
according to Islam the basic workplace of woman is her house and taking care of her
children to raise up a true Muslim (Ghanem, 1992). The second issue is, according to
al-Banna Islam gives the woman all personal, civil and political rights, but it decides
certain rules that the woman should consider while practicing these rights (Ghanem,
1992). The third issue is, according to al-Banna the Muslim woman should take the
opportunity to practice her rights, that Islam gave it to her, especially in education in
order to raise up her children to be a true Muslim (Ghanem, 1992). However, alBanna mentioned that there are some restraints and warnings that prevent a woman
from practicing her rights such as the mixing between men and women, if she cannot
avoid this mixing the woman will not be able to participate in the political life as a
voter, elected or minister (Ghanem, 1992).
13- The radical ideology of Muslim Brotherhood group
The principles of al-Banna’s still characterize the ideological establishment of the
Muslim Brotherhood group; nevertheless, there are some extensive improvements in
23
the validity of al- Banna ideological message since the end of World War II (Ghanem,
1992). The change mainly relate to the radicalism of Muslim Brotherhood group in
Egypt following the mass arrests of group members by president Nasser in the 1950s
and 1960s, and the rising of limitations on the group's political involvement in diverse
Arab countries since the 1970s (Ramadan, 1982).
The development of the Muslim Brotherhood group's radical ideology is
associated with Sayyid Qutb (1906-1966), a leading ideologue in the group’s
Egyptian branch (Ramadan, 1982). In the period of 1950s and 1960s, Qutb wrote a lot
of books (some of these books during his prison period) complementing Al-Banna’s
thoughts with a radical spirit (Ramadan, 1982). Consequently, Qutb improved the
concept of “modern jahiliyya,” which means that modern Islamic society is living in
ignorance and has strayed from the regulations of conduct that are required by God
(Ramadan, 1982). In this condition, Qutb debated the phenomenon of Westernization,
in addition to the existence of political regimes based on man-made authorized
systems (Ramadan, 1982). Consequently, Qutb considered the Arab regimes were
lacking religious and divine legality, which he believed a crucial value, and
consequently he publicly called to oppose these non religious regimes (Ramadan,
1982).
Although Qutb did not highlight that struggle to these non religious regimes
should be violent, he formed an opportunity for such violent movement by describing
jihad for the implementation of Islamic law (Shariah) in Muslim society as every
Muslim’s responsibility (Ramadan, 1982). Qutb’s was executed in 1966, which many
members of Muslim Brotherhood believe that it is shahada (martyrdom for the sake of
God), served to further spread of his thoughts (Ramadan, 1982).
24
Chapter 3: Literature Review
1- The Relationship Between Media and Religion
Throughout the human history, different types of religions have been
communicated by traditional types of communication which mainly based on the
extensive spread networks such as mosques, churches, temples, group prayers,
religious celebrations, religious speeches (Anas, 2009). "In more formal way to
propagate religions, institutions like Madrasas (Islam), Ashramas (Hinduism),
Sabbath schools (Jews), biblical schools (Christians), Buddhist seminaries were also
opened in their respective societies" (Anas, 2009). These examples show that they had
a role in communicating with a large number of people, so that those religious
institutions were not less qualified than that of modern forms of mass communication
networks (Anas, 2009).
Moreover, during the last years there are some ways of effective communication
through theological and philosophical religious debates which became well-known,
and they are conducted by experienced and fluent preachers or debaters (Anas, 2009).
For illustration, nowadays, there are a large number of modern Islamic preachers
whose audio video cassettes or Compact Discs (CDs) have a high popularity among
Muslim people (Anas, 2009). As mentioned above, religions relied on traditional
communication networks, so that the response of religions to mass media cannot be
supposed to be aggressive as its response to other technological and scientific
developments (Anas, 2009). Religions used mass media with the purpose of utilizing
it to convey the religious message to people by lower expenses; religious people's
skepticism of mass media technologies was weakened; however, their criticism of
media use for anti-religion continued (Anas, 2009).
25
Main efforts have been tried to bring religion closer to mass media, but these
efforts did not try to bring mass media closer to religion, or to eliminate or decrease
the traditional boundaries between the religion and mass media (Hosseini, 2008).
There were some attempts done by various researches that highlighted the necessity of
establishing new bridges between religion and mass media (Hosseini, 2008). These
efforts to interrelate media and religion have encouraged media scholars to think that
in the “media era,” the "secular is sacred and the sacred is secular" (Hosseini, 2008).
The practitioners of religious media should consider the essential distinction between
religious mass media and mediated religion (Stout, 2012). The fundamental principle
of "media essentialism" has been approved, so religion has to be consistent with the
exclusive and special nature of the mass media types (Stout, 2012).
Throughout centuries, the displaying of religion has been indebted to traditional
mass media (Bahonar, 2009). In the twentieth century, the existence of mass media,
particularly radio and television, makes it probable to convey messages to a large
number of the public audiences (Bahonar, 2009). "This important situation has caused
groups and official religious organizations to take great measures in this respect by
using electronic media" (Bahonar, 2009).
Religion is considered one of the main essential forces of Arab mass media
(Anas, 2009). There are several theoretical frameworks in order to classify the
dynamics of the interface between religion and mass media such as the theory that is
formed by Stig Hjarvard which is called Mediatization (Anas, 2009). "The
mediatization is meant to understand the process through which the media have
developed into an independent institution in the society at the same time; they have
become integral to the functioning of other institutions like family, politics and
religions" (Anas, 2009). According to Hjarvard 2008, the theory of Mediatization of
26
religion includes the system in which mass media change current religious
phenomenon and come to provide joint purposes in society that up till now have been
done by religious organizations or institutions (Anas, 2009).
According to Hoover 2009, the process of religious media studies is close to the
researches of cultural tradition of media because both of them providing the same
purposes (Anas, 2009). "According to Hjarvard 2008, mediatization identifies media’s
major three roles, firstly media as conduits where most of the religious contents are
produced by media not the religious institutions" (Anas, 2009). Secondly, the content
of mass media is based on languages, so the way that media content is formed
identifies the relationship between both of sender, receiver and message content
(Anas, 2009). Thirdly, media is an environment which involves the interaction and
communication of media institutions in a society (Anas, 2009).
The core of modern technology including the types of mass media has formed
people's ideology (Hosseini, 2008). According to Heidegger, consequently, any effort
to “religionize” the mass media or turn religion to mass media is ineffective and
unsuccessful (Hosseini, 2008). Moreover, modern technology could not have any
form of interaction or interface with religion because both of them have a
contradicting nature (Hosseini, 2008).
The works of Stewart Hoover (1997), a modern scholar, and his colleagues, were
regarded as major attempts that aimed to interrelate religion and mass media
(Hosseini, 2008). Hoover, defined the main roles of mass media as the creating of
symbols, their explanation and functions; also he emphasized the significance of
applying the interaction between mass media and religion (Hosseini, 2008). On the
other hand, Hoover gave a definition and an explanation of religion that fits the
27
anticipated purposes of interaction with the mass media; he did not explain religion as
an "institutional phenomenon" decreased to personal experience (Hosseini, 2008).
Furthermore, Hoover stated that religion is not limited to actions or events that
happen in a sacred domain, but as a part of culture through making religion and
culture undividable (Hosseini, 2008). According to Hoover & Lundby (1997),
actually the main role of religion is to provide meaning to human life (Hosseini,
2008). Religious mass media is considered as a kind of utilization of media, by their
distinctive characteristics, to achieve religious goals, ultimate objectives, and divine
aspirations, instead of the teachings and beliefs of the religion (Stout, 2012).
2- The Interface between Islam and Mass Media
Islamic religion's encounter with mass media in general and particularly satellite
television channels was a kind of strange experiences because the knowledge of
Islamic religion has derived from texts and oral teaching (Anas, 2009). Essentially,
the format of Islamic seminaries did not contradict the television format; however, the
producers of Islamic programs on television believed it is complicated to initiate all
types such as dramatized program of Islam (Anas, 2009). One of the sensitive issues
in Islam is the issue of drama forms for Islamic programs; so that no producer can be
able to take these high level risks of public anger, the producer of Islamic programs
should take permission from religious and legal authorities of the governments (Anas,
2009). "Islamic scholars have gradually shifted toward a moderate and pragmatic
approach way throughout the Islamic world which gave rise to principle consent to
start religious programming for televisions also, provided that they follow Islamic dos
and don'ts" (Anas, 2009) .
According to Kamalipour and Mowlana 1994, mass media are powerful tools to
support and encourage "nationalism" or "Islamic universalism" to alter into device of
28
attracting religious scholars, authorities to utilize mass media for the affairs and issues
of religion and to control non-religious content from mass media (Anas, 2009). The
interrelation between religion and media has been developed symbiotic relationship
which has extensively changed both mass media and religion in terms of format and
content (Anas, 2009). The reconciliation of the religion of Islam with new
technologies demonstrates the reality that the interpretations of Islam have growing
nature rather than static (Anas, 2009).
After the religious scholars allowed the using of motion pictures for Islamic
objectives, the religious authorities formed outlines of Islamic mass media, and there
are hundreds of Islamic television channels worldwide, Islam has become one of the
most significant religions on television channels (Anas, 2009). Prevailing study on the
interrelation of Islam and mass media in the Arab countries has created from
assumptions of negative presentation of Islam by Western media (Anas, 2009). The
concept of ‘media war’ against Islam has a lot of debates and writings in the Arab
Islamic academia (Anas, 2009). The ‘media war’ against Islam creates a necessity of
forming Islamic networks to argue against anti-Islamic propaganda (Anas, 2009).
"Most of the Islamic channels started out of sense of insecurity and sense of victim
hood by the Western media; Islamic channels whose majority claim to have objective
of presenting Islam’s true picture" (Anas, 2009). According to Hafeez 2006, most of
literatures on mass media in the Islamic countries disclose the suspicion against
Western media in the world (Anas, 2009).
The research about interrelation of mass media and religion has a main concern
about de-secularizing societies as ordinary result of the interface between Islam and
media (Anas, 2009). Liberal and democratic countries are worried of return of
religions in their secular societies; on the other hand, there is a frequent criticism
29
against the inappropriate coverage or misrepresentation of religion in the mass media
particularly in the Middle East (Anas, 2009). "According to McLuhan, here media are
demanded to have pro-religion and pro Islamic appearance; perhaps notions like
Digital Islam, Sound Bite Islam, Print Islam, Television Islam etc signify the
applicability of medium theory in this interface" (Anas, 2009).
As the mass media have two features which are international and independent,
media theorists have been declared that print Islam is more democratic and
distinguished than oral Islam before the globalization era; moreover, digital Islam has
unequally broken the power of institutions controlled by clerics because the new
generation is no more reliant on traditional sources of Islamic information (Anas,
2009). According to Mandaville 2001, new shapes of Islamic knowledge are being
planned because of these media (Anas, 2009). The religious authorities have anti
media speeches because these media are the reason of their increasing marginalization
in their societies (Anas, 2009). This unprecedented access of information of common
followers to Islamic Internet websites and television channels has encouraged Jon
Alterman (1998) "to predict a possible scenario that the days have gone when
governments and religious authorities can control what their people know, and what
they think" (Anas, 2009).
Secular narratives of mass media assume that media should be an instrument of
social change to achieve social development (Anas, 2009). The mass media are
supposed to "take a shift from pre modern to modern, oppressive to free, from
hierarchical to egalitarian, tyrannical to democratic, religious to secular and from
backward to enlightened position" (Anas, 2009). On the other hand, Islamic societies
in Arab countries are not convinced with this project and mass media of these Islamic
societies continued to be critical to secular descriptions of media (Anas, 2009). With
30
these anxieties, Arab Television channels, particularly, Islamic religious channels
have improved their own Islamic narratives (Anas, 2009).
The research of Arab Islamic mass media has a gap on how Islamic programs are
established by inter-Islamic competitions (Anas, 2009). The process of mediation of
Islam persists on all difficulties and restructures alternative narrations like Pan
Arabism, Pan Islamism, and Cultural Islam; it requires an outline which includes the
religious and cultural principles of the Arab region (Anas, 2009). "It is how one can
define Mediated Islam as interaction within Islam signified by extended media
technologies and far reaching social impacts"(Anas, 2009). Islam has specific difficult
possessions or rules which cannot be found in other religions (Anas, 2009). AlJazeera phenomenon asserts the importance of the concepts like Pan-Islamism or PanArabism in the mass media (Anas, 2009). According to Zayani 2005, Mediatization
concept deals with the interface between mass media and religion, and mediation
concept captures scope of process of interface between religion and media (Anas,
2009).
Islam provides better source of self identity, comparing to other religions which
have less concerns about social and political issues of contemporary secular globe
(Anas, 2009). In the last century, in the Arab Islamic world, Islam has successfully
provided mass appeal for various political and social groups (Anas, 2009). For
example, Iranian Islamic revolution have determined path of social change in Islamic
world; the majority of the social and political groups in Islamic countries have
obvious political objectives with stronger religious overtones (Anas, 2009). The
development of mass media and communication creates new types of interaction and
new forms of social relationship (Anas, 2009).
31
According to Thompson: 1995, Islam has been mediated to provide new forms of
interaction to various groups of Islamic world which were not available before (Anas,
2009). "Given this hypothesis, media may help Middle Eastern society transform from
core Islamic state to moderate Islamic society, create new institutions and Islamic
public sphere" (Anas, 2009). Based on this hypothesis, there should be an academic
investigation about the way in which Islam is encountering with motion pictures and
television programs (Anas, 2009). It is important to understand whether the process of
social change of Islamic state is threatening religious institutions in Islamic world as
mediatization theory indicates, or this process is reimagining an Islam which is more
individualized and based on the consumer (Anas, 2009).
"Mediation concept is a process that involves certain actors like media producers,
media owners and administration of media regimes; on the other hand, it also involves
versatile audience of both religious people non-religious people" (Anas, 2009). In the
countries of Middle East, mediation concept has political and cultural significance
(Anas, 2009). In the Middle East, the current religious media implies that the content
and format of religious media are accurately adopted so that it does not anger
religious allies of the ruling system (Anas, 2009). The interface between media and
religion, in the Middle East states, provides an exceptional case study where religion
and state are extremely intertwined and they compete to shape the mass media
according to their preferences (Anas, 2009). The symbolic relationship of religion,
state, and media cannot be found in the Western countries where market represents
dominating role (Anas, 2009). The two concepts of mediatization and mediation of
media and religion contain complex dynamics of the Arab mass media where the
media markets are not crucial powers (Anas, 2009). In most of the Arab countries, the
institutionalized religion is a major part of state affairs, and there is an increasing
32
dependency of religious media on state and religious organizations (Anas, 2009).
"Any reform project whether democratization or Islamization, such as Muslim
Brotherhood group, Mediatization will require engagement of religion" (Anas, 2009).
In the Arab countries, ownership style, advertisement tendencies and media
strategies of media companies show that the emerging private mass media relies on
state or semi state power (Anas, 2009). Furthermore, advertisement profits of
religious channels in the Arab countries are more than the profits of news channels
which indicate that religious satellite channels are not dependent on market generated
resources such as sponsorships and contributions (Anas, 2009). In the Middle East,
religion is considered as a main source of legitimacy, and it is an essential definer of
mass media debates in the Arab countries (Anas, 2009). There was a survey about the
media laws in the Arab countries; the result of this survey supports the hypothesis that
religion and mass media cannot be separated in the Middle East (Anas, 2009). As the
countries of the Middle East are religious states, Arab constitutions specially mention
protection of Islamic identity and respect of religious figures; furthermore, the media
laws of the Arab countries have sentences that prohibit blasphemy, criticizing the
Prophet and Islam or religious authorities (Anas, 2009).
On February 12, 2008, Arab countries signed “Charter of Principal for Regulating
Satellite Broadcasting in the Arab Region” (Anas, 2009). Article four, five, six and
seven of the charter are about the details of the regulations of do’s and don’ts for
satellite television channels in which consideration of national unity, public order, and
social peace (Anas, 2009). Article four and five of the charter are about the religious
and ethical values of Arab country (Anas, 2009). "Article 6/9, refrain from insulting
God, revealed religions, prophets, Mazhabs (religious sects), and religious symbols"
(Anas, 2009). "Calling for religious and sectarian extremism, disrespect for God, and
33
monotheistic religions, the prophets, religious sects, or the religious leaders of various
groups manifestations of wanton or sexual [behavior] are part of all Arab League
charter as well as 22 signatory of Arab league states" (Anas, 2009).
Because of the religious inclination of the individuals in a lot of Islamic
countries, the traditional standards of communication have still kept their legitimacy,
thus rendering illegitimacy to other types of mass communication (Bahonar, 2009).
The religious leaders and figures in the Islamic countries preserved their participation
in social communication through traditional forms of media such as mosques,
religious ceremonies and Islamic schools (Bahonar, 2009).
Nowadays, the approaches of the Islamic media are influenced by three main
factors which are history, contemporary culture and politics (Stout, 2012). According
to Abdollashyan (2008), in Iran, the young Muslim generations experience
disagreement between official religious media and secular media like the Internet; this
formed "challenges" to "their religious identity" (Stout, 2012). Muslim people
frequently disagree about the necessity of shifting between sacred and secular
environments to fulfill shared discourse and a public sphere (Stout, 2012). So, Muslim
people prefer religious and regionalized media more than secular media (Stout, 2012).
Currently, there are hybrid genres that integrate Islamic teachings with secular
formats which become very popular in the Islamic countries like the Islamic satellite
television channel Al-Risala (Stout, 2012).
According to Lindesy (2006), Al-Risala general manager Sheikh Tarek Swidan
says, " Our understanding of Islamic media is it is any clean media, so that any
program that is clean and has a massage to improve a human being; improve them
religiously, ethically, put them towards being productive and effective, having
ambitions" (Stout, 2012).
34
3- Islamic Satellite Television Channels in the Middle East
"According to Arab Satellite Communication Organization, there are 22 religious
satellite channels registered at ArabSat" (Anas, 2009). Several numbers of religious
satellite channels are registering at NileSat, and categorization of these channels can
be done according to their ideology and sectarian roots (Anas, 2009). In idealist
approach, the religious satellite channels believe that mass media is supposed to have
a function as a reformer and preacher of the society according to Islamic principles
(Anas, 2009).
This idealist role for mass media is forced by audiences, media producers,
religious powers and the governments, and they would be evaluated in identical
paradigms not on market based accomplishments (Anas, 2009). Mass media have to
play a subordinate function to the religion in order to develop the society and purify
individuals (Anas, 2009). "Islamic concept of Call has been repeatedly reminded by
Islamic scholars of the region to media managers and professionals" (Anas, 2009).
 According to Anas 2009, the main characteristics of Islamic satellite channels
as follows:
• Media is accountable for encouraging people to obey God, not to make them break
the laws of Islam.
• Islamic media are supposed to call people to Islam (Al-Dawaha ilal Islam)
• Islamic media are required to oppose the anti Islamic propaganda supported by
Western countries
4- Islamic Perspective of Journalism
"In practice today there is no journalistic code of ethics based on the principles of
Islam, and few scholars have attempted to define an Islamic framework for mass
media ethics" (Siddiqi, 2012). This explains the reason of why the Muslim world,
35
which is counted more than one billion, does not have a control over different sources
of information (Siddiqi, 2012). The Muslim world has "600 daily newspapers, about
1500 weeklies, 1200 monthly news and views magazines, and about 500
miscellaneous Muslim publications" (Siddiqi, 2012).
The first Asian Islamic Conference planned by the Mecca-based World Muslim
League in Karachi, Pakistan, in 1978 determined that the Islamic journalists should be
organized in order to be able to counteract the Western domination of media and its
propaganda against Islam (Siddiqi, 2012).
The first International Islamic News Agency (IINA) was launched by the
Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC) in 1979 with its head office in Jeddah,
Saudi Arabia (Siddiqi, 2012). On the other hand, as Schleifer has explained, "The
most poorly served IINA objectives is its very first one to consolidate and safeguard
the rich cultural heritage of Islam; a more significant limitation to IINA coverage,
from a Muslim perspective, is the relatively low amount of intrinsically Islamic news
content" (Siddiqi, 2012).
In the first International Conference of Muslim Journalists located in Jakarta,
Indonesia, in 1981, the Islamic media professionals agreed on the Islamic media
should have regulations that the media practitioners should apply in their journalistic
activities, and Muslim media should work towards accomplishing incorporation of the
Muslim people personality (Siddiqi, 2012). In this conference, it was mentioned that
the unification of faith of Muslims in Islamic values and ethics should be the major
responsibility of Islamic mass media (Siddiqi, 2012).
On the other hand, no one of the above mentioned efforts were able to achieve the
development, and more prominently, the applying of an Islamic code of ethics among
the Islamic journalists (Siddiqi, 2012). The reasons are: "lack of support from Muslim
36
governments; lack of interest and enthusiasm by Muslim journalists themselves; and
lack of support from Muslim scholars' as well Muslim society in general" (Siddiqi,
2012). As Schleifer has said:
"The reverse-secularism of Western and Islamic
Movement journalism insists that religion is worthy of reporting only in the political
domain and a political domain of confrontation" (Siddiqi, 2012). Schleifer added there
is a particular danger of "Islamic journalism" up till now is that the journalist replaces
the life and activities of the different Islamic groups for the life and activities of the
much wider Islamic society of which the political groups are small part (Siddiqi,
2012). Schleifer said "when the Islamic journalist substitutes the life and drama of
Islamic movements for the life and drama of Islamic society, he not only over
politicizes Islam but he invariably becomes side-tracked into the same sort of surface
reporting of organized political life in the Muslim world that characterizes the
secular press and ends up even reporting poorly on many political and public
developments of profound importance to Muslims" (Siddiqi, 2012).
5- Basis for an Islamic Code of Ethics in Journalism
Islamic journalists should consider a process of gathering news, making of news
and disseminating of news which is appropriate within an Islamic framework (Siddiqi,
2012). "And in order to compete with the existing information orders Islamic
journalists have to provide theoretical foundations and arguments as well a driving
force that will ensure its implementation among Muslim journalists throughout the
world" (Siddiqi, 2012).
In order to define news and trying to build up an Islamic code of journalism
ethics, initially discuss the basis of the Islamic ethical structure because it plays a very
significant role in the understanding of the Islamic worldview within which an Islamic
journalist should to operate and which is essentially unlike the secular or Western
37
worldview (Siddiqi, 2012). "The central force in the Islamic moral system is the
concept of Tawhid - the supremacy and sovereignty of one God. Tawhid also implies
unity, coherence, and harmony between all parts of the universe" (Siddiqi, 2012).
One of the responsibilities of the Islamic mass media organizations and Muslim
journalists would be eliminating the legends (Siddiqi, 2012). "In our contemporary
world
these
myths
may include
power,
progress,
science,
development,
modernization, democracy, achievement, and success" (Siddiqi, 2012). One of the
main roles of Islamic media is the destruction of ideas that are based on racialism,
dualism, familial supremacy and tribalism; one of the dualisms is the secular belief of
the separation between politics and religion (Siddiqi, 2012).
An additional strategy in the improvement of an Islamic code of ethics is the idea
of social responsibility (Siddiqi, 2012). "The Islamic principle of social responsibility
is based on the concept of amar bi al-Maruf wa nahi an al-munkar or commanding
right and prohibiting wrong" (Siddiqi, 2012). This means that it is the responsibility of
the media institutions such as television, journalism, radio and cinema, to prepare
people and society all together to accept Islamic main beliefs and act upon them
(Siddiqi, 2012). Although, practitioners of Islamic media accept social responsibility
as a basis of their work, there is no Islamic code of ethics in journalism in the Muslim
world (Siddiqi, 2012).
6- The Conception of News in the Islamic Media
The major criteria of journalism objectivity are a legend that should be examined
and challenged by the practitioners of Islamic mass media (Siddiqi, 2012). According
to Siddiqi, 2012, objectivity as described by a lot of modern scholars of mass media is
interpreted to mean:
1- Reporting only apparent phenomena.
38
2- In news reporting avoid personal emotions.
3- In news reporting avoid personal opinion.
4- In news reporting avoid personal values.
5- Equal reporting of all news.
"A robot journalist might fulfill all the above requirements, but some of them are
humanly impossible; moreover, Islamic news criteria are much more practical and
beneficial" (Siddiqi, 2012). Islam equally highlights the media content, the purpose
and the way of gathering the news within the framework of the idea of social
responsibility (Siddiqi, 2012). "But the pursuit of good Islam does not permit, not
even to a journalist, spying or seeking to confirm suspicions, slander, circulation of
rumors, or name-calling" (Siddiqi, 2012). Therefore, news can be described as the
coverage of events in a manner which achieves the desires of Muslim society and as a
result this leads to peace and stability in agreement with the ethical and moral beliefs
of Islam (Siddiqi, 2012).
"Thus in principle Muslim media should form a universal source of news and
information and serve the cause of unity and equality between all humankind in
general and the Muslim community in particular" (Siddiqi, 2012). Furthermore,
Islamic media are supposed to be free of censorship or regulations by the ruling
systems of different Muslim countries because supremacy of country belongs to the
God not to a specific president or King (Siddiqi, 2012). Consequently, an Islamic
code of journalism ethics would possibly provide the best guiding principles for
utilizing the mass media, to diminish and eradicate tension between nations and to
serve humankind in general by presenting accurate, fair, and objective news of the
world events (Siddiqi, 2012).
39
"Lastly, the concept of taqwa (piety) is yet another basis for developing an
Islamic code of journalistic ethics; it raises a person's individual, moral, spiritual, and
psychological capacity to a level that the individual becomes immune from excessive
material desires" (Siddiqi, 2012). The debates and concerns regarding the Islamic
codes of ethics in current mass communication concentrate on one topic: who should
have the power to implement these codes of ethics: governments, institutions of mass
media, or journalists (Siddiqi, 2012). "The problem is not the lack of a code, rather
lack of adherence to and implementation of a code (Siddiqi, 2012).
7- The Main Problems, Challenges, and Suggestions of Islamic Media
There is no effort has yet appeared in a practical Islamic information system
which can be able to end the dependence of Muslims on Western sources of
information (Siddiqi, 2012). The practitioners of Islamic media are reliant on the four
international news agencies which are the AP [Associated Press], UPI [United Press
International], AFP [Agence France Pressse] and Reuters (Siddiqi, 2012). "In a survey
conducted in 1986 it was revealed that most Muslim newspapers in Arabic, English,
Persian, and Urdu base 90% of their news coverage on these four agencies" (Siddiqi,
2012). "Seventy percent of foreign news in Muslim countries belong to the Western
news agencies, whereas the number of Muslim countries' news bureau is hardly 5% of
the total.18 Ten years on, the situation is not much different" (Siddiqi, 2012). It is
obvious that the Western news agencies have a powerful presence in Muslim societies
which leads to discourage of media performs that do not adapt the norms of these
sources of information (Siddiqi, 2012). Thus, it is crucial to build up an alternative
and practical source of information that can replace the dependence on the sources of
information that their main goals contradict with the fundamental system of Islam
(Siddiqi, 2012).
40
Unless Islamic media is one of the leaders in the expansion of different sources of
information, and unless they prove great motivation to accommodate the ignored
social groups such as Muslim women, youth, children and the rural inhabitants, they
will continue to be limited to a little audience lacking any realistic significance,
particularly, the Muslim audiences and the globe in general (Siddiqi, 2012).
Therefore, the need or aspiration to adhere to an Islamic code of ethics in journalism
will remain as low desire (Siddiqi, 2012).
It is essential to clarify that Muslim mass media practitioners should build up an
independent structure of Islamic mass media (Siddiqi, 2012). Unfortunately, it is
noticeable that there is very little exchange or share of thoughts and experiences
among journalists who work on Islamic newspapers and magazines (Siddiqi, 2012).
Consequently, already limited resources of human and material are exhausted in
duplicating the same efforts (Siddiqi, 2012).
Some essential features of the improvement of a professional code of ethics of
Islamic journalism are the preparation and training of journalists who work on Islamic
media (Siddiqi, 2012). Furthermore, there are various training centers to prepare
journalists in different features of the job, but journalists cannot get training or
preparation on particularly Islamic journalism's aspects (Siddiqi, 2012). It is obvious
that there is a vital need to create an "Islamic Institute of Mass Media Research and
Training" (Siddiqi, 2012). According to Siddiqi, 2012, this institute can accomplish
numerous significant missions in addition to training journalists throughout the
following five steps:
1- Organization of an index of Muslim journalists for international and regional
collaboration.
41
2- Organization of a comprehensive bibliography on the accessible literature on
the Muslim mass media.
3- Organization of monographs on particular topics and problems that Muslim
media and journalists face.
4- Organization of mass media monitoring group to keep in contact with the
Western mass media's deformation of Islam and to examine and evaluate the
relationship between pres and governments in Muslim countries.
5- Organizing of seminars regionally and internationally wherein both Muslim
and non-Muslim media professionals can share their perceptions and
knowledge.
All of the above are few suggestions to understand the objective of building up a
practical policy of Islamic media ethics and principles within an Islamic frame
(Siddiqi, 2012). Initially, the Islamic mass media professionals can form an active
debate to share information about codes of ethics of the Islamic journalism in Muslim
societies (Siddiqi, 2012). Moreover, they can share and cooperate with media
practitioners in non-Muslim countries, and media organizations that have a concern
about the relationship between media, religion and culture (Siddiqi, 2012). Moreover,
this forum could afterward play a major function in the shaping of an international
institute for research and training for journalists who work in Islamic journalism
(Siddiqi, 2012).
8- Characteristics of Islamic Media
There are a lot of Arabic writings about the main features of the philosophy of
Islamic media, but all these writings did not succeed in forming a comprehensive
theory about the characteristics the Islamic mass media (Al-Samasiri, 2008). On the
other hand, some Islamic scholars believed that the idea of forming a theory about the
42
Islamic mass media is incorrect because it will narrow the prospects of Islamic mass
media because the Islamic media should be comprehensive, so that if it applied to
theory it will not be inclusive (Al-Samasiri, 2008). However, other Islamic scholars
approved that the Islamic mass media can be applied to a theory as this theory is
based on the roles of Islam (Al-Samasiri, 2008).
Mohamed Fathy Amarah mentioned in his book titled (Islamic Media and Future
Challenges), there is no doubt that the future of Islamic media is linked to its ability to
understand the nature of communicating with the other, and to be open on the other;
and here comes the role of Islamic media in presenting Islamic message that depend
on moral freedom coupled with responsibility, but the Islamic media is not like the
state media in the totalitarian regimes (Al-Dahabi, 2013).
According to Amarah, the current Islamic media experiments suffer from some
deficiencies including the weakness of media professionals and lack of trained media
staff (Al-Dahabi, 2013). Consequently, there is an urgent need to have the developed
Islamic media, which is not controlled by certain group or particular category, and the
Islamic media should be accessible to all people and represent all Islamic nation well
(Al-Dahabi, 2013). Amarah added that Islamic media should aim to unify the political
opinions with the Islamic jurisprudence in order to a have a powerful unified Islamic
nation (Al-Dahabi, 2013).
The major problem that challenges the Islamic media is its specialized people
who support it still believe in the idea that the Islamic media should be "religious
media " or "missionary media" which means that the Islamists tried to transfer the
mosque to the satellite channel (Sultan, 2012). The Islamic media ignore other issues
that are related to the public such as politics, economics, security, culture;
43
furthermore, the Islamic media are still sensitive to diverse activities such as arts and
sports (Sultan, 2012).
There is no doubt that the Arab spring revolutions remove a lot of barriers and
obstacles that faced the Islamic media, the Islamists should benefit a lot from the Arab
spring to provide an attractive and modern media messages that are able to attract
millions of citizens of diverse aspirations and interests (Sultan, 2012).
There are two axes that are considered the biggest challenge for the Islamic media
(Sultan, 2012). First, the Islamists' ability to benefit extremely from the recent
openness situation to create technical and artistic professionals as soon as possible ,
and to have high qualified trainers and programs for the staff of Islamic media, and
transformation of trainees to direct practice in newspapers, magazines, television
channels and radio stations (Sultan, 2012). Second, the ability of Islamists to override
the loyalties to the political party or the group in order to make Islamic media that are
capable, attractive and professional based on "quality" not "loyalty", the loyalty
should be limited to the general strategy of the media not the details of the work
(Sultan, 2012). This challenge has emerged obviously in the simple experiments that
have recently appeared after Arab spring revolutions in Egypt and Tunisia in the
experiment of new Islamic political parties' media (Sultan, 2012).
Islamists believe that the Islamic media is a distinguished media because it
acquires its characteristics and qualities from the teaching and approach of Islam
(Islamweb, 2004). According to the article titled The Characteristics of Islamic
Media on Islamweb, 2004, there are six main characteristics of Islamic media which
are:
44
 First: Honesty
All forms of media are based on the word, so that this word in the Muslim
community must be honest, this honesty should be stemmed from the sincere Islamic
vision in order to achieve benefit and good of Muslims (Islamweb, 2004). News in the
Islamic media should be honest mirror of the abstract reality (Islamweb, 2004).
Islamic media aiming to achieve the good for the human society in general and the
Muslim community particularly, so that the media material should be targeted to
achieve human benefit (Islamweb, 2004).
 Second: Realism
It means that the Islamic media is based on the Islamic approach that aims to
inform humanity in order to build a good human life in its all aspects, this is based on
three basic foundations which are
1- Call for the charity and good
2- Promotion of the virtue
3- Prevention of the vice (Islamweb, 2004).
 Third: Comprehensiveness
One of the characteristics of Islam is it is a comprehensive religion, as Islamic
media is based on the approach of Islam it should be a comprehensive media which
means it should be able to reach all people and influence them (Islamweb, 2004). A
major feature of Islamic media is it is comprehensive which means it represents all the
different aspects of the event which really can lead the audiences to understand the
complete truth of this event (Al-Samasiri, 2008). As the Islamic media is
comprehensive, it should integrate diverse aspects that meet the needs of human life
and the good for all mankind (Islamweb, 2004).
45
 Fourth: Stability and Flexibility
Stability of the Islamic media means the stability of its fundamentals and
ideology which implies the goals and objectives of Islamic media are stable in every
place and time (Islamweb, 2004). Flexibility of Islamic media means its ability to
keep up with every progress and change occurs in the human life, as well as directing
all human activities to the appropriate and accurate purpose (Islamweb, 2004).
 Fifth: Islamic media is balanced
One of Islamic media characteristics is it is a balanced media through covering all
news equally which means no one event can be covered more than other events;
furthermore, Islamic media should not be biased to some issues more than others (AlSamasiri, 2008).
 Sixth: social responsibility of Islamic media
The main role of Islamic media is it should highlight the country problems
whether these problems are social, political, religious and economic, and emphasize
the reasons and solutions of these problems (Al-Samasiri, 2008).
The mission of Islamic media is to provide the Muslim public with the facts of
Islam that derived from the God and The Prophet Muhammad in order to help the
Muslim person in applying Islamic roles to his behaviors and dealings (Al-Bar, 2005).
The basis of Islamic media is they should be religious and specialized media for the
Muslim society that inform the Muslim public about information of different aspects
of the life (Al-Bar, 2005). According to Al-Bar 2005, Islamic media has specific
characteristics, that make they are different from other forms of media, as following:
1- The Islamic media should have freedom of expression because freedom does
not contradict with Islam, and it is one of the roles of the religion of Islam.
46
2- The Islamic media should be committed to Islamic morals, and this leads to
the Islamic media can have certain features such as honesty, sincerity,
accuracy, objectivity and comprehensiveness.
3- The Islamic media should be independent and reject any form of reliance.
4- Islamic media should base on advice not coercion to inform the Muslim public
though persuasion.
According to Dr Ibrahim Imam in his book titled "Islamic media", he mentioned
that the Islamic media have certain goals which described as the following:
1- Islamic media has multiple objectives that cover all the aspects Muslim people
life.
2- The ideological goal of Islamic media is to teach the Muslims the roles of
Islam derived from Qur'an and the Prophet.
3- The cultural objectives through spread awareness and knowledge.
4- Social objectives of Islamic media are spreading the social morals of Islam
such as interdependency, cooperation, love of other, altruism, unity and
goodness.
5- Economic goals of Islamic media are improving the economic conditions of
the country through fighting monopoly, and displaying the best ways for trade
and money management.
6-
Political goals through the guidance and counseling the Muslim public in
political issues, and development the relationship between the ruler and the
people on the basis of fairness, obedience and loyalty. (Islamic media: its
realty, goals and how it exit from its crisis, 2011 )
The Islamic media is governed by the purpose and the means of Islamic law
(Ibrahim, 2012). The Islamic media is characterized by their distinct objectives,
47
principles, purposes and style because it is derived from the Islamic roles (Ibrahim,
2012). The Islamic media is a domestic and international media, functioning
according to one policy that does not change by time or place; moreover, Islamic
media do not favor certain social class, group or sect, but it serve all Muslim public
(Ibrahim, 2012).
Islamic media is not only a news oriented media, but also it is advocator of the
good for the humanity, so that the Islamic media need executive authority that can
design the Islamic media strategy to counter the Western media, and the preachers
should need to be trained on media developed technologies and techniques (Islamic
Media Responsibility at the Age of Globalization, 2009).
There is a new study done by Dr Rushdi Shehata, professor at Helwan University,
this study titled (Islamic Media Responsibility in the New World Order), he called for
the need for coordination between various devices to be able to achieve calling plans
that are scientific and balanced to eliminate the inconsistency and duplication between
the various programs of the Islamic media (Islamic Media Responsibility at the Age
of Globalization, 2009). The Islamic media should use the modern technology to be
able to reach different audiences all over the world (Islamic Media Responsibility at
the Age of Globalization, 2009).
According to Shehata, therefore, in order to reach a strong Islamic media that can
achieve the ultimate goal that improve the negative image of Islam and Muslims in
the West, there are some steps to be followed:
1- Selection of qualified staff of the Islamic media.
2- Continues training of Islamic media staff.
3- Use of communication technology in the servicing the Call of Islam.
48
4- Debunking the Western media (Islamic Media Responsibility at the Age of
Globalization, 2009).
9- Old forms of Muslim Brotherhood Mass Media
Hassan Al-Banna wrote a lot of articles and notes that represent his ideology in
the newspapers and magazines that were published by the Muslim Brotherhood
(Ghanem, 1992). According to Ghanem (1992), here is a list of newspapers and
magazines that were published by Muslim Brotherhood; and they are ordered
according to date:
1- Muslim Brotherhood Weekly Newspaper (1933-1938).
2- The Weekly Magazine Al-Nazier (1938-1939).
3- The Magazine Al-Manar Al-Shariyah (1939-1940).
4- The Weekly Magazine Al-Ta'aruf (1940).
5- The Weekly Magazine Al-Shu'aa' (1940).
6- The Muslim Brotherhood Weekly Newspaper (1942-1946).
7- Muslim Brotherhood Daily Newspaper (1946-1948).
8- The Monthly Magazine Al-Shahab (1947-1948).
9- Al-Kashkoul Al-Jadid Magazine (1948).
10- The Magazine Al-Da'wa (1951-1957).
10- Muslim Brotherhood and Freedom and Justice party's Mass
Media
Here is a list of official media of Muslim Brotherhood group and Freedom and
Justice Party:
1- The Arabic Internet website al-da'wah (the call) owned by Muslim
Brotherhood (Ikhwanwikipedia website)
49
2- The Arabic Internet website NafiazatMisr (Egypt window) owned by Muslim
Brotherhood (Egyptwindow website).
3- The Arabic Internet website Ikhwanonline owned by Muslim Brotherhood
group in 2003 (Ikhwanonline website).
4- The English Internet website Ikhwanweb owned by the group of Muslim
Brotherhood 2005 (Dahr, 2008).
5- The website Ikhwanyoutube in 2009 (Abdel- 'Aal 2009).
6- The Arabic Internet website Ikhwanwikipedia owned by Muslim Brotherhood
group in 2009 (Abdel- 'Aal 2009).
7- Misr 25 television channel owned by the group of Muslim Brotherhood in
2011 (Hassan, 2011).
8- Muslim Brotherhood group account on Facebook in 2011 (Muslim
Brotherhood account on Facebook).
9- Muslim Brotherhood group account on Twitter in 2011 (Muslim Brotherhood
account on Twitter).
10- Freedom and Justice daily newspaper owned by Freedom and Justice Party in
2011(Freedom and Justice Party, 2011).
11- Freedom and Justice Internet website in Arabic and English languages owned
by Freedom and Justice Party in 2011 (FJ website).
12- Freedom and Justice party account on Facebook in 2011 (FJ account on
Facebook).
13- Freedom and Justice party account on Twitter in 2011 (FJ account on Twitter).
In a restrained and suppressive environment in Egypt, the Muslim Brotherhood
has used the Internet as a unique technological force providing freedom from
observation, (Dahr, 2008). Muslim Brotherhood created an official website,
50
http://www.ikhwanweb.com/, where they state:
"The Ikhwanweb is the Muslim Brotherhood’s only official English website, our
staff is exclusively made of volunteers and stretched over five continents"(Dahr,
2008). The opinions and views Muslim Brotherhood members can be found under the
sections MB statements and opinions, in addition to the Editorial Message, other
issues posted under “other views” are frequently diverse from these opinions of the
Muslim Brotherhood (Dahr, 2008).
Ikhwanweb is not a news website, however it reports news that relates to the
Muslim Brotherhood’s grounds, its major mission is to present the Muslim
Brotherhood vision (Dahr, 2008). The use of the Internet permits freedom of
expression, and a run away from state censorship which the most of Egyptian
independent media are forced (Dahr, 2008).
"In response to long-term shifts in social structure and short-term alterations in
social circumstances, issue-oriented associations, such as the Muslim Brotherhood,
formed Ikhwanweb to affect public opinion and its representatives in the civil sphere
in the Egyptian society" (Dahr, 2008). The Muslim Brotherhood group uses the
Internet to initiate their appeals to the Egyptian public and to accomplish their
communicative objective and intent (Dahr, 2008).
11- The Muslim Brotherhood Satellite Channel Misr 25
According to the journalist and Muslim Brotherhood leader Mohsen Radhi, the
major objective of the Misr 25 television channel is to present the moderate opinions
and views of the Muslim Brotherhood group (Hassan, 2011). Radhi added, the vision
of Misr 25 channel is that it needs to present a message that would achieve
renaissance, improvement, and culture in the Egyptian society, as well as showing
diverse issues in an exciting, informative and neutral way, that will suit all Egyptian
51
citizens and this diverse issues support the idea of the freedom of Egyptian mass
media (Hassan, 2011).
Radhi said, "The channel will most definitely represent the Muslim Brotherhood’s
identity and activities that will serve to better illustrate who the Muslim Brotherhood
are and what they seek" (Hassan,2011). According to Radhi, the most essential
feature of the channel is that it will focus on broadcasting documentaries that will
prove the truth about Egyptian history, better address Egyptian issues, contribute in
developing nationalism, and will cooperate with all media establishments to free it
from boundaries (Hassan, 2011).
Radhi said, "The leaders of Muslim Brotherhood have nothing to do with the
channel or its organizers, we are fully aware of the independence of the channel, or
else it will inevitably fail" (Hassan, 2011). Radhi continued, the organizers will be in
charge of developing the main policies only, after that the professionals will take over
in an independent and free manner (Hassan, 2011).
Radhi said, " At Mubarak era the Egyptian security forces were always keeping
an eye on the Brotherhood to the point that media professionals that were members of
the Muslim Brotherhood would have to hide their identities when working in the
media business" (Hassan,2011). He continued, however, "I believe now that the group
changed its strategies with this regard, because the regime that was oppressing the
Brotherhood is now gone, and it’s about time the Brotherhood deals with itself and
society as a presenter of a project worthy of implementation" (Hassan, 2011). Radhi
added, consequently, it will work to display its thoughts in a way that can practically
demonstrate its beliefs (Hassan, 2011).
Radhi said "the channel will be completely independent, the channel will have a
level of freedom that will astonish and surprise everyone" (Hassan, 2011). He added
52
that the main philosophy of Misr 25 will require us to accept the opinions of others
(Hassan, 2011). Radhi said, "The channel will display a variety of internal and
external issues" (Hassan, 2011).
Radhi said, "We will display drama series; the Egyptian society loves such
things; however, we will only display things that are in tune with the culture and
values of the Egyptian society and the Islamic faith" (Hassan, 2011). Regarding the
display of women in Misr 25, Radhi said that the channel display "women who are
not bound by Islamic attire, as long as their attire is acceptable by the Egyptian
society, culture, and values"(Hassan, 2011).
According to leading MB member Essam al-Arian, the group is presently
studying the possibility of establishing a new satellite television station and a number
of magazines and newspapers (Salah, El-Waziry, 2011). “Freedom of access to
information is the key to keeping up with the evolution of international media,” alArian told Al-Masry Al-Youm (Salah, El-Waziry, 2011).
Al-Arian added that
Egyptians "are fed up with biased media.” “Soon we will begin publishing a monthly
magazine called 'Al-Daawa,' in addition to a weekly newspaper” (Salah, El-Waziry,
2011).
Head of the Muslim Brotherhood's media committee Assem Shalabi said the
Muslim Brotherhood group was preparing to publish daily, weekly and monthly
newspapers and magazines (Salah, El-Waziry, 2011). “We're expecting amendments
to Egypt's press laws that will facilitate the publication of new newspapers," said
Shalabi. "This is why we are seeking to issue different publications" (Salah, ElWaziry, 2011).
53
Chapter 4: Theoretical Framework
1-Agenda setting
Essentially, an agenda is defined as a list of objects ordered according to their
significance, which means the most important items are at the top of this agenda
(Severin and Jr, 2001). Agenda building is defined as a collective process in which
government, mass media and the public affect each other in determining the most
important topics or problems that should be considered (Severin and Jr, 2001).
"Agenda setting is the phenomenon of the mass media selecting certain issues and
portraying them frequently and prominently, which leads people to perceive those
issues as more important than others" (Wu and Coleman, 2009).
The definition of agenda setting is the mass media ability to influence the public
to give more attentions to particular topics such as political candidates, social
problems, civic issues (Chernov, Valenzuela, and McCombs, 2011).
Basically,
agenda-setting hypothesis is the mass media ability of conveying the item salience in
the news to the community or the public, whereas agenda building focuses on the
broadcast of item salience between sources and the mass media (Ragas, 2012).
Moreover, the agenda setting theory can function at a wider level, in which the
mass media can influence the audience about the "attributes" of items, throughout
presenting and highlighting a number of characteristics and qualities of these items
(Chernov, Valenzuela, and McCombs, 2011). One of the main concepts of agenda
setting theory has been the conveying of issue salience, or the way that media
highlighting of specific topics increases their importance for the public (Wu and
Coleman, 2009)."The greater an individual's need for orientation in the realm of
public affairs, the more likely he or she is to attend to the agenda of the mass media"
54
(Chernov, Valenzuela, and McCombs, 2011)."The agenda setting function of the
media refers to the media's capabilities, through repeated news coverage, of raising
the importance of an issue in the public's mind" (Severin and Jr, 2001).
According to Norton Long, the newspaper is considered the major mover in
setting the agenda, it has an enormous role in determining the topics that the public
talk about, the facts that the public think about, and the public thoughts of the best
ways to deal with the problems of the country (Severin and Jr, 2001). According to
Kurt Lang and Gladys Engle Lang, the mass media give attention to particular topics;
moreover, they create certain images of political figures in the public's mind, they are
frequently presenting items signifying what people in the society should think about,
know about, and have feelings about (Severin and Jr, 2001).
"According Bernard Cohen, it may not be successful much of the time in telling
people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling readers what to think
about" (Severin and Jr, 2001). The theory of agenda setting is extremely compatible
with cognitive psychology, and this is obvious in the examination of the salience that
the public assign to particular issues (Severin and Jr, 2001).
Funkhouser (1973) examined the correlation between reality and mass media
coverage; he found that the mass media coverage did not correspond, constantly, very
well to the realities of the topics (Severin and Jr, 2001). Funkhouser found that the
mass media reporting of the Vietnam War, campus conflict, and urban unrest peaked
a year or two before these events reached their climax in the reality (Severin and Jr,
2001). Media coverage of drugs and inflation problems was to some extent in line
with reality; however, media coverage of racial relationships, criminal issues, and
poverty and pollution problems has little relation to reality (Severin and Jr, 2001).
Funkhouser concluded, "the news media are believed by many people (including
55
many policymakers) to be reliable information sources, but the data presented here
indicate that this is not necessarily the case" (Severin and Jr, 2001). McCombs and
Shaw (1972), present some evidences of causal direction or effect between mass
media agenda and shaping the audiences' agenda, rather than vice versa (Severin and
Jr, 2001).
The hypothesis of agenda setting advocating that the mass media content has an
effect on the community perception of the significance of certain issues (Severin and
Jr, 2001). According to Wanta and Wu (1992), when the individuals are exposed to
more media news, the salience of issues for media topics will be in a higher level
(Severin and Jr, 2001). McCombs and Weaver recommended that the larger the
significance of the information and the greater the doubt regarding the subject, will
result in greater need for orientation (Severin and Jr, 2001). Wanta and Miller (1995),
advocated that watching of the president's speech and being exposed to the mass
media, can increase the effect of agenda setting; however, being exposed to the mass
media essentially increased agenda setting effect more, they think that the president in
fact needs the mass media to more highlight and clarify the topics that he considers
significant (Severin and Jr, 2001). The researchers identify agenda setting theory as
items listed according to saliency in the mass media content or in audiences'
perception, and then agenda setting can be processed at diverse stages (McCombs,
Shaw and Weaver, 1997).
Traditionally, first level of agenda setting research means that the objects have
been issues; moreover, the second level of agenda setting based on the idea that an
agenda is a theoretical concept and that several things further than issues may
possibly be objects on the list (Severin and Jr, 2001). The first and second level of
agenda setting can be applied to the study of mass media of Muslim Brotherhood
56
group and Freedom and Justice Party. The first level of agenda setting relates to the
categories of different issues that are discussed in these media such as political issues,
economic issues, religious issues, social issues and criminal issues. The second level
of agenda setting relates to the sub-topics of the different categories of news in the
mass media of Muslim Brotherhood and Freedom and Justice Party. For example, the
sub-topics of political category issues are parliamentary elections, presidential news,
governmental news, political participation and political parties' news.
Zucker recommended that the obtrusiveness of the topic may perhaps be a
significant aspect in whether agenda setting have an effect or not (Severin and Jr,
2001). He argued that when the public has less direct experience or knowledge with a
specified issue, they will depend on news media for getting information about this
specified issue which leads to high effect of agenda setting (Severin and Jr, 2001). On
the other hand, topics that individuals have direct experience with such as
unemployment problem are obtrusive issues, and topics that individuals do not have
direct experience such as pollution problem, are unobtrusive issues (Severin and Jr,
2001). In the unobtrusive issues people do not mainly depend on the media to get
information about the issue, but they use their own experience to judge the issue, so
that the agenda setting effect in the unobtrusive issues has little effect (Severin and Jr,
2001).
According to McCombs and Evatt (1995), the studies of second level of agenda
setting effect examine how the coverage of certain issues in mass media influences
what issues the public thinks about and how they think about these issues (McCombs,
Shaw and Weaver, 1997). Essentially, this second level of agenda setting deals with
the particular characteristics of an issue and how these features affect public opinion
and attitudes (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997). For instance, Benton and Frazier's
57
study one item of issue-agenda setting which is the economy; they search different
characteristics such as the reasons of particular economic problems, future solutions,
and the pro and con basis for economic strategies (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver,
1997).
The first level of agenda setting theory relates to conveying of item salience from
the mass media agenda to the public agenda, on the other hand, the second level of
agenda setting theory occupies two main hypotheses about attribute salience of the
issue which are the following:
1- The method a topic or item is presented in the mass media (attributes
highlighted in the media news) influences the manner that the audiences think
about that item (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997).
2- The method a topic or item is presented in the mass media (attributes
highlighted in the media news) influences the salience of that item on the
public agenda (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997).
Fundamentally, the first level of agenda setting relates to the way of selecting the
specific news in the mass media and its effect on the public agenda (McCombs, Shaw
and Weaver, 1997). However, in the second level of agenda setting, the mass media
agenda is regarded as highlighting particular characteristics or perspectives of issues
(McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997).
Agenda setting theory focuses on the significance of topics and problems; mainly
it deals with the classification of topics; moreover, problems and evaluation deals
with the formation of an opinions atmosphere (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997).
"Media coverage of issues in the media has been linked to public opinion where the
salience of issues in the media agenda leads to the salience of issues in the public
agenda; how the media cover an issue can have a cognitive influence on how the
58
public thinks about the issue" (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997). This transform
of the salience of characteristics is considered the center of the second level of agenda
setting (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997).
The Agenda setting theory looks on the selection of story news as a determinant
of people perceptions of topic significance, and indirectly throughout media priming
and evaluations of political figures (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997). The idea of
agenda setting revitalized Lippmann's conception of how the mass media affect the
determining of the pictures in public heads (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997).
McCombs and Shaw (1972) theorized that the topics highlighted in the news media
affect the topics that the voters regard as important (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver,
1997).
On the other side, the news media agenda determine, to some level, the public
agenda of the audiences (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997). The way of
determining what the public choose to watch and what to pay no attention for specific
news relates to the idea of the perception that the public apply to view the political
world (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997). Agenda setting concept is definitely an
extra expression of the reality function of the mass media (McCombs, Shaw and
Weaver, 1997).
"The model using the agenda of issues is termed issue-agenda setting, whereas
the model using the agenda of attributes of an issue or public figure is called attributeagenda setting" (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997). Issue-agenda setting and
attribute-agenda setting can be applied to the study of mass media of Muslim
Brotherhood group and Freedom and Justice Party. The issue-agenda setting relates to
the issues that are discussed in the media of Muslim Brotherhood group and Freedom
and Justice Party such as political issues, religious issues, and economic issues.
59
Regarding the attribute-agenda setting, this can applied to the attributes that the mass
media of Muslim Brotherhood group and Freedom and Justice Party. These mass
media represent specific characteristics of their group members and political figures
in their official media. The Muslim Brotherhood group and Freedom and Justice Party
can apply the attribute-agenda setting to represent their ideology to the Egyptian
public and improve their image in the society.
McCombs (1994) identified the issue-agenda as the "first dimension" of the
agenda setting theory; furthermore, the agenda of attributes as the "second
dimension"(McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997). Issue-agenda setting relates to the
transference of issue/topic (object) salience; on the other hand, attribute-agenda
setting implies transference of attribute salience from the mass media to the public
audiences (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997).
"The study that fits the word attribute must be that identification candidate
images by Weaver, Garber, McCombs and Eyal in 1981" (McCombs, Shaw and
Weaver, 1997). These researchers described a candidate images as a collection of
perceived attribute that are different in their saliency (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver,
1997). In any elections it is obvious that most of voters do not have direct contact
with the presidential candidates, the image the voters have of a candidate will rely on
how the mass media show the candidate (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997).
Weaver and his assistants examined this hypothesis in the 1976 U.S. presidential
campaigns; they found some proof that the attribute agenda of the newspaper affected
the agenda of the voters (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997).
60
2- Media priming
"Media priming concept is defined as the result of agenda setting theory, and its
influence depends among other aspects on the strength of the priming event"
(Valenzuela, 2009). Priming concept, is generally considered as an extension of
agenda setting theory, promote that the audiences or the public use major media
agendas as main criteria when they judge political issues, actions, and figures (Ha,
2011). Priming concept is described as the technique, used when mass media focus on
some topics and ignore other issues; therefore, mass media can change the standards
that the audiences apply to make an evaluation of political candidates and topics
(Severin and Jr, 2001).
"Audience members rely upon available considerations usually those emphasized
by the news media to determine the criteria on which an opinion about a candidate,
institution, or any other object of public attention is based" (Valenzuela, 2009). The
mass media news have the ability to highlight certain topics, and make them salient
among the individuals; therefore the mass media make those topics basically available
in the viewer's memory while shaping opinions about essential social problems or
issues and making selections on political performers (Ha, 2011).
When the mass media present a particular issue more than other issues, this
particular issue will be primed and this will make the public depend more on what
they know about that issue to formulate political opinions (Valenzuela, 2009). One of
the main effects of priming occurs when distinctive information is activated by the
increasing exposure to news messages of the mass media (Ha, 2011). Moreover,
attitudes about issue's significance and criteria of evaluation can be associated with
diverse rational aspects, such as person's preexisting schemas and motivations (Ha,
2011).
61
Price and Tweksbury (1995) identified priming concept as the influence of the
media's agenda on the public's agenda such as the evaluations of political figures
(McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997). They define priming concept as "the tendency
of audience members to evaluate their political leaders on the basis of those particular
events and issues given more attention in news reports" (McCombs, Shaw and
Weaver, 1997). According to Krosnick and Brannon (1993), media priming research
have found strong practical support for the priming hypothesis that the news coverage
of television not only enhances audience cognizance of specific issues, but also
influences the criteria of judgment of the political leaders or figures (McCombs, Shaw
and Weaver, 1997).
Although the media priming concentrates on the cognitive and behavioral
consequences of agenda setting concept, both approaches depend on topic salience as
a main dependent variable (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997). Perhaps due to this
conceptual relationship, some scholars consider media priming concept as an
extension of agenda setting; on the other hand, some researchers define agenda setting
as " one particular variant of priming" (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997).
Fiske and Taylor described cognitive priming, "as the effects of prior context on
the interpretation and retrieval of information, focuses on the effects of long term
memory on the processing of new information" (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997).
Basically, priming is based on the hypothesis that the occurrence, prominence, or
characteristic of a stimulus activates earlier educated cognitive structures and affects
explanations of an indistinct stimulus (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997). Simple
illustration of the influence of priming concept on memory retrieval is found in the
natural tendency to understand a specific expression in terms of the most new
encounter with it (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997).
62
For instance, the regular accessibility of an idea such as the foreign policy of the
president will be more for audiences who have been exposed comprehensively to
news coverage about this topic in the past (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997).
Therefore, "the temporary accessibility of a construct resulting from short term media
priming effects has to be measured against the baseline of chronic accessibility which
results from more long term media exposure to an issue" (McCombs, Shaw and
Weaver, 1997). An informative technique to think about the influences of priming
concept is in terms of a hierarchal structured network of ideas, schemata, or
characteristics that are related throughout associative pathways (McCombs, Shaw and
Weaver, 1997).
The exposure to a specific stimulus with a certain meaning "primes" in the mass
media, the audiences after some time start to use these "primes" in their judges of
political figures or the main problems that are facing the country (McCombs, Shaw
and Weaver, 1997). Consequently, while individuals identify particular event through
the mass media, ideas that have same meaning are activated in people minds for a
short period subsequently, which could activate other semantically correlated beliefs
or concepts (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997).
Priming has been illustrated to affect a diversity of opinions, including word or
letter acknowledgment, retrieval of this word or letter in the memory, shaping of
individual feelings, in addition to judgments of the satisfaction of life (McCombs,
Shaw and Weaver, 1997). Some priming studies showed that the mass media can also
affect the subsequent behavior of individuals who formerly exposed to semantically
linked ideas such as cooperation and assistance in the mass media (McCombs, Shaw
and Weaver, 1997).
63
Cognitive priming has shown as an extension to the theory of traditional agenda
setting (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997). Cognitive priming and traditional
agenda setting are similar in concentrating on the significance of both the media
agenda and semantic content of the media in affecting political communication
(McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997). Iyengar and Kinder (1987) were the earliest
scholars to show the effects of television news in increasing the perceived salience of
topics that have more coverage in the news. They found that the "primes" of mass
media affect the audiences' evaluation of political candidate's performance and
political parties (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997). There were a number of
experiments planned to present manipulated news content for people, these
experiments proved that the influence of high media exposure to general problems
like energy problem, defense, and inflation, significantly enhanced the respondents'
evaluation of President Carter (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997).
Iyengar and Kinder (1987) argued that when common people face complex
political topic or event, they do comprehensive analysis that is based on information
they may have learned from the mass media (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997).
Moreover, it is supposed that a lot of people formulate judgment or opinion based on
the knowledge they could simply repossess from their mind (McCombs, Shaw and
Weaver, 1997). According to priming concept, the mass media not only influence the
apparent salience of topics, but also affect the level to which topics are used as criteria
to evaluate political figures (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997).
One of the main achievements of applying the priming concept to agenda setting
theory has been that it presented a reasonable, hypothetical model of how the mass
media can affect audiences' perception of the significance of topics, and how these
perceptions in sequence, might influence political attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors
64
(McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997). Price and Tewksbury (1995) believed that
agenda setting and priming rely on the similar "cognitive mechanism," which
illustrates topic salience because of augmented accessibility of mental constructs in
the long term memory owing to media exposure (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver,
1997). They concluded that "agenda setting commonly thought to be a kind of basic
media effect upon which priming depends is actually but one particular variant of
priming, which is itself a far more general effect" (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver,
1997). The analysis of agenda setting and priming support the idea that the mass
media coverage of diverse issues or events can have interactive impact on issue
salience (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997).
Priming clarifies the structure and consequences of issue salience in terms of
impermanent information accessibility (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997). For
instance, if a person is primed with media coverage about foreign policy of President
Clinton's, only the coverage weight of that topic should increase in public's evaluation
of the president (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997). The news about Clinton's
foreign policy creates a prime for public to think of semantically linked topics such as
example domestic policy or national defense. Consequently, affecting the weight of
ideas that are not clearly implicated by the news coverage (McCombs, Shaw and
Weaver, 1997). News coverage of political campaigns in the mass media is able to
prime people to consider specific character or personality traits, for example
proficiency or honesty in their judgment of political candidates (McCombs, Shaw and
Weaver, 1997).
Iyengar and Kinder (1987) investigated the effect of media coverage on priming
through a comparison between news topics that did or did not highlight the president's
accountability for national problems (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997). As
65
anticipated, the scholars proved that the priming effect was more distinct for those
news topics that included clear indications about the president's accountability for a
country problem (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997).
The assumption of media priming concept is based on the hypothesis that both of
"issue salience and the semantic content" of news topics cause the activation of prime
linked information (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997). Furthermore, the news
story's tone whether (positive, negative, or neutral) is able to affect the kind of prime
linked concepts that come to mind because of media exposure to particular topics
(McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997). In the election campaign, this might represent
that negative news coverage not only primes public to regard certain topics as more
essential while evaluating a political candidate, but also makes the public feel more
negative about this candidate because of negative feelings activated by negative
coverage in the mass media (McCombs, Shaw and Weaver, 1997).
66
Chapter 5: Methodology
Based on the information, mentioned above, about the historical background of
Muslim Brotherhood group and Freedom and Justice Party, both of them have the
same ideologies. Muslim Brotherhood group aims to achieve political, social and
economic developments from a comprehensive Islamic perspective. The Freedom and
Justice Party is a political wing of Muslim Brotherhood group and it is based on the
religious and political ideologies of the group. However, Muslim Brotherhood in
Egypt is an unofficial group; however, Freedom and Justice Party is one of the official
political parties in Egypt.
Ultimately, the Muslim Brotherhood group claims that it is a preaching group that
aims to reform and develop the Egyptian society in different fields such as political,
economic, religious and social issues. Furthermore, Muslim Brotherhood group uses
Freedom and Justice Party as a method of political reforming and development of the
Egyptian society. So, there should be a distinction between the official media outlets
of Muslim Brotherhood group and Freedom and Justice Party in this research. The
examination of the mass media of Muslim Brotherhood group will show the group's
ideology and vision in different categories such as political, economic and religious;
moreover, studying the mass media of Freedom and Justice Party individually will
demonstrate in-depth information about the group's political ideology and vision.
67
1- Research questions and hypotheses
RQ1:
How does Muslim Brotherhood group use its official media outlets to
represent their ideology and vision to the Egyptian public?
RQ2: How does the Freedom and Justice Party use its official media outlet to
display the party's political ideology to the Egyptian public?
H1:
The media content of official media of the Freedom and Justice Party
concentrate on political issues more than the official media outlets of Muslim
Brotherhood group.
H2:
The Islamic official media outlets of Muslim Brotherhood group and
Freedom and Justice Party cover local, regional, and international news issues.
H3:
The Islamic official media outlets of Muslim Brotherhood group and
Freedom and Justice Party have little coverage of liberal political parties.
H4:
The Islamic official media outlets of Muslim Brotherhood group and
Freedom and Justice Party have little coverage of art, sport and woman issues.
68
2- The research questions and hypotheses with operational
definitions:
RQ1:
How does Muslim Brotherhood group use its official media outlets to
represent their ideology and vision to the Egyptian public?
Independent variable: the usage of Muslim Brotherhood of its official media
outlets.
Operational definition: the usage of Muslim Brotherhood of its official media
will be measured according to three categories that have news about Muslim
Brotherhood which are social category, religious category and political category.
Level of measurement: Nominal
Dependent variable: the representation of Muslim Brotherhood's ideology and
vision to the Egyptian public.
Operational definition: the representation of Muslim Brotherhood's ideology and
vision to the Egyptian public will be measured according to 12 categories which
are economic, social, religious, political, criminal, sports, arts and culture, health,
media, education, women and other (the category that have issues that don’t fit the
previous categories)
Level of measurement: Nominal
RQ2: How does the Freedom and Justice Party use its official media outlet to
display the party's political ideology to the Egyptian public?
Independent variable: the usage of Freedom and Justice Party of its official media
outlet.
69
Operational definition: the usage of Freedom and Justice party of its official
media will measured according to one category that have news about Freedom and
Justice party which is political category with its sub-topics.
Level of measurement: Nominal
Dependent variable: the displaying of Freedom and Justice Party's ideology to the
Egyptian public.
Operational definition: the displaying of Freedom and Justice party's ideology to
the Egyptian public will be measured according to 12 categories which are
economic, social, religious, political, criminal, sports, arts and culture, health,
media, education, women and other (the category that have issues that don’t fit the
previous categories)
Level of measurement: Nominal
H1:
The media content of official media of the Freedom and Justice Party
concentrate on political issues more than the official media outlets of Muslim
Brotherhood group.
Independent variable: the coverage of political issues in the Muslim Brotherhood
group official media.
Operational definition: the coverage of political issues in the Muslim
Brotherhood group official media will be measured according to one category
which is political with its sub-topics.
Level of measurement: Nominal
Dependent variable: coverage of political issues in Freedom and Justice party
official media outlets.
70
Operational definition: the coverage of political issues in Freedom and Justice
party official media will be measured according to the one category which is
political category with its sub-topics.
Level of measurement: Nominal
H2:
The Islamic official media outlets of Muslim Brotherhood group and
Freedom and Justice Party cover local, regional, and international news issues.
Independent variable: the religious media content of official media outlets of
Freedom and Justice Party and Muslim Brotherhood group.
Operational definition: the religious media content of Freedom and Justice Party
and Muslim Brotherhood group official media will be measured according to one
category which is religious category with its sub-topics
Level of measurement: Nominal
Dependent variable: representation of local, regional and international news.
Operational definition: the representation of local, regional and international
news will be measured according to 6 categories which are economic, social,
criminal, health, media, education and other (the category that have issues that
don’t fit the previous categories).
Level of measurement: Nominal
H3:
The Islamic official media outlets of Muslim Brotherhood group and
Freedom and Justice Party have little coverage of liberal political parties.
Independent variable: the religious ideology of Muslim Brotherhood group and
Freedom and Justice Party.
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Operational definition: the religious ideology of Muslim Brotherhood group and
Freedom and Justice Party will be measured according to one category which is
religious category with its sub-topics.
Level of measurement: Nominal
Dependent variable: the representation of liberal political parties
Operational definition: the representation of the visions of liberal parties will be
measured according to one category which is political category with its sub-topics.
Level of measurement: Nominal
H4:
The Islamic official media outlets of Muslim Brotherhood group and
Freedom and Justice Party have little coverage of art, sport and woman issues.
Independent variable: the religious ideology of Muslim Brotherhood group and
Freedom and Justice Party.
Operational definition: the religious ideology of Muslim Brotherhood group and
Freedom and Justice Party will be measured according to one category which is
religious category with its sub-topics.
Level of measurement: Nominal
Dependent variable: the coverage of art, sport and woman issues in the official
media outlets of Freedom and Justice Party and Muslim Brotherhood.
Operational definition: the coverage of art, sport and woman issues in the official
media outlets of Freedom and Justice Party and Muslim Brotherhood will be
measured according to three categories with their sub-topics which are sport, art
and woman.
Level of measurement: Nominal
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3- Content Analysis:
Kerlinger's (2000) definition of content analysis is "it is a method of studying
and analyzing communication in a systematic, objective, and quantitative manner
for the purpose of measuring variables" (Wimmer and Dominick, 2009). The
content analysis is appropriate for this study because it gives the chance to
describe the communication content of the Muslim Brotherhood and Freedom
and Justice party media outlets, and to test the characteristics of the message of
these media, furthermore, to examine the main issues that are highlighted in these
official media more than other issues.
 Universe of the study
As mentioned above in the literature review, the Muslim Brotherhood group
and Freedom and Justice Party have about 13 official media, some of them are
only about the news of the group and the party such as the Internet website of FJ
Party; it is about the news and activities of the party. On the other hand, Muslim
Brotherhood group and Freedom Justice Party have a news-oriented media such
as Misr 25 channel and Freedom and Justice Newspaper. This research focus on
the news-oriented media of MB group and FJ party in order to analyze the
specific topics that they highlight and other issues that they ignore.
1- Two media outlets for Muslim Brotherhood group which are:
a) Misr 25 television satellite channel because it is news-oriented and it is
the only television channel of Muslim Brotherhood group, and it is
common that television reach more audiences comparing to other
media, especially the illiterate people so that it is important to
examine its content.
73
b) The news online website Ikhwanonline because it is a news-oriented
website in Arabic language which can reach more audiences;
furthermore, as the news Internet website has a popularity now as
mentioned above in the literature review, it is important to analyze the
content of this Internet website.
2- One media outlet for Freedom and Justice Political Party: - Freedom and
Justice Daily Newspaper because it is news-oriented and it is the only newspaper
of Freedom and Justice Party; moreover, other media of the party such as social
media accounts and party's Internet website are about the activities, goals and
visions of the party.
 Sample of the study
The sample of this study is non-probability sampling which is a purposive
sample. The purposive sample means including of respondents, issues, or
elements chosen for particular characteristics or qualities and eliminate other
respondents or elements that fail to meet the measures of the purpose of the
study (Wimmer and Dominick, 2009).
According to Riffe and Freitsg (1997), there is a popularity of using a
purposive sampling method in the content analysis; they found that 68% of
content analysis of Journalism Quarterly from 1971 to 1995 used a purposive
sampling method (Wimmer and Dominick, 2009). The purposive sample is
suitable for the purpose of this study because it has specific categories that have
certain topics with particular sub-topics.
"According to Riffe (2005), two constructed weeks are sufficient for
representing a year’s worth of news coverage" (el-Masry, 2012). The sampling
period of this study is one composite week as the following:
74
1.
Wednesday March 6, 2013
2. Thursday March 7, 2013
3. Friday March 8, 2013
4. Saturday March 9, 2013
5. Sunday March 10, 2013
6. Monday March 11, 2013
7. Tuesday March 12, 2013
This study consists of analyzing 7 issues of Freedom and Justice daily
newspaper at the days of composite week which are chosen randomly.
Moreover, 7 days of Ikhwanonline website which chosen randomly at the days
of composite week. A total of 63 hours of 18 television programs and talk
shows of Misr 25 television channel were chosen randomly at the days of the
composite week.
 The unit of analysis and the operational definition
The unit of analysis of this content analysis study is the topic. All the topics
and sub-topics of the categories that are discussed in Freedom and Justice
Newspaper, Misr 25 television channel and Ikhwanonline website in the
sampling period.
 Categories of content analysis
In first level agenda setting research, the objects have been issues;
however, the second level of agenda setting means that an agenda is a
theoretical idea and several things other than issues can be objects on the list
(Severin and Jr, 2001). For example, in a election campaign, taking an issue
such as economics and categorize a number of sub-issues or categories under
that main issue such as balancing the country budget, reducing state dept and
restructuring income tax (Severin and Jr, 2001).
75
In order to examine the Muslim Brotherhood and Freedom and Justice party
official media, topics were coded into 12 categories. These 12 categories
represent the major issues (first level of agenda setting), the attribute are the
sub-issues of the major issues (second level of agenda setting). As the priming
theory mainly relate to the salience of certain issues more than others, it can be
applied to this study of the official media outlets of Freedom and Justice party
and Muslim Brotherhood group through the salience of the sub-issues of the 12
main categories.
1- Economic issues:
This category is about the main economic issues and problems in Egypt such
as taxes, rise of food prices/ inflation, maximum / minimum salaries,
economic growth, poverty, investment, unemployment, Egyptian national
dept, economic national projects, Islamic Sukuk and other issues like tourism
and stock market.
2- Social issues:
This category is about the main social issues in Egypt such as labor rights,
Muslim brotherhood social campaigns, charity campaigns, worker's strikes,
citizens’ issues (rights/ obligations), religious rights and other issues like
social problems and social campaigns.
3- Religious issues:
This category is about the religious issues in Egypt such as religious preaches,
national unity, sectarian tension, Islamic concepts (rights and obligations of
Muslim person/ relationship between Muslims and non-Muslims) and other
issues like religious events.
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4- Political issues:
This category is about the major political issues and problems in Egypt such as
parliamentary elections, Shura council news/decisions, Presidential meetings/
speeches/ visits/ decisions/ communications, news of Muslim Brotherhood
group, electoral campaigns of FJ party and MB group, news of Freedom and
Justice party, governmental news/ decisions/ problems, news of Egyptian
Islamic political parties, political participation, oppositions criticism / arrests,
news of National Salvation Front, protesters' killing, demonstrations/ strikes,
Egyptian military news and other issues like Egyptian foreign relations.
5- Criminal issues:
This category is about the main criminal problems and issues in Egypt such as
police violence and protesters, news of Ministry of Internal Affairs, thefts
(cars/ houses/ personal belongs), murders, terrorism actions, trials (common
people/ the previous regime of Mubarak) and other issues like accidents and
fires.
6- Sports issues:
This category is about the main sports issues in Egypt such as matches, sports
activities (national team/clubs' teams), sports championships, news of sports
players, ultras news and other issues like media sports.
7- Arts and culture issues:
This category is about the main art issues in Egypt such as Arts and culture
news, celebrity interviews (actors/ actresses/ singers/ writers/ directors/
artistes), art festivals, archeology news, drama/theater news, cinema news,
galleries and concerts and other issues like songs.
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8- Women issues:
This category is about the main women issues and problems in Egypt such as
women in Islam (rights and obligations), women rights (right of working,
rights of political participation and rights of participating in demonstrations),
women and Egyptian constitution, women issues (marriage and divorce laws),
harassment of women in demonstrations and other issues like women
problems.
9- Health issues:
This category is about health issues and problems in Egypt such as diseases,
health care, medicines, hospitals news/problems and other issues like health
insurance problems.
10- Media issues:
This category is about the media issues in Egypt: for example, media in Egypt
such as censorship, freedom of expression, media laws, regulations and rules,
media
social
responsibility,
journalists
rights/arrests,
suspension
of
newspapers or programs, criticism of talk shows' presenters and other issues
such as state television.
11- Education issues:
This category is about the educational issues and problems in Egypt such as
education quality, schools education news/problems (private tuition/ teachers
training), higher education and other issues such as the exams schedules.
12- Other:
Any topic that doesn't fit the previous categories
A. Science and technology news. It is about the news of new inventions
and new technology applications in Egypt and other countries in the
78
whole world, and it does not fit the education category because it
contains only the issues and problems of educational system in Egypt.
B. The crisis of pipeline of gas. It does not fit the previous categories
because it has two reasons which are economic reason and black
market
C. Shortage of gas. It does not fit the previous categories because it has
economic reason and social reason which is black market.
D. Garbage collection. It does not fit the previous 11 categories and it has
economic reason and social reason.
E. International news (Western countries). It does not fit the previous
categories because it is about news of Western countries, and it does
not fit the media category because it focuses on media issues in Egypt.
F. Regional news (Arab countries). It does not fit the previous categories
because it is about news of Arab countries, and it does not fit the
political category because it concentrates on political issues and
problems in Egypt.
G. Traffic problems. It does not fit the previous 11 categories because it
has social reason and the other reason is the police of traffic does not
do their jobs well.
H. Electricity issues. It does not fit the previous categories because it has
economic reason and social reason which rationalization of
consumption.
I. Bread problems. It does not fit the previous categories because it has
economic reason and social reason which is black market.
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 Inter-coder Reliability
In order to be an unbiased research 10% of this study is coded by second
coder with the researcher. The second coder is fluent in Arabic and English
and was trained by the researcher to make sure that the second coder
understands all the details of coding sheet and code book of this research. The
coding sheet and code book of this research were updated after a pilot study of
subsample of the three networks Misr 25, Ikhwanonline and Freedom and
Justice Newspaper. The pilot study was done by the researcher and second
trained coder to reach the maximum detail of every category of the study.
Holsti (1969) describes this formula for calculating the reliability of
nominal statistics in terms of level of agreement: Reliability = 2M / N1 + N2.
(Wimmer and Dominick, 2009). M= the total number of coding decision that
the coders agreed upon. N= the total number of coding decision of the sample
that are studied by the coders. (Wimmer and Dominick, 2009).
To calculate the inter coder reliability of this study using Holsti formula, in
this study M= 189, N= 194. Reliability= 2(189) / 194+194= 378 / 388= 0.97
The inter coder reliability of this research is R = 0.97 or 97%, which is very
high percentage
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Chapter 6: Results
 The tables and figures of this study are done by using SPSS program
 Media content of official media of Muslim Brotherhood and
Freedom and Justice:
Figure 1
Media content of Misr 25 Television Channel
The figure 1 illustrates the media content of the television channel Misr 25 that
owned by Muslim Brotherhood group. The media content of Misr 25 consists of 30.4
81
% of political news. However, 13.4 % is criminal news. The miscellaneous category
news represents 13 % of the media content of Misr 25. Moreover, 10.9 % are religious
topics. Also, the economic content of Misr 25 is counted as 7.8 %. Furthermore, the
amount of social issues of Misr 25 channel is 5.3 %. In addition, media news and
topics are measured by 4.9 %. Whereas, only 4.7 % of Misr 25 content is news about
arts and culture. The news of sports is 4.4 %. Moreover, the topics of women have
little percentage which is 2.3 %. Also, the Misr 25 has little amount of education
issues which is 1.7 % education news. Only 1.4 % of the Misr 25 channel content is
about health issues.
82
Figure 2
Media content of Ikhwanonline Website
Figure 2 demonstrates the media content of the Arabic internet news website
Ikhwanonline which is owned by Muslim Brotherhood group. It is noticeable in the
figure that the political topics in Ikhwanonline website have a high percentage which
is 39.3 %. Moreover, the miscellaneous category news has also high percentage which
is 15.8 %. The religious issues do not have high percentage which is 7.9 %. Whereas,
the percentage of criminal topics in Ikhwanonline counted as 7.7 %. Ikhwanonline do
not have high amount of economic news which is measured as 6.2 %. Furthermore,
the sports issues are only 4.7 % of its content. 4.3 % of Ikhwanonline content is about
news of arts and culture. In addition, the education topics are counted as 4.3 % of
Ikhwanonline content. It is clear in figure 2 that the women issues do not have high
83
percentage which is 4.1 %. The social issues in Ikhwanonline website are 3.6 %.
Followed by 1.3 % are about health news. Furthermore, the news or issues of media
have very low percentage which is 0.9 % of Ikhwanonline content.
84
Figure 3
Media content of Freedom and Justice Newspaper
Figure 3 shows the media content of Freedom and Justice (FJ) Newspaper which
is owned by Freedom and Justice Party (FJ party). As the Freedom and Justice
Newspaper is the mouthpiece FJ party it is obvious that the political news in this
newspaper have high percentage which is 32 %. Moreover, the miscellaneous
category news is counted as 15.2 %. Followed by 9.3 % is criminal news. Sports news
has somehow a larger percentage which measured as 8.5 %. In addition, 7.3 % of FJ
newspaper content is about economic issues. The social topics are counted as only 5.1
%. Whereas, the news of arts and culture is measured as 4.9 %. Also, the health issues
in FJ newspaper are counted as 4.9 %. The education issues are 4.7 % of FJ
85
newspaper. Additionally, 3.3 % of FJ newspaper content is news of media. On the
other hand, the religious topics do not have high percentage in FJ newspaper because
it counted only as 3.3 %. It is observable in figure 3 that women issues have little
coverage in because only 1.6 % of the newspaper content is women news. This
percentage proves that the FJ Party applies Al-Banna ideology regarding woman issue
which is the main workplace of woman is her house and its main duty is raising up
her children.
86
 Research Question #1
RQ1:
How does Muslim Brotherhood Group use its official media outlets to
represent their ideology and vision to the Egyptian public?
Table 1
Political media content of Misr 25 television channel
Parliamentary elections
Shura Council news
Presidential news
News of Muslim Brotherhood
News of F&J party
Governmental news
News of Islamic political
parties
Oppositions news
News of National Salvation
Front
Protesters killing
Demonstrations/strikes
Egyptian military news
Other
Total
Frequency
13
12
32
21
25
51
22
Percentage
5.1
4.7
12.5
8.2
9.8
20.0
8.6
13
20
5.1
7.8
6
19
14
7
255
2.4
7.5
5.5
2.7
100.0
Table 1 indicates the political content of Misr 25 television channel. 20 % of
political content of Misr 25 are news of government. Moreover, 12.5 % are
presidential news. In addition 9.8 % of political content of the channel are news of
Freedom and Justice Party. Whereas, the news of Islamic political parties is counted
as 8.6 %. News of Muslim Brotherhood group composed 8.2 % of political content of
Misr 25. Furthermore, 7.8 % are news of National Salvation Front. Followed by 7.5
% are news of demonstrations and strikes. Whereas, 5.5 % of political content of Misr
25 is news of Egyptian military. The news of parliamentary elections composed 5.1 %
of political content of the channel. The coverage of oppositions is counted as 5.1 %.
87
Followed by 4.7 % are about Shura council news. The other political issues are
counted as only 2.7 % of political content of Misr 25. The news of protesters murder
has little coverage which is counted as 2.4 %.
Table 2
Political media content of Ikwanonline website
Parliamentary elections
Shura Council news
Presidential news
Muslim Brotherhood news
Electoral campaigns of MB
and F&J
News of F&J party
Governmental news
news of Islamic political
parties
Oppositions news
News of National Salvation
Front
Protesters killing
Demonstrations/strikes
Egyptian military news
Other
Total
Frequency
5
9
19
36
1
Percentage
2.7
4.9
10.3
19.5
.5
37
36
11
20.0
19.5
5.9
4
2
2.2
1.1
2
8
6
9
185
1.1
4.3
3.2
4.9
100.0
Table 2 demonstrates the political content of Ikhwanonline website. 20 % of
political content of the website are news of Freedom and Justice Party. Moreover,
19.5 % are news of government. The news of Muslim Brotherhood group is counted
as 19.5 % of the political content of Ikwanonline. The presidential news is composed
10.3 % of the political content of the website. 5.9 % are news of Islamic political
parties. Whereas, the news of Shura council is counted as 4.9 %. Furthermore, the
88
other political issues are counted as 4.9 %. Followed by 4.3 % are news of
demonstrations and strikes. On the other hand, the news of Egyptian military is 3.2 %
of the political content of the website. The news of parliamentary elections measured
as 2.7 % of the political content of the website. 2.2 % of Ikwanonline website is
about opposition's news. Only 1.1 % is news of National Salvation Front. Followed
by 1.1 % is news of protesters murder. On the other hand, 0.5 % of political content of
Ikhwanonline are news of electoral campaigns of Muslim Brotherhood and Freedom
and Justice political party.
89
Figure 4
Religious media content of Misr 25 television channel
Figure 4 indicates the religious media content of Misr 25 television channel. It is
noticeable that religious preaches have high percentage of the religious content of
Misr 25 which is 51.6 %. Religious preaches is about encouraging the Muslims to
develop their life and society and to do the right and avoid the evil actions, also it is a
kind of call for charity and good, promotion of virtue and prevention of the vice.
Moreover, 39.6 % of the religious content of Misr 25 is about Islamic concepts and
rules such as rights and obligations of Muslim people and the relationship between
Muslims and non-Muslims, moreover, it is explaining of the main rules of Islam. Only
90
6.6 % of religious content of the channel are issues of national unity. Also, 2.2 % of
religious content of Misr 25 are other religious issues. No news about sectarian
tension.
Figure 5
Religious media content of Ikhwanonline website
Figure 5 shows the religious media content of Ikhwanonline website. Religious
preaches have very high percentage of the religious content of the website which is
67.6 %. Religious preaches is about encouraging the Muslims to develop their life and
society and to do the right and avoid the evil actions, also it is a kind of call for
91
charity and good, promotion of virtue and prevention of the vice. Moreover, 24.3 % of
the religious content of the website are about Islamic concepts and rules such as rights
and obligations of Muslim people and the relationship between Muslims and nonMuslims. 5.4 % are about other religious topics. On the other hand, only 2.7 % of
religious content of the website are about national unity. No news about sectarian
tension.
Table 3
Economic content of Misr 25 television channel
Taxes
Inflation
Maximum/minimum
salaries
Economic growth
Investment
Unemployment
Economic national
projects
Islamic Sukuk
Other
Total
Frequency
Percentage
7
4
3
10.8
6.2
4.6
16
10
5
8
24.6
15.4
7.7
12.3
2
10
65
3.1
15.4
100.0
Table 3 explains the economic content of Misr 25 television channel. 24.6 % of
the economic content of Misr 25 is about economic growth. Furthermore, 15.4 % are
about investment. Whereas, 15.4 % is news about other issues of economy. Economic
national projects composed about 12.3 % of the economic content of Misr 25. On the
other hand, the news of taxes counted as 10.8 %. The unemployment problem does
not have high coverage which is 7.7 %. Also, the problem of inflation has only 6.2 %
of the economic content of Misr 25. 4.6 % of the economic content of the channel are
92
about the maximum and minimum salaries. In addition, the coverage of Islamic Sukuk
counted as 3.1 %.
Table 4
Economic content of Ikhwanonline website
Taxes
Inflation
Maximum/minimum salaries
Economic growth
Investment
Economic national projects
Islamic Sukuk
Other
Total
Frequency
1
2
2
8
2
3
4
7
29
Percentage
3.4
6.9
6.9
27.6
6.9
10.3
13.8
24.1
100.0
Table 4 demonstrates the economic content of Ikhwanonline website. The
economic content of the website has about 27.6 % news of economic growth.
Followed by 24.1 % are about other issues of Egyptian economy. Moreover, 13.8 %
are about Islamic Sukuk. The website coverage of the economic national projects is
counted as 10.3 %. Only 6.9 % are about the problem of inflation. Whereas, the
website coverage of maximum and minimum salaries is 6.9 %. Furthermore, 6.9 % of
Ikhwanonline coverage is about investment. However, only 3.4 % of the economic
content of the website are about taxes.
93
Table 5
Social issues of official media of Muslim Brotherhood group
Labor rights
MB social campaigns
Charity campaigns
Worker's strikes
Citizen's issues
Other
Total
Frequency
9
13
7
9
19
4
61
Percentage
14.8
21.3
11.5
14.8
31.1
6.6
100.0
Table 5 indicates the social news of official Muslim Brotherhood group (Misr 25
and Ikhwanonline). The news of citizens issues are 31.1 %. Moreover, 21.3 % are
news of Muslim Brotherhood social campaigns. Also, 14.8 % of the social issues of
the media of MB are news of labor rights. Whereas, 14.8 % is news of workers
strikes. Furthermore, the news about charity campaigns is counted as 11.5 %. The
other social issues of the media of MB group counted as 6.6 % other.
Table 6
Criminal news of official media of Muslim Brotherhood group
Police violence and
protesters
News of Ministry of Internal
Affairs
Thefts
Murders
Terrorism actions
Trials
Other
Total
Frequency
12
Percentage
8.1
91
61.5
6
4
2
28
5
148
4.1
2.7
1.4
18.9
3.4
100.0
94
Table 6 illustrates the criminal news of official media of Muslim Brotherhood
group (Misr 25 and Ikhwanonline). 61.5 % are news of Ministry of Internal Affairs.
Moreover, 18.9 % of media MB coverage is about news of trials. Also, 8.1 % are
news of police violence and protesters. On the other hand, 4.1 % of the coverage of
MB media is about thefts. Furthermore, 3.4 % are about other criminal issues. 2.7 %
of the criminal issues of MB media are news about murders. But, only 1.4 % is news
of terrorism actions.
Table 7
Health news of official media of Muslim Brotherhood group
Diseases
Health care
Medicines
Hospitals news/problems
Other
Total
Frequency
1
4
4
7
1
17
Percentage
5.9
23.5
23.5
41.2
5.9
100.0
Table 7 shows the health news of official media of Muslim Brotherhood (Misr 25
and Ikhwanonline). 41.2 % are about hospitals news and problems. Moreover, the
news of health care counted as 23.5 %. Also, 23.5 % of the health news of the media
of MB is about news of medicines. Whereas, 5.9 % is news of diseases. Also, 5.9 %
of the health news of MB media is about other health issues.
95
Table 8
Media news of Muslim Brotherhood media
Media in Egypt
censorship/freedom of
expression
Media laws/regulations/rules
Media social responsibility
Journalist's rights/arrests
Criticism of talk shows
presenters
Total
Frequency
2
Percentage
4.5
12
5
4
21
27.3
11.4
9.1
47.7
44
100.0
Table 8 explains the media news of Muslim Brotherhood group (Misr 25 and
Ikhwanonline). It is noticeable in the table 8 that 47.7 % of the media news of MB
media is about criticism of talk shows presenters. Moreover, 27.3 % are news of
media laws and regulations and rules. Followed by 11.4 % is news of media social
responsibility. The news of journalists' rights and arrests do not have high coverage
which is 9.1 %. However, 4.5 % are news of censorship and freedom of expression.
Table 9
Education news of official media of Muslim Brotherhood group
Education quality
Schools education
news/problems
Higher education
Other
Total
Frequency
4
6
Percentage
11.8
17.6
22
2
34
64.7
5.9
100.0
Table 9 indicates the education news of official media of Muslim Brotherhood
group (Misr 25 and Ikhwanonline). News of higher education has the high coverage
96
which is 64.7 %. Followed by 17.6 % are about schools' education news and
problems. Also, 11.8 % are news of education quality. Whereas, 5.9 % is news of
other issues of education.
Table 10
Miscellaneous category of Muslim Brotherhood media
Science and Technology
news
Crisis of pipeline of gas
Shortage of gas
International news (Western
countries)
Regional news (Arab
countries)
Traffic problems
Electricity issues
Bread problems
Total
Frequency
5
Percentage
2.8
3
22
37
1.7
12.3
20.7
88
49.2
2
3
19
179
1.1
1.7
10.6
100.0
Table 10 shows the miscellaneous category of Muslim Brotherhood media (Misr
25 and Ikhwanonline). It is clear in the table 10 that Arab countries news have high
coverage which is 49.2 %. Followed by 20.7 % is international news. Followed by
12.3 % is news of the problem of shortage of gas. Moreover, 10.6 % the MB group is
about news of bread problems. Whereas, 2.8 % is science and technology news. Only
1.7 % is news of crisis of pipeline of gas. However, 1.7 % is electricity issues.
Followed by only 1.1 % is news of traffic problems.
97
Figure 6
Sports news of official media of Muslim Brotherhood group
Figure 6 shows the sports news of official media of Muslim Brotherhood group
(Misr 25 and Ikhwanonline). Approximately, 32.8 % are news of sports activities.
Followed by 27.6 % is news of sports championships. Moreover, about 15.5 % of the
sports news of MB media is about news of ultras. Also, 13.8 % are news of sports
players. On the other hand, 10.3 % are news of other sports issues.
98
Figure 7
Art news of Muslim Brotherhood group media
Figure 7 represents the art and culture news of Muslim Brotherhood group media
(Misr 25 and Ikhwanonline). It is obvious in table 7 that 45.8 % are news of other arts
and culture news. Followed by 16.9 % are arts and culture news. Moreover, 8.5 % of
the art and culture news of MB media are about the archeology news. However, 8.5 %
are cinema news in MB media. Also, 8.5 % are news of galleries and concerts. 6.8 %
of the arts and culture news of MB media are about drama and theater news. Only 5.1
% are about celebrity interviews.
99
Figure 8
Women issues in the official media of Muslim Brotherhood group
Figure 8 represents the women issues of the official media of Muslim
Brotherhood (Misr 25 and Ikhwanonline). Mainly the coverage of women issues in
MB media are about women rights which is 35.9 %. Whereas, 35.9 % is news of
women issues such as marriage or divorce. Followed by 15.4 % is news of women in
Islam. Only, 10.3 % are about women and Egyptian constitution. Furthermore, 2.6 %
are news of other issues of women. No news about harassment of women in
demonstration.
100
 Research Question# 2
RQ2:
How does the Freedom and Justice Party use its official media outlet to
display the party's political ideology to the Egyptian public?
Table 11
Political media content of Freedom & Justice Newspaper
Parliamentary elections
Shura Council news
Presidential news
News of Muslim
Brotherhood
Electoral campaigns of F&J
and MB
News of F&J party
Governmental news
News of Islamic political
parties
Oppositions news
News of National Salvation
Front
Protesters killing
Demonstrations/strikes
Egyptian military news
Other
Total
Frequency
16
13
14
32
Percentage
8.2
6.6
7.1
16.3
2
1.0
25
40
11
12.8
20.4
5.6
7
8
3.6
4.1
2
6
7
13
196
1.0
3.1
3.6
6.6
100.0
Table 11 illustrates the political content of Freedom and Justice Newspaper. It is
obvious in table 11 that the newspaper has high coverage of government which is
counted as 20.4 %. Followed by 16.3 % is news of Muslim Brotherhood group.
Moreover, 12.8 % are news of Freedom and Justice Party. Furthermore, the coverage
news of parliamentary elections is counted as 8.2 %. Followed by 7.1 % is
presidential news. The coverage of Shura council in FJ newspaper is counted as 6.6 %
Also, 6.6 % are other political issues. Moreover, 5.6 % are news of Islamic political
101
parties. Followed by 4.1 % is news of National Salvation Front. The coverage of
Egyptian military news in FJ newspaper is counted as 3.6 %. Whereas, 3.6 % is
oppositions news. 3.1 % of FJ newspaper is news of demonstrations and strikes. Only
1 % is news of electoral campaigns of Muslim Brotherhood and Freedom and Justice
Party. Also, 1 % of FJ newspaper is news of protesters murder.
Figure 9
Religious media content of Freedom & Justice Newspaper
Figure 9 explains the religious media content of Freedom and Justice Newspaper.
Religious preaches have very high coverage in FJ newspaper which is counted as 85.7
%. Religious preaches is about encouraging the Muslims to develop their life and
society and to do the right and avoid the evil actions, also it is a kind of call for
102
charity and good, promotion of virtue and prevention of the vice. Followed by 14.3 %
are about Islamic concepts and rules such as rights and obligations of Muslim people
and the relationship between Muslims and non-Muslims, moreover, it is explaining of
the main rules of Islam. No news about national unity and sectarian tension.
Table 12
Economic content of Freedom & Justice Newspaper
Taxes
Maximum/minimum salaries
Economic growth
Poverty
Investment
Unemployment
Economic national projects
Islamic Sukuk
Other
Total
Frequency
5
2
3
1
11
2
14
3
2
43
Percentage
11.6
4.7
7.0
2.3
25.6
4.7
32.6
7.0
4.7
100.0
Table 12 presents the economic content of Freedom and Justice Newspaper. The
economic content of FJ newspaper has about 32.6 % news of economic national
projects. Followed by 25.6 % is news of investment. Moreover, only 11.6 % are news
taxes in FJ newspaper. On the other hand, 7 % of economic content of FJ newspaper
are about economic growth. Also, 7 % are news of Islamic Sukuk. Whereas, 4.7 % is
news of maximum and minimum salaries in FJ newspaper. Only 4.7 % are news of
the economic problem of unemployment. Also, 4.7 % are news of other issues of
Egyptian economy. The FJ newspaper coverage of the economic problem poverty is
low which counted as 2.3 %.
103
Table 13
Social issues of Freedom & Justice Newspaper
Labor rights
MB social campaigns
Charity campaigns
Worker's strikes
Citizen's issues
Other
Total
Frequency
3
4
5
12
5
2
31
Percentage
9.7
12.9
16.1
38.7
16.1
6.5
100.0
Table 13 demonstrates the social news of Freedom and Justice Newspaper. 38.7
% of the social news of FJ newspaper is news about workers strikes. Followed by
16.1 % is news of charity campaigns. Also, 16.1 % are news of citizens' issues.
Followed by 12.9 % is news of Muslim Brotherhood social campaigns. Furthermore,
9.7 % are news of news of labor rights. Only 6.5 % of the social issues of FJ
newspaper are about other social topics.
Table 14
Criminal news of Freedom & Justice Newspaper
Police violence and
protesters
News of Ministry of Internal
Affairs
Terrorism actions
Trials
Other
Total
Frequency
6
Percentage
10.5
26
45.6
1
23
1
57
1.8
40.4
1.8
100.0
Table 14 shows the criminal news of Freedom and Justice Newspaper. About
45.6 % are news of Ministry of Internal Affairs. Whereas, 40.4 % of criminal news of
104
FJ newspaper is news of trials. Followed by 10.5 % are news police violence and
protesters. Only 1.8 % is news of terrorism actions. Also, 1.8 % of the criminal news
of FJ newspaper is about other criminal topics.
Table 15
Health news of Freedom & Justice Newspaper
Diseases
Health care
Medicines
Hospitals news/problems
Other
Total
Frequency
6
11
2
10
1
30
Percentage
20.0
36.7
6.7
33.3
3.3
100.0
Table 15 indicates the health news of Freedom and Justice Newspaper.
Approximately, 36.7 % of the heath news of FJ newspaper is news about health care.
Followed by 33.3 % are hospitals news and problems. Moreover, 20 % are news of
diseases. Also, 6.7 % of health news of FJ newspaper is news of medicines. Only 3.3
% are news of other health issues.
Table 16
Media news of Freedom & Justice Newspaper
Media in Egypt
censorship/freedom of
expression
Media Laws/regulations/rules
Media social responsibility
Journalists rights/arrests
Criticism of talk shows
presenters
Frequency
3
Percentage
13.6
8
1
1
7
36.4
4.5
4.5
31.8
105
Other
Total
2
22
9.1
100.0
Table 16 explains the media news of Freedom and Justice Newspaper. The news
media laws and regulations and rules have high coverage in FJ newspaper which is
36.4 %. Followed by 31.8 % is criticism of talk shows in other television channels.
Furthermore, 13.6 % are news of censorship and freedom of expression. Also, 9.1 %
of the media news of FJ newspaper is about other media issues. About 4.5 % are news
of media social responsibility. Only 4.5 % are news of journalists' rights and arrests.
Table 17
Education news of Freedom & Justice Newspaper
Education quality
Schools education
news/problems
Higher education
Other
Total
Frequency
5
8
Percentage
17.2
27.6
12
4
29
41.4
13.8
100.0
Table 17 shows the education news of Freedom and Justice Newspaper. It is clear
in table 17 that higher education news has a high coverage in FJ newspaper which is
41.4 %. Followed by 27.6 % are schools education news and problems. Also, 17.2 %
are news of education quality in Egypt. Only 13.8 % are other news of education.
106
Table 18
Miscellaneous category of Freedom & Justice Newspaper
Science and technology
news
Crisis of Pipeline of gas
Shortage of gas
Garbage collection
International news (Western
countries)
Regional countries (Arab
countries)
Electricity issues
Bread problems
Total
Frequency
25
Percentage
26.9
4
12
3
19
4.3
12.9
3.2
20.4
19
20.4
1
10
93
1.1
10.8
100.0
Table 18 represents the miscellaneous category of Freedom and Justice
Newspaper. About 26.9 % are news of science and technology. Followed by 20.4 % is
international news. Also, 20.4 % are Arab countries news. Whereas, 12.9 % is news
of the problem of shortage of gas. 10.8 % are news of bread problems in Egypt. On
the other hand, 4.3 % are news of the crisis of pipeline of gas. Moreover, 3.2 % are
news of the problem of garbage collection. Only 1.1 % is news of electricity issues
and problems.
107
Figure 10
Sports news of Freedom & Justice Newspaper
Figure 10 illustrates the sports news of Freedom and Justice Newspaper. 42.3 %
are news of sports championships whether club's teams or Egyptian national team.
Followed by 40.4 % is news of sports activities. In addition 11.5 % are news of sports
players. The ultras news coverage in FJ newspaper is counted as 3.8 %. Only 1.9 % is
news of other sports issues.
108
Figure 11
Art news of Freedom & Justice Newspaper
Figure 11 represents the art and culture news of Freedom and Justice Newspaper.
Approximately, 63 % are arts and culture news. Additionally, 22.2 % are cinema
news. Followed by 3.7 % are celebrity interviews. Only 3.7 % are news of art
festivals. Whereas, 3.7 % is archeology news. Also, 3.7 % are news of galleries and
concerts. No news about other category.
109
Figure 12
Women issues in Freedom & Justice newspaper
Figure 12 demonstrates the women issues of Freedom and Justice Newspaper. It
is noticeable that news of women rights in FJ newspaper is high percentage which is
50 %. In addition, 30 % are news of women issues whether marriage or divorce.
Followed by 20 % is news of women in Islam. No news about women and Egyptian
constitution and harassment of women in demonstration.
110
 Hypothesis #1
H1: The media content of the Freedom and Justice official media outlet concentrate
on political issues more than the official media outlets of Muslim Brotherhood group.
111
Table 19
Cross tabulation of political content of Misr 25 & FJ Newspaper
Political media content of Freedom & Justice newspaper
To
cont
Presidential
ent
news
of
News of
Misr
Muslim
25
Brotherhood
televi
News of F&J
sion
party
chan
Governmenta
nel
l news
News of
3
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
Other
electoral
ns/strikes
military news
Council news
salvation
Protesters'
Front
killing
Demonstratio
a
0
news
National
Shura
3
parties
Oppositions
medi
0
news
Islamic
y elections
1
campaigns of
F&J party
F&J and MB
Governmental
cal
3
news
MB
Parliamentar
news
Presidential
Politi
elections
Shura Council
Parliamentary
tal
1
1
3
0
3
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
7
2
1
1
4
1
2
5
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
2
0
1
1
2
2
0
3
3
0
1
0
0
0
3
0
1
6
1
0
1
3
0
1
3
2
2
1
0
1
1
1
1
7
1
1
4
7
0
5
1
3
1
3
0
0
1
3
9
0
4
1
2
3
0
0
6
3
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
9
Islamic
political
parties
Oppositions
1
1
0
3
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
2
1
news
News of
1
0
2
1
5
0
4
2
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
8
National
Salvation
Front
Protester's'
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
6
2
1
0
1
0
4
3
2
0
1
0
0
0
2
1
killing
Demonstratio
6
ns/strikes
Egyptian
0
1
1
0
1
0
2
1
0
1
0
1
0
2
0
military news
Other
Total
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
1
1
1
3
2
2
4
1
7
8
2
6
7
1
1
6
3
4
2
5
0
1
3
9
6
112
Table 20
Chi square tests of table 19
Chi-Square Tests
Value
Df
Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
146.032a
156
.705
Likelihood Ratio
148.744
156
.648
Linear-by-Linear
2.671
1
.102
Pearson Chi-Square
Association
N of Valid Cases
a.
196
180 cells (98.9%) have expected count less than 5. The
minimum expected count is .04.
In table 20, as the significance level is more than (.05), the hypothesis 1 is
rejected and have to accept the null hypothesis which is the political content of
Freedom and Justice Party mass media is equal to the political content of Muslim
Brotherhood media.
113
Table 21
Cross tabulation of political content of Ikwanonline & FJ Newspaper
news
Islamic
parties
Oppositions
news
National
Salvation
Protester's'
Front
murder
Demonstratio
ns/strikes
military news
0
1
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
al
y elections
media
Shura
2
0
0
0
0
1
3
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
9
conten
Council news
t of
Presidential
2
0
1
2
0
1
1
3
0
4
0
0
1
4
1
Ikwan
news
online
Muslim
websit
Brotherhood
e
news
Electoral
Total
campaigns of
F&J party
F&J and MB
Governmental
Parliamentar
Other
news
MB
Politic
Electoral
news
Presidential
0
Parliamentary
elections
Shura Council
Political media content of Freedom & Justice newspaper
9
4
3
5
7
0
5
6
1
1
1
0
0
1
2
3
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
8
2
5
0
3
7
2
1
0
1
1
0
4
3
campaigns of
MB and F&J
News of F&J
7
party
Government
1
0
3
1
3
7
0
2
2
1
3
1
0
1
1
1
0
3
6
2
al news
news of
1
0
0
3
1
0
0
0
1
1
2
1
1
Islamic
political
parties
Oppositions
0
0
0
1
1
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
3
0
0
0
0
3
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
2
0
2
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
6
0
1
1
1
0
1
2
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
9
1
1
1
3
2
2
3
1
6
8
2
6
6
1
1
6
3
4
0
1
7
1
3
8
news
News of
National
Salvation
Front
Protester's'
murder
Demonstratio
ns/strikes
Egyptian
military news
Other
Total
5
114
Table 22
Chi square tests of table 21
Chi-Square Tests
Value
Df
Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
201.090a
169
.046
Likelihood Ratio
172.535
169
.410
Linear-by-Linear
.074
1
.786
Pearson Chi-Square
Association
N of Valid Cases
185
a. 190 cells (96.9%) have expected count less than 5. The
minimum expected count is .01.
As shown in the able 20 and table 22 the political content of both Misr 25 and
Ikhwanonline together is more than the political content of Freedom and Justice
Newspaper. As the significance level of both tables is more than (.05), the hypothesis
1 is rejected and have to accept the null hypothesis which is the political content of
Freedom and Justice Party mass media is equal to the political content of Muslim
Brotherhood media.
115
 Hypothesis # 2
H2: The Islamic official media outlets of Muslim Brotherhood group and Freedom
and Justice Party cover local, regional, and international news issues.
Table 23
Cross tabulation of religious media content of MB group & FJ party &
economic content of MB media & FJ Newspaper
Economic content of Muslim
Total
Brotherhood media & Freedom
& Justice newspaper
Misr 25
Freedom &
television
Justice
channel &
newspaper
Ikhwanonline
Religious media content
Misr 25 television channel
of Muslim Brotherhood
& Ikhwanonline
group & Freedom &
Freedom & Justice
Justice party
newspaper
Total
116
94
23
117
0
20
20
94
43
137
Table 24
Chi square tests of table 23
Chi-Square Tests
Value
Pearson Chi-Square
Continuity
Correctionb
Likelihood Ratio
df
Asymp. Sig.
Exact Sig. (2-
Exact Sig. (1-
(2-sided)
sided)
sided)
a
1
.000
47.532
1
.000
54.496
1
.000
51.195
Fisher's Exact Test
Linear-by-Linear
.000
50.821
1
.000
.000
Association
N of Valid Cases
137
a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 6.28.
b. Computed only for a 2x2 table
As shown in table 24 the significance level was (.000) which is less than (.05),
this means that Hypothesis 2 is supported which is the official media of Muslim
Brotherhood group and Freedom and Justice Newspaper represent local, regional and
international news.
117
Table 25
Cross tabulation of religious media content of MB group & FJ party and social
news of MB media & FJ Newspaper
Total
Social news of Muslim
Brotherhood media & Freedom
& Justice newspaper
Misr 25
Freedom and
television
Justice
channel &
newspaper
Ikhwanonline
Religious media content
Misr 25 television channel
of Muslim Brotherhood
& Ikhwanonline
group & Freedom &
Freedom & Justice
Justice party
newspaper
Total
61
11
72
0
20
20
61
31
92
Table 26
Chi square tests of table 25
Chi-Square Tests
Value
Df
Asymp. Sig.
Exact Sig. (2-
Exact Sig. (1-
(2-sided)
sided)
sided)
a
1
.000
Continuity Correctionb
46.566
1
.000
Likelihood Ratio
56.016
1
.000
Pearson Chi-Square
50.287
Fisher's Exact Test
Linear-by-Linear
.000
49.740
1
.000
.000
Association
N of Valid Cases
92
a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 6.74.
b. Computed only for a 2x2 table
As shown in table 26 the significance level was (.000) which is less than (.05),
this means that Hypothesis 2 is supported which is the official media of Muslim
Brotherhood group and Freedom and Justice Newspaper represent local, regional and
international news.
118
Table 27
Cross tabulation of religious media content of MB group & FJ party and
criminal topics of MB media and FJ Newspaper
Total
Criminal topics of Muslim
Brotherhood media and
Freedom & Justice newspaper
Misr 25
Freedom &
television
Justice
channel &
newspaper
Ikhwanonline
Religious media content
Misr 25 television channel
of Muslim Brotherhood
& Ikhwanonline
group & Freedom &
Freedom & Justice
Justice party
newspaper
Total
91
37
128
0
20
20
91
57
148
Table 28
Chi square tests table 27
Chi-Square Tests
Value
Df
Asymp. Sig.
Exact Sig. (2-
Exact Sig. (1-
(2-sided)
sided)
sided)
36.919a
1
.000
Continuity Correctionb
33.978
1
.000
Likelihood Ratio
43.355
1
.000
Pearson Chi-Square
Fisher's Exact Test
Linear-by-Linear
.000
36.669
1
.000
.000
Association
N of Valid Cases
148
a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 7.70.
b. Computed only for a 2x2 table
As shown in table 28 the significance level was (.000) which is less than (.05),
this means that Hypothesis 2 is supported which is the official media of Muslim
Brotherhood group and Freedom and Justice Newspaper represent local, regional and
international news.
119
Table 29
Cross tabulation of religious media content of MB group & FJ party and health
news of MB media and FJ Newspaper
Total
Health news of Muslim
Brotherhood media and
Freedom & Justice newspaper
Misr 25
Freedom &
television
Justice
channel &
newspaper
Ikhwanonline
Religious media content
Misr 25 television channel
of Muslim Brotherhood
& Ikhwanonline
group & Freedom &
Freedom & Justice
Justice party
newspaper
Total
0
27
27
17
3
20
17
30
47
Table 30
Chi square tests of table 29
Chi-Square Tests
Value
df
Asymp. Sig.
Exact Sig. (2-
Exact Sig. (1-
(2-sided)
sided)
sided)
35.955a
1
.000
Continuity Correctionb
32.368
1
.000
Likelihood Ratio
44.604
1
.000
Pearson Chi-Square
Fisher's Exact Test
Linear-by-Linear
.000
35.190
1
.000
.000
Association
N of Valid Cases
47
a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 7.23.
b. Computed only for a 2x2 table
As shown in table 30 the significance level was (.000) which is less than (.05),
this means that Hypothesis 2 is supported which is the official media of Muslim
Brotherhood group and Freedom and Justice Newspaper represent local, regional and
international news.
120
Table 31
Cross tabulation of religious media content of MB group & FJ party & media
topics of MB media and FJ Newspaper
Total
Media topics of Muslim
Brotherhood media and
Freedom & Justice newspaper
Misr 25
Freedom &
television
Justice
channel &
newspaper
Ikhwanonline
Religious media content
Misr 25 television channel
of Muslim Brotherhood
& Ikhwanonline
group & Freedom &
Freedom & Justice
Justice party
newspaper
Total
44
2
46
0
20
20
44
22
66
Table 32
Chi square tests of table 31
Chi-Square Tests
Value
df
Asymp. Sig.
Exact Sig. (2-
Exact Sig. (1-
(2-sided)
sided)
sided)
a
1
.000
Continuity Correctionb
53.168
1
.000
Likelihood Ratio
67.566
1
.000
Pearson Chi-Square
57.391
Fisher's Exact Test
Linear-by-Linear
.000
56.522
1
.000
.000
Association
N of Valid Cases
66
a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 6.67.
b. Computed only for a 2x2 table
As shown in table 32 the significance level was (.000) which is less than (.05),
this means that Hypothesis 2 is supported which is the official media of Muslim
Brotherhood group and Freedom and Justice Newspaper represent local, regional and
international news.
121
Table 33
Cross tabulation of religious media content of MB group & FJ party &
education news of MB media and FJ Newspaper
Total
Education news of Muslim
Brotherhood media and
Freedom & Justice newspaper
Misr 25
Freedom &
television
Justice
channel &
newspaper
Ikhwanonline
Religious media content
Misr 25 television channel
of Muslim Brotherhood
& Ikhwanonline
group & Freedom &
Freedom & Justice
Justice party
newspaper
Total
14
29
43
20
0
20
34
29
63
Table 34
Chi square tests of table 33
Chi-Square Tests
Value
Pearson Chi-Square
Continuity
Correctionb
Likelihood Ratio
df
Asymp. Sig.
Exact Sig. (2-
Exact Sig. (1-
(2-sided)
sided)
sided)
a
1
.000
22.352
1
.000
32.673
1
.000
24.993
Fisher's Exact Test
Linear-by-Linear
.000
24.596
1
.000
.000
Association
N of Valid Cases
63
a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 9.21.
b. Computed only for a 2x2 table
As shown in table 34 the significance level was (.000) which is less than (.05), this
means that Hypothesis 2 is supported which is the official media of Muslim
Brotherhood group and Freedom and Justice Newspaper represent local, regional and
international news.
122
Table 35
Cross tabulation of religious media content of MB group & FJ party &
miscellaneous category of MB media & FJ Newspaper
Total
Miscellaneous category of
Muslim Brotherhood media &
Freedom & Justice newspaper
Misr 25
Freedom &
television
Justice
channel &
newspaper
Ikhwanonline
Religious media content
Misr 25 television channel
of Muslim Brotherhood
& Ikhwanonline
group & Freedom &
Freedom & Justice
Justice party
newspaper
Total
55
73
128
0
20
20
55
93
148
Table 36
Chi square tests of table of 35
Chi-Square Tests
Value
Df
Asymp. Sig.
Exact Sig. (2-
Exact Sig. (1-
(2-sided)
sided)
sided)
a
1
.000
Continuity Correctionb
11.898
1
.001
Likelihood Ratio
20.399
1
.000
Pearson Chi-Square
13.676
Fisher's Exact Test
Linear-by-Linear
.000
13.584
1
.000
.000
Association
N of Valid Cases
148
a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 7.43.
b. Computed only for a 2x2 table
As shown in table 36 the significance level was (.000) which is less than (.05),
this means that Hypothesis 2 is supported which is the official media of Muslim
Brotherhood group and Freedom and Justice Newspaper represent local, regional and
international news.
123
 Hypothesis # 3
H3: The Islamic official media outlets of Muslim Brotherhood group and Freedom
and Justice Party have little coverage of liberal political parties.
Table 37
Cross tabulation of religious media content of MB group & FJ party & political
media content of MB media & FJ Newspaper
Total
Political media content of
Muslim Brotherhood media &
Freedom & Justice newspaper
Misr 25
Freedom and
television
justice
channel &
newspaper
Ikhwanonline
Religious media content
Misr 25 television channel
of Muslim Brotherhood
& Ikhwanonline
group & Freedom &
Freedom & Justice
Justice party
newspaper
Total
124
98
30
128
20
0
20
118
30
148
Table 38
Chi square tests of table 37
Chi-Square Tests
Value
df
Asymp. Sig.
Exact Sig. (2-
Exact Sig. (1-
(2-sided)
sided)
sided)
a
1
.015
Continuity Correctionb
4.518
1
.034
Likelihood Ratio
9.827
1
.002
Pearson Chi-Square
5.879
Fisher's Exact Test
Linear-by-Linear
.014
5.840
1
.007
.016
Association
N of Valid Cases
148
a. 1 cells (25.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 4.05.
b. Computed only for a 2x2 table
As shown in the table 38 the significance level is (.015) which is less than (.05)
means that Hypothesis 3 is supported which implies that the official media outlets of
Muslim Brotherhood group and Freedom and Justice Party have little coverage of
liberal political parties.
125
 Hypothesis # 4
H4: The Islamic official media outlets of Muslim Brotherhood group and Freedom
and Justice Party have little coverage of art, sport and woman issues.
Table 39
Cross tabulation of religious media content of MB group & FJ party & sports
news of MB media & FJ Newspaper
Total
Sports news of Muslim
Brotherhood media & Freedom
& Justice newspaper
Misr 25
Freedom &
television
Justice
channel &
newspaper
Ikhwanonline
Religious media content
Misr 25 television channel
of Muslim Brotherhood
& Ikhwanonline
group & Freedom &
Freedom & Justice
Justice party
newspaper
Total
126
38
52
90
20
0
20
58
52
110
Table 40
Chi square tests of table 39
Chi-Square Tests
Value
Pearson Chi-Square
Continuity
Correctionb
Likelihood Ratio
df
Asymp. Sig.
Exact Sig. (2-
Exact Sig. (1-
(2-sided)
sided)
sided)
a
1
.000
19.659
1
.000
29.585
1
.000
21.916
Fisher's Exact Test
Linear-by-Linear
.000
21.716
1
.000
.000
Association
N of Valid Cases
110
a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 9.45.
b. Computed only for a 2x2 table
As shown in table 40 the significance level is (.000) which is less than (.05)
means that the Hypothesis 4 is supported. That indicates as the official media of
Muslim Brotherhood group and Freedom and Justice Newspaper are based on Islamic
ideology, they have little coverage of sports.
127
Table 41
Cross tabulation of religious media content of MB group & FJ party & art news
of MB media & FJ Newspaper
Art news of Muslim Brotherhood
Total
media & Freedom & Justice
newspaper
Misr 25
Freedom &
television
Justice
channel &
newspaper
Ikhwanonline
Religious media content
Misr 25 television channel
of Muslim Brotherhood
& Ikhwanonline
group & Freedom &
Freedom & Justice
Justice party
newspaper
Total
59
7
66
0
20
20
59
27
86
Table 42
Chi square tests of table 41
Chi-Square Tests
Value
df
Asymp. Sig.
Exact Sig. (2-
Exact Sig. (1-
(2-sided)
sided)
sided)
Pearson Chi-Square
56.947a
1
.000
Correctionb
52.872
1
.000
62.381
1
.000
Continuity
Likelihood Ratio
Fisher's Exact Test
Linear-by-Linear
.000
56.285
1
.000
.000
Association
N of Valid Cases
86
a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 6.28.
b. Computed only for a 2x2 table
As shown in table 42 the significance level is (.000) which is less than (.05)
means that the Hypothesis 4 is supported. That indicates as the official media of
Muslim Brotherhood group and Freedom and Justice Newspaper are based on Islamic
ideology, they have little coverage of arts.
128
Table 43
Cross tabulation of religious media content of MB group & FJ party & women
news of MB media & FJ Newspaper
Total
Women news of Muslim
Brotherhood media & Freedom
& Justice newspaper
Misr 25
Freedom &
television
Justice
channel &
newspaper
Ikhwanonline
Religious media content
Misr 25 television channel
of Muslim Brotherhood
& Ikhwanonline
group & Freedom &
Freedom & Justice
Justice party
newspaper
Total
19
10
29
20
0
20
39
10
49
Table 44
Chi square tests of table 43
Chi-Square Tests
Value
Pearson Chi-Square
Continuity
Correctionb
Likelihood Ratio
Df
Asymp. Sig.
Exact Sig. (2-
Exact Sig. (1-
(2-sided)
sided)
sided)
a
1
.003
6.672
1
.010
12.226
1
.000
8.665
Fisher's Exact Test
Linear-by-Linear
.003
8.488
1
.002
.004
Association
N of Valid Cases
49
a. 1 cells (25.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 4.08.
b. Computed only for a 2x2 table
As shown in table 44 the significance level is (.003) which is less than (.05)
means that the Hypothesis 4 is supported. That indicates as the official media of
Muslim Brotherhood group and Freedom and Justice Newspaper are based on Islamic
ideology, they have little coverage of women.
129
Chapter 7: Analysis and Discussion
Agenda setting means that the mass media can highlight some issues to give the
audiences the impression that these are the most important topics facing the country.
On the other hand, the mass media ignore other topics that may be significant than the
issues that are highlighted by the media. The agenda setting theory can be applied to
the official media outlets of Muslim Brotherhood group and Freedom and Justice
Newspaper in different categories.
For economic category in tables 3, 4 and 12, it is noticeable that the official
media of Muslim Brotherhood and Freedom and Justice Newspaper have more
coverage of economic growth, investment, economic national projects and Islamic
Sukuk and its benefits to Egyptian economy. However, these media ignored or have
little coverage of economic problems that are facing Egypt now such as taxes,
inflation, rules of maximum and minimum salaries, poverty, unemployment and no
one news was about Egyptian national Dept. This means that the official media of
Muslim Brotherhood and Freedom and Justice Newspaper highlight the economic
development and ignore the economic problems to give the audiences that Egypt is
not suffering from economic problems.
For social category in tables 5 and 13, the official media of Muslim Brotherhood
and Freedom and Justice Newspaper have more coverage of citizens' issues, Muslim
Brotherhood social campaigns and charity campaigns, and have little coverage of
labor rights, workers strikes and religious rights. The rights of citizens, workers and
130
religious rights are ignored at the media of Muslim Brotherhood group and Freedom
Justice Newspaper.
For Religious category in figures 4, 5 and 9, Misr 25 television channel,
Ikhwanonline website and Freedom and Justice newspaper have more coverage of
Islamic preaches and Islamic concepts. However, these media ignored the topics of
national unity and sectarian tension between Muslims and Christians which are
important problem that facing Egypt.
For political category in tables 1, 2 and 11, the media of Muslim Brotherhood and
Freedom and Justice Newspaper cover a lot of the governmental news, presidential
news, Muslim Brotherhood news, Freedom and Justice party news, Shura council
news and Islamic political parties. The parliamentary elections and electoral
campaigns of Muslim Brotherhood and Freedom and Justice party have little coverage
in these media because the parliamentary elections is delayed by the Administrative
Court. On the other side, some topics are ignored in these media such as political
participation, protesters murder and demonstrations and strikes. Also, the opposition
political parties' news and National Salvation Front news was frequently criticism of
their opinions, decisions and their relations with the President Morsi.
As mentioned above, the political ideology of al-Banna did not recommend the
unofficial popular oppositions or civil leadership. This can be proved in the little news
coverage of opposition's political parties and National Salvation Front in the media of
Muslim Brotherhood and Freedom and Justice Party. Most news of opposition
political parties and National Salvation Front are about criticism of their decisions.
131
Moreover, the image of oppositions in Misr 25, Ikhwanonline and freedom and
Justice Newspaper is negative because these media claim that the main goal of the
opposition's leaders is the power, and they are against President's decisions for their
personal interests not for developing the political, social and economic situations in
Egypt.
As mentioned above, according to Freedom and Justice Party, some aims of the
party are to guarantee democracy, women’s rights and national unity. Also, according
to the Freedom and Justice Party, it has nine thousand of members including one
thousand female's members and one hundred members Copts to show that they
support women rights and national unity. However, this contradicts with the media
content of Freedom and Justice newspaper, for the political category the oppositions
news are 3.6 % of the political content of the newspaper, and 4.1 % are news of
National Salvation Front. Freedom and Justice Party claims that it supports national
unity and it has 100 members of Copts; however, no one news was covered in the
newspaper about national unity issue. Furthermore, the Freedom and Justice party
declared that it supports women rights; however, women news in its newspaper is
counted as only 1.6 % of the newspaper.
For criminal news in tables 6 and 14, the Muslim Brotherhood and Freedom and
Justice media highlight the news of Ministry of Internal affairs and trials especially
the ones of previous regime of Mubarak. On the other hand, these media ignored the
news of police violence and protester, thefts, murders to give the audience the
impression that Egypt is not suffering from insecurity situation which is considered
one of the major problems facing Egypt after the 25 of January revolution.
132
For the arts and culture category, about 45.8 % the art content of Misr 25
television channel are about religious and national songs. On the other side, religious
and national songs are covered more than other arts and culture news, cinema and
drama, art festival, galleries and concerts, archeology and celebrity interviews.
Moreover, the celebrity interviews in Misr 25 television channel and Freedom and
Justice Newspaper were conducted with singers who sing religious and national
songs.
For the women news, the official media of Muslim Brotherhood and Freedom and
Justice have little coverage of women issues, the coverage of women news in these
media is mainly about women in Islam and women issues whether marriage or
divorce. However, other news of women are completely ignored such as women
rights, women and Egyptian constitution and harassment of women in the
demonstration which give the audiences the impression that women right to
participate in the demonstration is not an important issue.
The little coverage of woman issues 2.3 % of the content of Misr 25, 4 % of the
content of Ikhwanonline and 1.6 % of the content of FJ newspaper, supports the idea
that mentioned above about Hassan al-Banna whose main ideology about the women
issue is its main workplace is her house and raising up her children. He believed that
the Islam gave the woman her right of participating in the political life; however, the
main problem that hindering the woman from participating in the political sphere is
the mixing between women and men. So that al-Banna believed that it is better for
women to not participate in political activities in order to avoid the problem of the
133
mixing between women and men. This ideology it is noticeable in the official media
of Muslim Brotherhood Group and Freedom and Justice party because they do not do
a lot of coverage of women issues particularly the women rights.
For the media news in tables 8 and 16, Misr 25 television channel, Ikhwanonline
website and Freedom and Justice Newspaper cover certain issues of media such as the
laws and rules of media and media social responsibility. However, these media
ignored the media issues such as freedom of expression, journalists' rights and
suspensions of newspapers and programs. This gives the impression to audiences that
the media laws or rules are is more vital than other issues such as the media freedom.
The media coverage of Misr 25, Ikhwanonline about the criticism of talk shows
presenters and other satellite channels is 47.7 % and Freedom and Justice Newspaper
is 31.8 %. Furthermore, these media claim that the Egyptian independent satellite
channels are not presenting the reality through a neutral way, but they biased because
these channels do not show the abstract reality. In addition, mass media of Muslim
Brotherhood group and Freedom and Justice Party declare that the independent
satellite channels aiming to have high viewership and increasing their profits through
fabricating news, and they do not put in their consideration the major goal of mass
media which is tell the truth in an unbiased way. On the other hand, it is obvious that
Misr 25, Ikhwanonline and FJ Newspaper criticize the independent satellite channels
because they display the issues that the mass media of Muslim Brotherhood group and
Freedom and Justice Party ignore. These issues that are highlighted by independent
channels are political, social and economic problems, the problem of insecurity, crisis
of gas, shortage of gas pipelines and bread problems.
134
For the miscellaneous category, the crisis of gas pipeline, shortage of gas,
garbage collection, traffic problems, electricity news and bread problems have little
coverage on the Misr 25, Ikhwanonline and Freedom and Justice Newspaper. These
media don't highlight these issues as important problems that are facing Egypt. The
coverage of the crisis of gas pipelines is 4.3 %, shortage of gas is 12.9 %, garbage
collection is 3.2 %, electricity issues is 1.1 % and bread problems is 10.8 %.
However, in reality the previous six problems are considered as very vital problems
that the Egyptian population is suffering from them.
Priming means that the salience of some issues in the media agenda can affect the
public agenda. This can be applied to the official media of Muslim Brotherhood and
Freedom and Justice Newspaper because some topics are salient issues in theses
media. For political category, there are some sub-topics that are salient in the Misr 25
channel, Ikhwanonline website and Freedom and Justice Newspaper. In the channel of
Misr 25 the governmental news is counted as 20 % which is more than the other subtopics of the political category. Additionally, the presidential news is counted as 12.5
% which is more than other issues in the political category. On the other hand,
opposition's news is 5.1 %, news of National Salvation Front is 7.8 %, news of
protesters killing is 2.4 %, and news of demonstrations and strikes is 7.5 %. In
Ikwanonline website, the news of FJ party is 20 %, news of government is 19.5 %,
Muslim Brotherhood news is 19.5 % and the presidential news is 10.3 %. However,
opposition's news is 2.2 %, news of National Salvation Front is 1.1 % protesters
killing news is 1.1 % and news of demonstrations and strikes is 4.3 %. In Freedom
and Justice Newspaper, news of government is 20.4 %, news of Muslim Brotherhood
is 16.3 %, news of Freedom and Justice Party is 12.8 %. On the other side,
135
opposition's news is 3.6 %, news of National Salvation Front is 4.1 %, news of
protesters killing is 1 % and news of demonstrations and strikes is 3.1 %.
Media priming can be also applied to Ikhwanonline website. The sub-topics that
were salient than the others are news of Freedom and Justice party which is 20 % of
the political categories, while the news of government is counted as 19.5 %, and the
news of Muslim Brotherhood group is counted as 19.5 % which is more than other
political issues. In the newspaper of Freedom and Justice the salient issues are
governmental news which is 20.4 %, whereas 16.3 % news of Muslim Brotherhood
group which are more than other issues of political category.
Media priming of religious category, the salient issues in Misr 25 channel are
51.6 % for religious preaches, and 39.6 % for Islamic rules. It is obvious that these
two percentages are more than the coverage of issues such as national unity or
sectarian strife in Egypt. The coverage of national unity issues in Misr 25 is 6.6 % and
no news of sectarian strife is covered, in Ikwanonline website only 2.7 % of national
unity issues and no one news is covered about the sectarian strife. In Freedom and
Justice Newspaper the salient issues in religious category is religious preaches by 85.7
%.
For the economic category, the salient issues are in Misr 25 channel 24.6 % news
of economic growth, while in Ikhwanonline the news of economic growth is counted
by 27.6 %. Furthermore, the salient news in Freedom and Justice Newspaper for
economic issues is 32.6 % news of economic national projects, and 25.6 % are news
of investment.
136
Media priming of social category, the salient issues in Misr 25 and Ikhwanonline
are citizen's issues which is 31.1 % and Muslim Brotherhood social campaigns which
is 21.3 %. Moreover, the salient news in Freedom and Justice Newspaper for the
social issues is worker's strikes which is 38.7 %. For the criminal news in Misr 25 and
Ikhwanonline, the salient news are about Ministry of Internal Affairs which is 61.5 %,
while in Freedom and Justice newspaper 45.6 % news of Ministry of Internal Affairs,
and 40.4 % are news of trials.
Media priming of health news in Misr 25 and Ikhwanonline, the salient issue is
news about hospitals issues and problems which is 41.2 %, while in Freedom and
Justice Newspaper 36.7 % for health care issues and 33.3 % are news of hospitals
issues and problems. For the category of media issues, the salient issue in Misr 25 and
Ikhwanonline is media laws, regulations and rules which is 27.3 %. Furthermore, the
news of media laws, regulations and rules are the salient issues which is 36.4 %. For
the news of education in Misr 25 and Ikhwanonline, the salient news are about higher
education which is 64.7 %, while in Freedom and Justice newspaper 41.4 % are news
of higher education.
Although the Muslim Brotherhood group is based on religious ideology at its
beginning, and the Freedom and Justice Party is founded on Islamic ideology, their
official media concentrate on political issues more than religious issues. This is
noticeable in these following numbers: in Misr 25 channel the political news are
counted as 30.4 % comparing to 10.9 % are religious news. In Ikhwanonline website,
the political news are counted as 39.3 % comparing to 7.9 % are religious issues. In
137
Freedom and Justice Newspaper, the political news are counted as 32 % comparing to
3.3 % are religious issues.
Essentially, from this examination of official media outlets of Muslim
Brotherhood group and Freedom and Justice Party they are similar in coverage of
certain news and ignoring others. However, there are some differences between these
two media such as Misr 25 television channel and Ikhwanonline website have more
religious content than the Freedom and Justice newspaper. The religious content of
Misr 25 is 10.9 % and religious content of Ikhwanonline website is 7.9 %, on the
other hand, the religious content of Freedom and Justice Newspaper is 3.3 % which is
less than the religious content of Misr 25 channel and Ikhwanonline website.
Another difference between Muslim Brotherhood group's media and Freedom
and Justice Party is the Freedom and Justice newspaper have more coverage of sports
news more than Misr 25 channel and Ikhwanonline website. The sports news of Misr
25 channel is 4.4 %, and sports news in Ikhwanonline website is 4.7 %, but the news
of sports in the Freedom and Justice Newspaper is 8.5 %.
The Freedom and Justice newspaper differs from Misr 25 television channel and
Ikhwanonline website in having more news of and science and technology. It is
noticeable that there is a major distinction between Muslim Brotherhood group and
Freedom and Justice Newspaper in covering the news of science and modern
technology. The news of science and technology in Misr 25 channel and
Ikhwanonline website is counted as 2.8 %, but the news of science and technology in
Freedom and Justice Newspaper is counted as 26.9 %. An additional difference
138
between Misr 25 channel and Ikhwanonline website and Freedom and Justice
Newspaper is the coverage of the news of arts and culture. The news of arts and
culture of Misr 25 channel and Ikhwanonline is counted as 16.9 %, but the news of
arts and culture in Freedom and Justice Newspaper is counted as 63 %.
As mentioned above, the ideology of Muslim Brotherhood group is derived from
the tradition of the Qur'an and the Prophet, the group principally intended to extend
Islamic morality and good works to help Muslim people to do the good and forbid the
wrong doings. According to the religious ideology of Muslim Brotherhood group if
the Muslim society apply the rules and principles of Islam this will lead to a well
established Muslim state. This ideology can be applied to the media of Muslim
Brotherhood because in Misr 25 channel 51.6 % of its religious content are about
religious preaches and 39.6 % are about Islamic rules and principles. In addition, in
Ikhwanonline website 67.6 % of its religious content is about religious preaches.
Moreover, the religious preaches in the newspaper of Freedom and Justice Party are
counted as 85.7 %. The religious content of the three media which are Misr 25,
Ikhwanonline and Freedom and Justice Newspaper, are about informing the audience
about the main principles and morals of Islam. Furthermore, these three media
encourage the audiences to apply Islamic principles to achieve a well established
Muslim state that started by building a good Muslim.
As mentioned above, some of Islamic media characteristics are should have
honesty and realism features which means that the Islamic media should be honest in
representing the reality to inform the audiences about the truth. However, Muslim
Brotherhood and Freedom and Justice Party media do not have these characteristics
139
because they ignore some issues and highlight specific issues to affect the perception
of their audiences that serves their agenda. Other Islamic media characteristics should
be comprehensive and balanced which means they reach different people and
influence them by representing various aspects. The media of Muslim Brotherhood
and Freedom and Justice Party are not applying this feature because they represent
only the point of view of the group or party without representing other different
opinions.
One of the major features of Islamic media is the social responsibility of these
media. This means that the Islamic media have the role of highlighting the country's
problems and reasons of these problems with providing the solutions. The media of
Muslim Brotherhood and Freedom and Justice Party are not applying this
characteristic because they did not highlight the main problems that facing Egypt such
as political problems, social problems, economic problems, education problems.
However, they only highlight the problem of hospitals which counted as 41.2 % of
health news of Misr 25 and Ikhwanonline are about hospitals problems, and 33.3 % of
health news of Freedom and Justice Newspaper are about the problems of hospitals.
140
 Conclusion
Ultimately, the findings of this study prove that the Muslim Brotherhood group
and Freedom and Justice Party use their official media outlets which are Misr 25
television channel, Ikhwanonline website and Freedom and Justice Newspaper in
order to present their ideology and vision to the Egyptian public. Through
representing the news of the activities and events of the political party, Freedom and
Justice and Muslim Brotherhood show their opinions and views to the Egyptian
society.
Moreover, the official media of Muslim Brotherhood and Freedom and Justice
Party are not an accurate example of the Islamic media, but they are like the
governmental media which is the mouthpiece of the ruling system of Egypt. Their
media are not applying the characteristics of Islamic media such as honesty, realism,
objectiveness, accuracy, independent and comprehensiveness. As mentioned before in
the literature review, Siddiqi demonstrates that there should be a code of ethics of the
Islamic journalism in order to develop the Islamic journalism to counter the Western
dominance of the sources of information. According to Siddiqi "the Islamic principle
of social responsibility is based on the concept of commanding right and prohibiting
wrong". This idea can be applied to the mass media of Muslim Brotherhood group
and Freedom and Justice Party because religious preaches have a high percentage of
the religious category of these media.
Furthermore, the media of Muslim Brotherhood and Freedom and Justice Party
concentrate on political issues more than religious issues, so that they are not an exact
141
example of Islamic media. As the Islamic media should be independent and have
freedom of expression, this cannot be found in the media of Muslim Brotherhood and
Freedom and Justice, because the leaders of Muslim Brotherhood group control the
types of news that are published. This was noticeable in the three types of their media
because they did not have any news that criticizes the leaders of the group or the
political party, the president and the government.
In addition, the findings of this research are in agreement with the theory of
agenda setting theory. The official media outlets of Muslim Brotherhood group and
Freedom and Justice Newspaper are an example of the agenda setting theory because
they highlight specific issues through repeating these issues; on the other hand, they
have little coverage of other important issues. By repeating particular issues these
media make the audiences believe that these are the most important issues in the
countries.
Regarding the media priming, the official media outlets of Muslim Brotherhood
and Freedom and Justice party have some news that are salient than others. Also, the
salience of specific news gives the audiences the impression that these issues should
be considered as the important ones. Through using the theory of agenda setting and
media priming, the group of Muslim Brotherhood and Freedom and Justice Party can
represent their opinions and visions to the Egyptian public.
As mentioned above in the theoretical framework, Zuker recommended that the
obtrusiveness of the topic may be an important aspect in whether agenda setting have
an effect or not. Topics that people have a direct experience with them are obtrusive
142
issues, and issues that people do not have direct experience with them are unobtrusive
issues. This can be applied for the mass media of Muslim Brotherhood group and
Freedom and Justice Party, for economic category the obtrusive issues are taxes,
inflation, maximum and minimum salaries, poverty and unemployment, so the agenda
setting effect of these issues will be less. The unobtrusive issues of the economic
category are economic growth, investment, Egyptian national dept and economic
national projects, so the agenda setting effect may be more.
For political category, the obtrusive issues are parliamentary elections, Shura
council news, Presidential news, governmental news, political participation,
opposition's news, protesters' killing and demonstrations and strikes, so the agenda
setting effect may be less. Moreover, there are other obtrusive issues such as social
problems, insecurity problems, economic problems, women problems, crisis of gas
pipeline, shortage of gas, garbage collection, traffic problem, electricity problem and
bread problem.
Finally, a lot of issues in the mass media of Muslim Brotherhood group and
Freedom and Justice Party are obtrusive issues which mean that the audiences have a
direct experience with these issues; therefore, the agenda setting effect may be low
even if the Muslim Brotherhood and Freedom and Justice media ignore these
obtrusive issues.
143
Recommendations for future research
From the research conducted, many research ideas are recommended for further
investigation. For example, apply the framing of agenda setting in future research to
know how the media of Muslim Brotherhood group and Freedom and Justice Party
frame the news. Moreover, conduct a survey to rate or measure the credibility and the
viewership of the mass media of Muslim Brotherhood group and Freedom and Justice
Party. Focus group will be helpful in examining the agenda setting effect of official
media of Muslim Brotherhood group and Freedom and Justice Party on the
perceptions and attitudes of their audiences. Furthermore, conduct a research on the
content and style of the different Islamic mass media in Egypt. In addition, a research
on the content of the social media of Muslim Brotherhood group and Freedom and
Justice Party will be helpful in gaining in-depth investigation about the content of
these media. Ultimately, conduct a research on a comparison between the Islamic
mass media in Egypt before and after the revolution of 25 of January.
144
Limitations of the Study
This study used a non-probability sampling method which is a purposive sample;
consequently, the results of this research cannot be generalized. Furthermore, there is
a lack of academic research about the Islamic mass media, so that there is no diversity
of opinions of the Islamic media types, roles and format. In addition, there is a lack of
academic studies that are done about the official media of both Muslim Brotherhood
group and Freedom and Justice Party. Ultimately, the Egyptian Administrative Court
decided to postpone the parliamentary elections at the first days of the composite
week of the study; therefore, the news coverage of electoral campaigns of candidates
of Muslim Brotherhood group and Freedom and Justice Party had little coverage
which cannot be generalized.
145
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Appendices
Appendix A
Coding sheet
Story # Network
Date Day Topic Sub- Slug
topic
153
Appendix B
Code book
Network
1- Misr 25
2- Ikhwanonline
3- Freedom and Justice Newspaper
Date
8. March 6, 2013
9. March 7, 2013
10. March 8, 2013
11. March 9, 2013
12. March 10, 2013
13. March 11, 2013
14. March 12, 2013
Day
1. Sunday
2. Monday
3. Tuesday
4. Wednesday
5. Thursday
6. Friday
7. Saturday
Topic type
1- Economic topics:
1) Taxes
2) Rise of food prices/ inflation
154
3) Maximum / minimum salaries
4) Economic growth
5) Poverty
6) Investment
7) Unemployment
8) Egyptian national dept
9) Economic national projects
10) Islamic Sukuk
11) Other
.
2- Social topics:
1) Labor rights
2) Muslim brotherhood social campaigns
3) Charity campaigns
4) Worker's strikes
5) Citizens' issues (rights/obligations)
6) Religious rights
7) Other
.
3- Religious topics:
1) Religious preaches
2) National unity
3) Sectarian tension
4) Islamic concepts (rights and obligations of Muslim person/ relationship
between Muslims and non-Muslims)
5) Other
.
155
4- Political topics:
1) Parliamentary elections
2) Shura council news/decisions
3) Presidential meetings/ speeches/ visits/ decisions/ communications.
4) News of Muslim Brotherhood group.
5) Electoral campaigns of FJ party and MB group
6) News of Freedom and Justice party
7) Governmental news/ decisions/ problems
8) News of Egyptian Islamic political parties
9) Political participation
10) Oppositions criticism/arrests
11) News of National Salvation Front
12) Protesters' killing
13) Demonstrations/ strikes
14) Egyptian military news
15) Other
.
5- Criminal topics:
1) Police violence and protesters
2) News of Ministry of Internal Affairs
3) Thefts (cars/ houses/ personal belongs)
4) Murders
5) Terrorism actions
6) Trials (common people/ the previous regime of Mubarak )
7) Other
.
156
6- Sports topics:
1) Matches
2) Sports activities (national team/ clubs' teams)
3) Sports championships
4) News of sports players
5) Ultras news
6) Other
.
7- Arts and culture topics:
1) Arts and culture news
2) Celebrity interviews (actors/ actresses/ singers/ writers/ directors/
artistes)
3) Art festivals
4) Archeology news
5) Drama/theater news
6) Cinema news
7) Galleries and concerts
8) Other
.
8- Women topics:
1) Women in Islam (rights and obligations)
2) Women rights (right of working/ rights of political participation/ rights
of participating in demonstrations)
3) Women and Egyptian constitution
4) Women issues (marriage and divorce laws)
5) Harassment of women in demonstrations
6) Other
.
157
9- Health topics:
1) Diseases
2) Health care
3) Medicines
4) Hospitals news/problems
5) Other
.
10- Media topics:
1) Media in Egypt such as censorship, freedom of expression.
2) Media laws, regulations and rules
3) Media social responsibility
4) Journalists' rights/arrests
5) Suspension of newspapers or programs
6) Criticism of talk shows' presenters
7) Other
.
11- Education topics:
1) Education quality
2) Schools education news/problems (private tuition/ teachers training)
3) Higher education
4) Other
.
12- Other:
Any topic that doesn't fit the list of topics above
1) Science and technology (scientific news)
2) The crisis of pipeline of gas.
3) Shortage of gas
4) Garbage collection
158
5) International news (Western countries)
6) Regional news (Arab countries)
7) Traffic problems
8) Electricity issues
9) Bread problems
159