LATIN
AMERICA
REVOLUTION
& REACTION
INTO THE 21ST
CENTURY
INTRODUCTION
• The arrest in 1998 in London of former
Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet raised
questions about whether Latin America
needed to seek justice of the abuses of the
20th century or move ahead.
• Latin American countries in the 20th
century have been part of the developing
world, though their Western political and
social structures as well as recent
achievements set them apart from Asia and
Africa.
• Since 1945, Latin America has dealt with
struggles over economic development, social
justice, and the rise of new social groups.
Despite broad shifts in politics and the
economy, the region remained remarkably
unchanged.
LATIN AMERICA:
1914 – 1940s
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Latin America Changes
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World War I: Led to upsurge in exports, development of industries
1920s – 1940s: Depression and war hurt local economies
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US initiates Good Neighbor Policy to try to improve US-Latin relations
Organization of American States formed to support region’s neutrality in early war
Some sympathy for fascists in Argentina, Brazil; some states entered World War II
Mexico After the Revolution
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Liberal constitution of 1917 guaranteed land and liberty to Mexico
Land redistributed to peasants, nationalization of oil
Conservative governments dominated by Institutional Revolutionary Party
ABC Powers
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Three nations emerged as major players: Brazil, Chile, Argentina
Their economies were very solidly export oriented
Economic Development fueled social progress within these states
Brazil joined the Allies in World War I but other two stayed neutral
Patterns of economic dependence in Latin America
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Need to reorient economies from export to internal development
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Much of Latin America exported raw minerals, food stuffs, oil to Western World
Need to develop domestic industry, consumer industries rather than import
Raul Prebisch, Argentine economist, crafted theory of "economic dependency"
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Developed nations controlled world economy at expense of undeveloped ones
Developing nations needed to protect domestic industries
ARGENTINA & CHILE
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Argentina
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1916 - 1930
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The Infamous 1930s
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In 1916 Radicals won presidency but Conservatives controlled Parliament
Radicals sought to expand electorate, democracy, benefit middle class
Reforms favored labor, industry, commerce, students
Stayed neutral in World War I
Problem was the rise of anarchist, communist and fascist organizations
Had 4th highest per capita GDP in 1928 but Depression crippled Argentinan foreign trade
Military staged a coup in 1930 bringing with it electoral fraud, corruption, persecutions
Clashes between fascists, socialists/communists, unions and management became common
Military Coup of 1943 by junior officers to avoid joining Allies in war
Chile
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Parliamentary republic dominated until 1925: Congress overshadowed President
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Military staged coup to avoid more radical reforms
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Quarrel-prone system that merely distributed spoils
Clung to its laissez-faire policy while national problems mounted
A reform movement began to clamor for social reform, democratization
Began to appoint presidents but many massacres and clashes with leftists, unions occured
Gradually enacted reforms and returned power to the elected representatives in 1932
1932 – 1973 Presidential System of Civil Governments returned
LATIN AMERICA:
FROM THE 1940s
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President
Vargas
The 1940s
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Substantial political demand for reform in much of Latin America
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Military coup by colonels produced a ruling junta in 1943
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Junior Officers not enthusiastic about elite support of Allies in World War II
Junior Officers were more pro-German, proto-fascists
Junta came to be dominated by Juan Peron, who became president in 1946
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Governments that moved too swiftly met by resistance from the military
Fascism seemed a blend of social reform, industry, army, nationalism
Brazil and Argentina were the best examples
Argentina 1943 – 1953
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Industrial
Growth
Democratic governments carried out reforms in Venezuela, Costa Rica
Others turned to models of Marxist revolution
Political democratization, economic development, social reforms failed
More radical solutions to ongoing problems were sought
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“Order and Progress”
Censored press but expanded participation in unions, spending on social problems
Followed isolationist foreign policy and attempted limit others economic influence
Influential wife Evita helped him become the darling of the shirtless workers
Brazil 1930 – 1954
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Old Republic dominated by wealthy landed elite, export industries lasted until 1930
Military Coup in 1930 installed Vargas as president
Vargas ruled as dictator, elected president, dictator again and then senator
Continued industrial and agricultural growth with development of Amazon
Tried to blend concern for workers with owners into a populism, corporatism
MEXICO’S POLITICAL PATHS IN
THE 20TH CENTURY
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Mexico After the Revolution
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Previous president Calles monopolized power even after presidency
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Created National Revolutionary Party so he could control nation, elections
This was the predecessor to the Institutionalized Revolutionary Party (PRI)
Calles flirted with fascism and became increasingly anti-reform, anti-leftist
Rise of Cardenas
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Revolutionary fervor absorbed by the ruling elite but reforms selective
President was limited to a six year term: constant tension between factions of the elite
Originally selected to be president but Cardenas became more popular, powerful
Removed Calles people from influence, power
Enacted sweeping reforms
Nationalized the oil industry largely owned by the USA
Gave land to the Indians, poor farmers
The Institutionalized Revolutionary Party (PRI)
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Pattern for Politics until 1995
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Allied the Mexican state to moneyed interests: exceedingly corrupt
Allied wealthy industrialists with rising urban middle class interests
Moved the PRI to the right – stole much of PAN’s political ideology
Wooed foreign capital – negotiated a massive loan from the United States
Accelerated industrialization at expense of poor, rural interests, Indians, workers
Unprecedented patronage for governmental jobs including bribes, favoritism
Manipulated vying political interests
Free-trade agreement with the United States brought mixed results.
THE MEXICAN
MIRACLE
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First 4 decades of PRI
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Dubbed the "Mexican Miracle“
• Period of economic growth
• Substitution of imports and low inflation
• Growth spurred by national development plans
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Followed the 5 Year Plans of the Soviet Union
Provided for major investment on infrastructure.
From 1940 to 1970 GDP increased six-fold
• Population only doubled
• The peso-dollar parity was maintained.
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Mexico went from a largely rural economy to an industrial society
Oil production surged
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PEMEX: Mexico nationalized oil industry in 1938
World War II and 1970s Oil Crisis benefited Mexico
Production and export fueled growth
Allowed government to support social programs, infrastructure
THE END OF
HEGEMONY
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The PRI Loses Its Monopoly On Power
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Troubles Begin
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Strongly disputed and arguably lost by the government party
IFE (Instituto Federal Electoral – Federal Electoral Institute) created in the early 1990s
Run by ordinary citizens, overseeing that elections are conducted legally and fairly
President Vicente Fox Quesada
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Mexico faced an economic crisis due to oil glut, debts
Public demonstrations in Mexico City
Constant military presence after Zapatista rebellion in Chiapas
Political and electoral reforms that reduced the PRI's hold on power.
1988 election
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Accused many times of blatant fraud
In 1980s the PRI lost the first state governorship
The event that marked the beginning of the party's loss of hegemony
Popular discontent allowed the National Action Party (PAN) Vicente Fox Quesada to win in 2000
Did not win a majority in the Chambers of Congress
This election ended 71 years of PRI hegemony of the presidency
President Felipe Calderón Hinojosa
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Felipe Calderón Hinojosa also a member of the conservative National Action Party (PAN)
Many people in Mexico claim that he actually did not win the election
Obrador, candidate of Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) claimed he won
• He appointed himself as “legitimate president"
• Currently traveling all over the country along with his own cabinet
• Uses resources from the taxes from all Mexicans to supervise actions of Calderón
THE UNITED STATES
AND LATIN AMERICA
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The “American Empire”
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The United States remained the greatest external force in Latin America
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United States introduced the Good Neighbor Policy, worked with Latin America on common interests
Formed Organization of American States as an alliance to resist Nazi aggression in World War II
1960s Changes
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The US invested heavily, loaned billions in Central America, Mexico and the Caribbean
The USA intervened whenever it believed its interests to be threatened – often called Dollar Diplomacy
In Central America, investment by U.S. corporations was so high that intervention was common
Anyone attempt to nationalize resources, opposed intervention branded Communists or bandits
In Nicaragua Augusto Sandino led resistance to U.S. influence until his assassination in 1934
Intervention often followed by establishment of puppet governments referred to as Banana Republics
American intervention helped to spread nationalist movements in Central America
1930s Changes
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After 1898, US annexed Puerto Rico, turned Cuba into a protectorate
In 1904, staged Panamanian revolution in order to build canal across the Isthmus
American Interventions: More than 30 before 1933
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Until the 1890s, the Monroe Doctrine was maintained more by British interest than US power
US threatened to intervene in Mexico against the French in 1867
Intervention was renewed after World War II on the pretext of containing communism.
U.S. programs provided economic aid as means of raising standards of living, combating radicals
In the 1970s and 1980s
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U.S. intervention was somewhat less flagrant
President Carter signed a treaty returning the Panama Canal zone to Panama
Presidents Reagan, Bush pursued more aggressive policies in Latin America to contain communism
THE US IMAGE
IN LATIN AMERICA
GUATEMALA:
REFORM
AND U.S.
INTERVENTION
Diego Rivera Paints the Overthrow of Arbenz
• The first nation to attempt more radical reforms was Guatemala
• In 1944, President Juan José Arevalo instituted a new constitution
• Initiated land reform
• Instituted civil rights for laborers
• To fund reforms, education system, Arevalo imposed an income tax
• Attempted to nationalize economic resources
• Brought Arevalo's government into conflict with the United Fruit Co.
• This American corporation owned most bananas, fruit areas of region
• Program of nationalization continued under Arbenz, elected in 1951
• American Intervention
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Arbenz’s program becomes more radical
The United States imposed economic and diplomatic sanctions
In 1954, a CIA-assisted military coup unseated Arbenz
Pro-American military revoked many of reforms
A guerrilla movement emerged in Guatemala.
THE CUBAN
REVOLUTION
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The 1940s and 1950s
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Fulgencio Batista
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Had ruled Cuba between 1934 and 1944
He had proposed reforms, including a democratic constitution
When he returned to power in 1952, he was less interested in reform than in maintaining power
Fidel Castro
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Since 1906 Platt Amendment, Cuba was largely a US protectorate
Cuba was economically more advanced than Guatemala
Dependent on an export economy closely tied to the markets of the United States
Differences between wealthy urban, impoverished rural economy provoked political dissent
Young idealistic leader of opposition to Batista
In 1953, a rebellion under Fidel Castro failed
When released from prison, Castro fled to Mexico, where he reorganized resistance to Batista
In 1956, Castro and his supporters invaded Cuba
After two years of guerrilla resistance, they successfully ousted the Batista government
Socialist Cuba
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Castro proclaimed a Marxist state complete with centralized economic planning
All economic resources were nationalized
When the US severed ties in 1961, Cuba became increasingly dependent on the USSR
US financed invasion failed at Bay of Pigs causing Cuba to turn to USSR for military aid
US blockaded island to get Soviet missiles removed
Social reforms under Castro were extensive but often at the expense of individual liberties
Attempts to move beyond an export economy dependent on sugar have failed
Some other Latin American nations chose to model revolutions on the Cuban example
THE SEARCH FOR REFORM
AND THE MILITARY OPTION
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Revolutions often left underlying social, economic problems unchanged
In the decades of the 1950s and 1960s
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Military governments became prevalent in Latin America
Search for political stability led to single-party rule (Mexico)
Rise of Christian Democratic parties (Chile and Venezuela)
Increasing roles for the Roman Catholic Church
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Active intervention of the Church in the search for social justice
Some priests blended theology, Marxism to create “liberation theology”
Army officers believed they could best resolve problems of political instability
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Concerned about the Cuban revolution, the military seized control of governments
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Military Governments
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Military coups, often with compliance of the United States, overthrew governments
Brazil (1964), Argentina (1966), Chile (1973), Uruguay (1973), and Peru (1968)
Supposed to be above political partisanship, produce economic stability
Often consisted of presidencies assisted by organized bureaucracies
Were often brutally repressive: people disappeared, were tortured and murdered
Sought to crush labor movements, develop new industry, promote building of infrastructure
Social problems were scarcely addressed
All military regimes were nationalistic
Argentina: The Falkland War in 1982
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To distract population from internal problems, repression, Argentina seized Falkland Islands
UK responded, defeating the Argentinian invasion which led to the fall of the dictatorship
THE NEW
DEMOCRATIC
TREND
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In the 1980s
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Military began to restore civilian governments in the 1980s
In Peru
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In Nicaragua
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President Carter had returned the Canal to Panama but US would protect it
General Noriega cooperated with the Colombian Drug Cartels as its banker
The US intervened to end the military rule of Manuel Noriega in Panama
In Chile
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1990 elections produced a democratic government under Violeta Chamorro
But the revolutionary Sandinista party continued to exist
In Panama
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Corruption led to the removal of President Fujimoro and rise of leftist opposition
Maoist Inca guerrillas called the Shining Path continued to oppose democratization
The military intended to return democracy after a period of transition
A plebiscite did not go the way Pinochet had wanted – the populace refused him a second term
Chile eased its way back to democracy over a ten year period as all parties cooperated
Transition may have been helped by Pope John Paul II’s criticism of Chile as a dictatorship
Economic stability in Latin America continued to be a major problem
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Foreign debt: countries borrowed heavily to finance reforms
High (hyper) inflation
Low standards of living
Increasing levels of criminal activity often associated with the Drug Trade
Despite problems, democratization of political systems continued in the 1990s
SOCIETIES IN
SEARCH OF
CHANGE: WOMEN
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Social conditions and problems
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Changed only slowly, but reforms did occur
Population distribution, growing urbanization
Problems relating to ethnicity, gender continue to exist
Slow Change in Women's Roles
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Gender equality was a goal more than a reality in Latin America
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In response
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Women formed organizations and suffrage associations that slowly resulted in enfranchisement
Once admitted to political parties, women found that they were excluded from real influence
Only in Argentina, Chile, and Nicaragua did women play critical roles
Just before World War I women began to enter the industrial labor force
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In most nations, women did not receive the right to vote until the 1940s and 1950s
Males excluded women from political life
Feared their associations with organized religion would make them conservative
They worked for lower wages than their male counterparts
Women tended to join anarchist, socialist, other labor groups as part of the unskilled labor force
In service sectors, some market economies, women have risen to positions of prominence
More significant economic roles did not imply greater social status
By 1990s
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Position of women in Latin America was closer to the West than other areas of world
Women especially mothers and wives were prominent in anti-military demonstrations
More women in elected offices including presidencies than any region except Scandinavia
Chile and Nicaragua have had women presidents
SOCIETIES IN SEARCH OF
CHANGE: MIGRATION
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After 1950
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Population of Latin America rapidly outstripped that of North America
Internal migration from countryside to cities
• Countryside offered little or no work, little hope for advancement
• Only available jobs in cities
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Primate Cities
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One city dominates nation, has an enormous portion of national population
Buenos Aires, Bogota, Mexico City, Sao Paulo, Montevideo, Caracas, Lima
By the 1980s, about one half of the population was urbanized
Urban economies have been unable to absorb the influx from countryside
Massive slums
Competition between urban workers, rural migrants created tensions
Immigration
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Lack of job opportunities in countries, political repression led to immigration
Migration from Mexico, Central America to the United States is often illegal
Similar to movement of workers from Mediterranean, Africa to W. Europe
Has led to strained relations between US and region
IMMIGRATION MEANS
MONEY
• Jobs for illegal
immigrants from
Latin
America
working in the US
are a source of
money for local
economies
• Any curtailment
of cash from the
USA would hurt
local economies.
MAPPING LATIN
AMERICAN DEMOGRAPHY
CULTURAL REFLECTIONS OF
DISPAIR AND HOPE
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Latin America’s Changing Religious Scene
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Region remains predominantly Catholic
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Rise of Pentecostal Christianity
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The elite in Latin America own an enormous portion of most nations’ wealth
Elite interests, culture dominates countries out of all proportion to numbers, elections
Regional Cultures with admixtures of African and Indian cultures
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Catholic clergy often associated with ruling hierarchy
Catholicism often very traditional, favored traditional approaches
Many urban professionals educated in US attracted to Pentecostalism
Guatemala and Brazil have seen a massive switch to Protestantism
The Disparities between rich and poor
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Largest Catholic region in the world
About 1/3 of all Catholics in the world are in Latin America
Avoid the term Hispanic – it is an American politically correct term only
Dominate elite culture is urban, educated, largely Caucasian or Mestizo
African, Indian cultures marginalized except perhaps for Brazil
Latin America has produced many world-famous authors, poets, and artists
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Indigenous cultures, plight of poor are common themes in art and literature
Repelled by failure of reform, continuation of social and economic problems
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Authors of the 1960s turned away from reality to the fantastic and the absurd
Contemporary authors are quite realistic, modern in their portrayals
Gabriel Garcia Marguez: Colombian Nobel Laureate, used style we call Magical Realism
Isabel Allende: Chilean writer discusses women’s issues also using Magical Realism
LORENZ CURVE
A Graphic Representation of Wealth Distribution: The closer the number to
one means a small percentage of the populace owns a great deal of the wealth
THE DRUG
TRADE
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Drug Production
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The Issue
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Colombia has fought trade bitterly
Bolivia often cooperates with dealers
Peruvian, Colombian guerillas benefit
Mexico wracked by civil violence
Venezuela, Cuba involved with traffic
Reality
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A cash crop for poor Indians
Very little else as income available
The Cartels and Politics
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Major Fields: Colombia, Bolivia
Refined: Colombia, Bolivia, Peru
Production in South America
Now controlled by Mexican cartels
Many states launder money, help
US Intervention in Region
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Often tied to fighting drug trade
One reason US tolerates generals