WAR
DIPLOMACY
 The League of Nations created to maintain world peace
 Forty-two members, twenty-six of them outside Europe
 Dominated by UK, France and used as force against Germany
 The league had no power to enforce its decisions
 League could only
 Make suggestions
 Impose sanctions
 Blockades
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Collective security depended on all major powers
Powers Left Out
 United States never joined
 USSR ignored
 Germany not invited for some time
 The mandate system
 United States opposed direct colonization
 Allies proposed system of trusteeships
 France, United Kingdom benefited most
 Created from German colonies, Ottoman territories in S.W. Asia
 Idealistic Attempts
 Attempts to disarm nations led to naval reduction treaties
 Attempt to outlaw war led to Kellogg-Briand treaty
 Many nations reduced their militaries to minimal levels
 Japan
 Global conflict began with Japanese invasion of Manchuria, 1931
 League of Nations condemned action; Japan simply withdrew from league
 1937, Japan launched full-scale invasion of China
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1937 War In China Resumed
 Nationalists and communists formed "united front" against Japanese
 Unable to effectively work together, they conducted guerilla attacks
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Japan, Germany, Italy ally 1940; neutrality pact with USSR, 1941
 Italy, Germany, and Russia
 Italy after the Great War
 Italians felt slighted at the Paris Peace Conference
 Mussolini promised national glory, empire
 Invaded Ethiopia (1935-1936), killed 250,000 Ethiopians; annexed Albania
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Germany: deep resentment at Treaty of Versailles
 Harsh terms: reparations, economic restrictions, depression helped Nazis
 Hitler blamed Jews, communists, liberals for losing war, Versailles Treaty
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After 1933, Hitler moved to ignore terms of peace settlement
 Withdrew from League, 1933; Rebuilt military, air force; reinstated draft
 Militarized Rhineland, 1936; Austria, 1938; France and Britain did nothing
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Spanish Civil War 1936 - 1939
 Spanish fascists stage coup against republic; socialists, communists fight
 Italians, Germans, Russians helped each side but fascists won
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The Munich Conference: Peace for our time?
 In 1938, Germany "appeased" by taking Sudetenland
 Britain and France desperate to avoid war, appeased Hitler
 Russian-German Non-Aggression Treaty, 1939, shocked world
 Blitzkrieg: Germany conquers Western Europe : 1939 – 1940
 Blitzkrieg: lightening war of tank, air, mobility
 Battle of the Atlantic: German subs against British convoys
 Battle of Britain: British defeat German airforce
 The German invasion of the Soviet Union
 1941: Germany conquers Balkans, invades USSR
 Blitzkrieg strategies less effective in Russia
 Hitler underestimated Soviet industrial capacity,
 Germans ill-prepared for war, stalled at Stalingrad
 U.S. support of the Allies before Pearl Harbor
 Roosevelt sold, "loaned" arms , war material to UK
 Later supplied the Soviets and the Chinese
 Japanese expansion
 Continued into southeast Asia: Indochina, 1940-1941
 USA responded by freezing Japanese assets, used oil embargo
 Demanded withdrawal from China and southeast Asia
 7 December 1941
 US navy at Pearl Harbor attacked
 US declared war on Japan; Germany, Italy declared war on USA
 Japanese overran Southeast Asia, swept seas of Allied Navies
Impact of Soviet Union and U.S. entry in 1941
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USSR brought vital personnel and USA industry to Allies
Russia fielded 350 divisions against the German 130
Germany forced to fight a two front war
German subs sank 2,452 ships, U.S. shipyards built more
Allied victories came after 1943
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Russians defeated the Germans at Stalingrad, pushed them back
1944, British-U.S. troops invaded North Africa and then Italy
June 1944, British-U.S. forces invaded northern France at Normandy
Overwhelmed Germans on coast of Normandy, 6 June 1944
Round-the-clock strategic bombing by Allies leveled German cities
Germans surrendered unconditionally 8 May 1945; Hitler committed suicide
Turning the tide in the Pacific
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The Battle of Midway, June 1942; United States broke Japanese code
Island-hopping strategy: moving to islands close to Japan for air attacks
US launched unrestricted submarine warfare against Japanese empire
British invade Japanese empire through Burma, SE Asia
Chinese nationalists, communists tie down 2 million Japanese troops
Savage fighting on islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa
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US launches round the clock air raids against Japan
Japanese used kamikazes; Okinawan civilians refused to surrender
U.S. military was convinced that Japan would not surrender
Japanese surrender after devastating assault
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U.S. firebombing raids devastated Japanese cities: in Tokyo, 100,000 killed
August 1945: atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki killed 200,000
Japanese emperor surrendered unconditionally 15 August, ending WWII
 Total War
 Mobilization of all society in order to win
 Civilians used to work in war industry
 Women used in non-combatant roles
 Minorities employed in many roles including combat
 Industry, science mobilized to support war
 Allies went on total war very early; Axis delayed and it cost them the war
 Civilians and the War
 Combatants started to attack civilians
 Cities and civilian targets became fair game
 Guerillas
 Non-traditional combatants attack enemy behind the lines
 In Yugoslavia, Albania, Poland, France, Russia, China helped win the war
 Technology
 Scientists became an integral part of the war
 Rockets, jet fighters, radar, atomic bombs, super weapons
 Allies had a clear and early lead but Germany had its surprises
Country
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
Austria
24
27
27
29
27
28
29
12
France[1]
186
199
164
130
116
110
93
101
Germany
351
384
387
412
417
426
437
310
Italy[2]
141
151
147
144
145
137
117
92
Japan[3]
169
184
192
196
197
194
189
144
Soviet Union[4]
359
366
417
359
274
305
362
343
UK
284
287
316
344
353
361
346
331
USA[5]
800
869
943
1 094 1 235 1 399 1 499 1 474
1 629 1 600
1 331
1 596 1 862 2 065 2 363 2 341
Axis Total:[7]
685
746
845
911
902
895
826
466
Allied/Axis
GDP:[8]
2.38
2.15
1.58
1.75
2.06
2.31
2.86
5.02
Allied Total:[6]
“Civilians”
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Impossible in new war to separate front, rear areas
All nations had to mobilize who population to survive
US had it easiest but all other civilians suffered
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Occupation, collaboration, and resistance
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Patterns of occupation varied : Germany, Japan were worst
Both Japan, Germany exploited conquered states, peoples
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Slave labor conscripted from conquered populations to work in factories
Labor conscripted from Poles, Soviets, Balkans, also Chinese and Koreans
Many local people accepted, collaborated with occupying forces
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Japanese domination not much different from European domination
Others aided conquerors to gain power in new administration
Anticommunism led some in western Europe to join the Nazi SS troops
Resistance to occupation took many forms
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Active resistance: sabotage, assaults, assassination
Passive resistance as well: intelligence gathering, refusing to submit
Resistance in Japan and Germany was dangerous and rare
Occupation forces responded to resistance with atrocities
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Brutal reprisals to acts of resistance by both Germans and Japanese
Despite retaliation, resistance movements grew throughout the war
Prisoner of War, Enemy Combatants, Detainees
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Western Allies treated POWs well
Russians, Germans, Japanese did not
US detained and isolated 150,000 people of Japanese descent
Minorities
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The Germans utilized racially acceptable minorities in their army
Russians, Chinese mobilized everyone – irrespective of race, ethnicity
Japanese enlisted other ethnic groups but mistreated their Korean soldiers
The USA and the African Americans
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Given low, menial jobs; segregated from white troops
White officers commanded black units
Only later in war allowed into combat
Graduates of Tuskagee formed a famous fighter squadron
The British and French
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Mobilized their empires and citizens for war
British Indian Army, French colonial troops very active
Women and the war
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"It's a Woman's War, Too!"
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Over half a million British, 350,000 American women joined auxiliary services
Soviet and Chinese women took up arms and joined resistance groups
Jewish women and girls suffered as much as men and boys
Women's social roles changed dramatically
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By taking jobs or heading families, women gained independence and confidence
Changes expected to be temporary, would return to traditional role after war
"Comfort women"
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Japanese armies forcibly recruited 300,000 women to serve in military brothels
80 percent of comfort women came from Korea
Many were massacred by Japanese soldiers; survivors experienced deep shame
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Types of Murder
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Armenian Holocaust
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Genocide: Killing of a specific group of people, attempt to wipe out
Democide: Mass murder of people by government
Ethnic Cleansing: Term common when one group attacks, kills another
First genocide of 20th century
Turks killed 1.5 million Armenians for their support of Russians in World War I
The Holocaust
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Long history of anti-Semitism
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The "final solution"
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Will to resist sapped by prolonged starvation, disease
Warsaw Ghetto Uprising: 60,000 Jews rose up against Germans
Altogether
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Began with slaughter of Jews, Gypsies, undesirables in Soviet Union
By 1941, German special killing units had killed 1.4 million Jews
By 1942 Nazis evacuated all European Jews to camps in east Poland
Jewish resistance
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Created tolerance of Nazi's anti-Jewish measures
At first Nazis encouraged Jewish emigration
Many Jews were unable to leave after Nazis took their wealth
Nazi conquest of Europe brought more Jews under their control
About 5.7 million Jews perished; more than 2 million Poles died
Almost 98% of all Gypsies were murdered
Other Examples
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Democides: Stalin, Mao, Pol Pot (Cambodia), Zaire/Congo
Genocides: Rwanda, Sudan
Ethnic Cleansings: Bosnia, Kosovo, Kurds in Iraq
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The origins of the cold war (1947-1990)
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Postwar settlement established at Yalta and Potsdam
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Perception of world divided between so-called free and enslaved peoples
Interventionist policy, dedicated to "containment" of communism
The Marshall Plan, 1948: U.S. aid for the recovery of Europe
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Soviets took east Germany, while United States, Britain, and France took west Germany
Berlin also divided four ways; by 1950 division seemed permanent
Churchill spoke of an "iron curtain" across Europe, separating east and west
Similar division in Korea: Soviets occupied north and United States the south
Truman doctrine, 1947: USA would support "free peoples resisting subjugation"
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Each Allied power to occupy and control territories liberated by its armed forces
Stalin agreed to support United States against Japan
Stalin's plans prevailed; Poland and east Europe became communist allies
President Truman took hard line at Potsdam, widened differences
Postwar territorial divisions reflected growing schism between USA, USSR
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Unlikely alliance between Britain, USSR, USA held up for duration of war
Not without tensions: Soviet resented U.S.-British delays in European invasion
Idea to rebuild European economies and strengthen capitalism
Soviet response: Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) for its satellites
NATO and the Warsaw Pact: militarization of the cold war
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1949, United States created NATO, a regional military alliance against Soviet aggression
1955, Soviets formed the Warsaw Pact in response
Two global superpowers protecting hegemony with alliances
United Nations, established 1945 to maintain international peace and security
 Postwar Europe
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Divided into competing political, military, economic blocs
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NATO, European Economic Communities; Warsaw Pact, COMECON
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Neutral: European Free Trade Association; Yugoslavia
Western Europe
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U.S. allies supported by permanent presence of American army
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Parliamentary governments, capitalist economies
Eastern Europe
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Dominated by Soviet Union, Red Army, secret police
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Communist governments modeled after USSR dominate countries
 Germany divided east and west in 1949
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Soviets refused to withdraw from eastern Germany after World War II
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Allied sectors reunited 1947-1948, Berlin remained divided as well
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Berlin blockade and airlift, 1948-1949
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The Berlin Wall, 1961
 In Asia
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Turkey, Greece, Iran pressured by USSR, allies: US responds with Truman Doctrine
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Communist Chinese armed by USSR, drive Nationalists out of China by 1949
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Korea divided into Communist North, Pro-Western South: North invades South in 1950
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Communists influence Viet Minh in Indo-China
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Post-1945
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Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)
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Era of international cooperation
Many global problems cannot be solved by national governments
Red Cross, an international humanitarian agency, founded 1964
Greenpeace, an environmental organization, founded in 1970
Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch
The United Nations
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Founded 1945 "to maintain international peace and security"
Security Council
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General Assembly
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Each nation has one vote; poor, 3rd world nations dominate
Cannot legislate, but has influence in international community
Often used as a sounding board for world concerns, ignored by West
ECOSOC, UN Commission of Refugees, WHO
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Permanent Veto Nations: UK, US, France, Russia, China
Not successful at preventing wars, for example, Iran-Iraq war
Often can diffuse tense situations
More successful in health and educational goals
Eradication of smallpox and other diseases
Decrease in child mortality, increase in female literacy
Human rights: an ancient concept, gaining wider acceptance
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Nuremberg Trials of Nazis
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Established concept of "crimes against humanity“
Permanent court sits in Hague, Netherlands for war crimes trials
UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights
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Forbids slavery, torture, discrimination
Guarantees basic human rights, freedoms
Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869-1948)
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Political and spiritual leader, called the Mahatma ("Great Soul")
Opposed to caste system, especially the exclusion of untouchables
1920-1922, led Non-Cooperation Movement
1930, Civil Disobedience Movement
The India Act of 1937
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Repression failed, so the British offered modified self-rule through the India Act
Unsuccessful because India's six hundred princes refused to support : Muslims want independent state
Muslims would not cooperate, wanted an independent state
During World War II
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Many Indians sympathetic with Japan, Gandhi pursued peaceful non-cooperation
British were very concerned about Indian disloyalty which really never surfaced
Indian self-rule
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British finally willing to consider independence after WWII
Muslim separatism grew; feared domination by Hindus
Partition of India and ensuing violence
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Independent India, 1947, divided into Muslim Pakistan and Hindu India
Ten million refugees moved either to India or Pakistan; one million died in migration
Gandhi assassinated by a Hindu extremist, 30 January 1948
Conflicts between India and Pakistan
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1947, fought over province of Kashmir; Pakistan lost
Pakistan allied with United States; India accepted aid from both superpowers
India and Pakistan stayed in British Commonwealth; English was official language
Arab states gained independence during, after World War II
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British suppress Iraqi nationalist uprising in 1941; expel Vichy French from Syria
British, US force French to grant Lebanon, Syria independence in 1943
Creation of Israel
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Unable to resolve conflict, Britain turned Palestine question over to UN, 1947
UN proposed dividing into two states, Palestine and Israel; Arabs opposed
1947, British withdrew, civil war broke out, Jews proclaimed the state of Israel
Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq declared war on Israel
Israel achieved victory in 1949; claimed territories larger than what was granted by UN
Egypt
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Military leaders under Gamal A. Nasser seized power in 1952
Nasser became prime minister, a leader of pan-Arab nationalism
Egypt neutral in cold war, accepted aid from both powers
Nasser dedicated to ending imperialism, destroying state of Israel
Suez crisis, 1956, greatly enhanced Nasser's prestige
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Canal owned by UK; Nasser nationalized it
British, French, and Israeli forces attack to retake canal
US, USSR condemned military action, forced them to withdraw
Suez crisis divided United States and its allies in western Europe
Pan-Arab Nationalism
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Sought to unify Arabs in one secularized state; downplayed Islam
Egypt, Syria, Yemen united in 1968; union late broke down
Strongly influenced by Arab-Israeli conflict
Ba’ath Parties in Syria, Iraq strongest Pan-Arab Parties
Black African nationalism and independence
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Growth of African nationalism
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Began as grassroots protest against European imperialism
African nationalism celebrated Negritude (blackness), African roots
Obstacles to African independence
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White settlers opposed black independence
Anticommunist fears justified interference in African politics
Economic and political instability often hampered postindependent Africa
South Africa
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Transformation of South Africa
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Gained independence in 1901, but denied civil rights to black population
South African economy strong, both mining and industry; prospered during WWII
Black workers demanded political change
1948 : Afrikaner National Party wins control of South African government
Apartheid
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Harsh legal system imposed in 1948, designed to keep races separate
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87 peercent of South African land was for white residents, others classified by race
African National Congress led by Mandela, launched campaign to protest apartheid
Severe government repression provoked international opposition after 1960
Forcing the French out of north Africa
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France in Africa
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1950s and 1960s, French granted independence to all its African colonies except Algeria
Algerian Revolt of May 1954 repressed by French; eight thousand Algerian Muslims died
War in Algeria, 1954-1962
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Algerian nationalists pursued guerrilla warfare against French rule
By 1958, a half-million French soldiers were committed to the conflict
Freedom and conflict in sub-Sahara Africa
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Ghana (Gold Coast) first to gain independence, 1957
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Kwame Nkrumah, nationalist leader, jailed and censored for political actions
Eventually released, Nkrumah became Ghana's first president, 1957
Anticolonial rebellion in Kenya
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Violent clashes between native Kikuyu (Mau Mau) and European settlers after 1947
1930s and 1940s, Kikuyu pushed off farm lands, reduced to wage slaves
Labeling Mau Mau as communist subversives, Britain gained U.S. support
Kikuyu uprising crushed by superior arms in 1955; twelve thousand Africans killed