MODERN ERA:
1750 - 1914
CHANGES IN THE
NATURE AND
FUNCTIONS OF STATE
STRUCTURES
REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS
Revolution



A popular idea, means to an end
A way to restructure society
Popular sovereignty



Relocating sovereignty in the people
Traditional monarchs




Claimed a "divine right" to rule
Derived from God, unquestionable
Monarch unanswerable to people
Constitutional Limitations


Aristocracy, Enlightenment challenged king
Glorious Revolution of 1688



Made the monarch responsible to the people
John Locke's theory of contractual government
Authority comes from the consent of the governed
Freedom and equality




Demands for freedom of worship
Freedom of expression, assembly
Demands for political and legal equality



Equality not extended to all



Condemned legal, social privileges of aristocrats
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract
Women, Peasants, laborers, slaves, or people of color
Originally only extended to tax paying males with education
Ideals of Enlightenment were significant global influence
TYPES OF REVOLUTIONS

Aristocratic Revolution

Aristocracy fights to preserve privileges





English Glorious Revolution (1688) is an example
Bourgeois (liberal) Revolution

Middle class seeks rights equal to nobility






Often against royal absolutism
Rarely for other classes rights
Usually ends with constitution, limits on monarchy
Extension of franchise, ability to hold office
Issues of taxation often involved
Reforms limited and rarely radical, franchise limited
American (1776), French (1789), Meiji Restoration (1867)
Latin American Revolutions (1820s)
Mass revolutions

Most of society effected and involved



Nationalist Revolutions



Often goals are quite radical
Methods to achieve are often quite violent
China (1911)
Haitian Revolution (1793)
Socialist Revolutions


Worker-Oriented or Peasant-Oriented
Russian Revolution (1905), Mexican Revolution (1910)
REFORM



Often system allowed change without radical means, violence
Reform was a theme of 1750 – 1914
Reform movements

Increased, responsive democratic representation, institutions





Abolition of slavery, serfdom




Abolition movement was very successful
Other forms of coercive labor replaced them
Racial, social equality did not follow
Women Rights



Expansion of male suffrage was the key issue
One of the hallmarks of a democratic society
Very successful in US, Western Europe, British settler colonies, Japan
Less so in Latin America, Russia, Eastern Europe, Africa, Asia
One goal was full female franchise
Not achieved until after 1914 but progress
Foreign Reform Movements




India Civil Service Act
China Self-Strengthening
Tanzimat (Turkey)
Meiji Reforms (Japan)
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
Tension between Britain, American colonies


Legacy of Seven Years' War



Colonial protest




British debt, North American tax burden
Colonists increasingly independent minded
Over taxes, trade policies, Parliamentary rule
Colonial boycott of British goods
Attacks on British officials; Boston Tea Party, 1773
Political protest over representation in Parliament


Continental Congress, 1774
British troops, colonial militia skirmished at the village of Lexington, 1775
The Declaration of Independence, 4 July 1776



Thirteen united States of America severed ties with Britain
Declaration inspired by Enlightenment, Locke's theory of government
The American Revolution, 1775-1781




British advantages: strong government, navy, army, loyalists in colonies
American advantages: European allies, George Washington's leadership
Weary of a costly conflict, British forces surrendered in 1781
Building an independent state: Constitutional Convention, 1787




Constitution guaranteed freedom of press, of speech, and of religion
Republic based on principles of freedom, equality, popular sovereignty
Full legal and political rights were granted only to men of property
FRENCH REVOLUTION & NAPOLEON
Summoning the Estates General





Financial crisis: half of government revenue went to national debt
King Louis XVI forced to summon Estates General to raise new taxes
Many representatives wanted sweeping political and social reform
First and Second Estates (nobles, clergy) tried to limit Third Estate (commoners)
National Assembly








Formed by representatives of Third Estate, 17 June 1789
Demanded a written constitution and popular sovereignty
Angry mob seized the Bastille on 14 July, sparked insurrections in many cities
National Assembly wrote the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen"
"Liberty, equality, and fraternity“: slogan and values of the National Assembly
The Assembly abolished the feudal system, altered the role of church
France became a constitutional monarchy, 1791
The Convention and the Reign of Terror







Replaced National Assembly under new constitution, 1791
Austrian and Prussian armies invaded France to restore ancien régime
Convention abolished the monarchy and proclaimed France a republic
King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette executed, 1793
Radical Jacobins dominated Convention in 1793-94 in "reign of terror"
Revolutionary changes: in religion, dress, calendar, women's rights
The Directory, 1795-1799



A conservative reaction against the excesses of the Convention
Executed the Jacobin leader Robespierre, July 1794
Napoleonic France was Enlightened Despotism








Brought stability: blended monarchy, autocracy, democracy
Made peace with the Roman Catholic church and pope
Reformed French economic, banking system: mercantilism
Extended freedom of religion to Protestants and Jews
Civil Code of 1804: political and legal equality for all adult men
Code Napoleon: becomes one of the world’s great legal traditions
Restricted individual freedom, especially speech and press
THE POLITICAL SPECTRUM
HAITIAN REVOLUTION
Saint-Domingue

Rich French colony on western Hispaniola

Society dominated by small white planter class
90 percent of population were slaves
Horrendous working conditions
Large communities of escaped slaves (maroons)
Ideas of Enlightenment reached educated blacks
Free blacks fought in American war






Widespread discontent

White settlers sought self-governance
Gens de couleur sought political rights
Slaves wanted freedom



Slave revolt began in 1791

Factions of white settlers, gens de couleur, slaves battled each other
French troops arrived in 1792; British, Spanish intervened in 1793
Slaves conquer whole island including Spanish part
Whites driven into exile, executed




Toussaint Louverture (1744-1803)

Son of slaves, literate, son of Enlightenment
Skilled organizer, built strong, disciplined army


Controlled most of Saint-Domingue by 1797
Created a constitution in 1801



Arrested by French troops; died in jail, 1803
Haiti





Yellow fever ravaged French troops; defeated, driven out by slave armies
Declared independence in 1803; republic established in 1804
Civil War followed until 1810; kingdom to 1820
Dominican Republic independent in 1844
INDEPENDENCE IN LATIN AMERICA
Latin American society rigidly hierarchical




Mexican independence




Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1807 weakened royal control of colonies
1810: peasant revolt in Mexico led by Hidalgo, defeated by conservative creoles
1821: Mexico briefly a military dictatorship, then in 1822 a republic
Southern Viceroyalty of New Spain split into several independent states in 1830s
Simon Bolivar to 1822






Led independence movement in South America
Inspired by George Washington, took arms against Spanish rule in 1811
Creole forces overcame Spanish armies throughout South America, 1824
Bolivar's effort of creating the Gran Colombia failed in 1830s
Jose de San Martin to 1825



Led independence movements in Bolivia, Argentina, Chile
United efforts with Bolivar
Brazilian independence





Portuguese royal court fled to Rio de Janeiro, 1807
Brazil declared a separate kingdom during exilel
The king's son, Pedro, agreed to Brazilian independence, 1821
Became Emperor Pedro I in the independent Brazil (reigned 1822-1834)
Creole dominance in Latin America






Social classes: peninsulares, creoles, mestizos, slaves, indigenous peoples
Creoles sought to displace the peninsulares but retain their privileged position
Mestizos form the largest part of population, wanted rights
Independence brought little social change in Latin America
Principal beneficiaries were creole elites
Creole elite merged with peninsulares to rule Latin America
Mestizos acquired some benefits, Indians/blacks marginalized
Caribbean remained largely under European control
THE NEW AMERICAN MAP
LATIN AMERICA

Old Problems confront new realities

Leaders came from Enlightenment: spoke of equality, freedom







Political fragmentation
Political instability after independence

Creole leaders ruled but had little experience with self-government






Political instability aggravated by division among elites
Constant argument between centralizing and federalizing pressures
Intense fighting in Argentina, Chile; modern weapons against native peoples
Colonists had pacified most productive land by 1870s
Caudillos, Caudillism, Politics and the Church

Military leaders who held power after revolutionary era




White minority dominated politics
Peasant majority was without power
Conflicts between farmers, ranchers, indigenous peoples common


No allowance freedom of religion
Slavery ended but not exploitation of poor, Indians
Equality was too threatening to elite
Democracy uncommon, rich men voted
Old color distinctions did not disappear rapidly, easily, or at all
Used military to seize power, stay in control; interested only in power for own sake
Opposed liberalizing effects; often made alliances with aristocratic elites, land owners
Ruled through the church and opposed an secularization, reform of society
Mexico: war and reform from 1821-1911




Shifted from monarchy to republic to caudillo rule
La Reforma: liberal movement in 1850s led by President Benito Juarez
Granted universal male suffrage; limited power of priests and military
Reforms strongly opposed by landowning elites
NATIONALISM


Born in France (Joan of Arc), spread abroad during French Revolution
Idea began as radical, adopted by liberals, used by conservatives





Cultural nationalism







Demanded loyalty, solidarity from national group
Minorities sought independence as national community
Young Italy formed by Giuseppe Mazzini
World-wide spread




An expression of national identity
Emphasized common historical experience
Used folk culture, literature, music
Illustrated national spirit, distinctiveness
Political nationalism more intense in the nineteenth century


An idea which could unify society across social classes
Many aspects similar to religion, faith
Loyalty to state often replaces loyalty to church, monarch
Dominated 19th century
Contact with Europeans introduced others to idea of nationalism
Nationalism often brought with it western ideas, structures
Strongest in Middle East, India, Japan
Zionism



Jewish nationalism as a response to European anti-Semitism
Movement founded by Theodor Herzl to create Jewish state in Palestine
Jewish state of Israel finally created in 1948
EMERGENCE OF IDEOLOGIES
Conservatism

Called the Ancien Regime
Resisted change, opposed revolutions
Importance of continuity, tradition, aristocracy
Edmund Burke







Congress of Vienna was a Conservative restoration



Restored Balance of Power; ruled through great powers
Monarchy was at heart of conservatism
Liberalism







Welcomed controlled change as an agent of progress
Strongly middle class, support economic reform, education to help industrialization
Wanted to reform political structure, increase electorate slightly
Championed freedom, equality, democracy, written constitutions
Limits on state power, interference in individual freedoms
John Stuart Mill championed individual freedom and minority rights
Radicalism







Viewed society as organism that changed slowly over time
American Revolution: natural, logical outcome of history
French Revolution: violent and irresponsible
Accepted liberal ideas but wanted universal voting rights
Many wanted outright democracy, social reforms in interests of lower classes
A few were socialists, attacked all private property, class status
Saw radical solutions (revolution) as only way to status quo
Represented by French Revolution, democracy, early nationalism
Nationalism often both radical and liberal but largely anti-conservative
IMAGINED COMMUNITIES

Concert of Europe 1815 - 1860

Congress of Vienna, 1814-15




Concert of European great powers called Holy Alliance





UK, Russia, Prussia, Austria, France working in “concert”
Attempted to prevent revolutions, change
Intervened militarily to oppose change
Often forced to limit, control changes
Nationalist rebellions



Against old order throughout nineteenth century
1800s: Haiti, Latin America
1820s



Greek Revolution: rebels overcame Ottoman rule in 1827
Mehmet Ali in Egypt, defeated by French, English, Russians
1830/1848



Conservative victory: restore old order after defeat of Napoleon
Maintained balance of power in Europe for a century
Failed in repressing nationalist and revolutionary ideas
Italy, Belgium, France, Spain, Portugal, Poland, Austria, Germany
Conservatism usually restored but revolutionary ideals persisted
Imagined Communities


Groups begin to form based on a perceived sense of community
Each group defined by agreed upon set of values, goals
THE SOCIALIST CHALLENGE
Socialism

Arose as an outgrowth of the Industrial Revolution
Accelerated by the horrible conditions of the workers in the cities


Utopian socialists

Charles Fourier, Robert Owen, and their followers
Established model communities based on principle of equality
Stressed cooperative control of industry, education for all children



Marxian Socialists (Communists)

Marx (1818-1883), Engels (1820-1895), leading socialists
Scorned the utopian socialists as unrealistic, unproductive
Critique of industrial capitalism










The Communist Manifesto, 1848
Claimed excesses of capitalism would lead to a communist revolution
Revolution would wipe away capitalism and establish a socialist society
“Dictatorship of the proletariat" would destroy capitalism
Socialism would follow; a fair, just, and egalitarian society
Ideas dominated European, international socialism throughout 19th century

Revisionism: Democratic Socialism and Reform Socialism

Combined aspects of socialism with democracy




Public ownership of means of production, regulation of industries
Limits to private property, accumulation of wealth
Power achieved democratically through elections, trade unions
Social reform came gradually, through legislative measures



Regulated hours and restricted work for women and children
Under Bismarck, Germany provided medical insurance and social security
Trade unions formed to represent interests of industrial workers




Unrestrained competition led to ruthless exploitation of working class
State, courts, police: all tools of the capitalist ruling class
Faced stiff opposition from employers and governments
Forced employers to be more responsive to workers' needs; averted violence
Socialist parties began to compete in elections, seek expanded electorate
UNIFICATION OF ITALY, GERMANY
Italy

After Congress of Vienna




Italy divided into small states: all states except Sardinia, Papacy ruled by foreign dynasties
Austria was the preeminent power in Italy
Mazzini, Nationalist, formed Young Italy inspired uprisings against foreign rule
1848 Nationalist revolution destroyed by Austrian troops
Sardinia and Cavour





Italian Sardinia only ethnic Italian state
Prime Minister of Sardinia becomes leader of nationalists
Expelled Austrian authorities in northern Italy, 1859 with French aide
Garibaldi



Revolutionary nationalist, democrat
Staged revolutions, later seized control of Southern Italy
1860-1870: Italian states united under Sardinia

Germany

After Congress of Vienna Dominated by Austrian von Metternich




1848 Revolution




Destroyed by Austria
Ended hope of liberalism, constitutionalism, national unification
Left Prussia humiliated, looking for revenge
Prussian and Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)






German Confederacy a collection of independent states dominated by Austria
Prussia the largest German state but limited in action by Austria
Metternich’s System: preserved conservatism, persecuted liberalism, hated nationalism
Created a united Germany through blood and iron
Used conservatism, militarism married with nationalism
Bismarck provoked three wars that swelled German pride
Defeated Austria, France to unify Germany under Prussia
1871, Prussian king proclaimed emperor of the Second Reich
MAPS OF UNIFICATION
THE UNITED STATES

Jacksonian Democracy




Expansion of electorate to include poorer, western Americans
By 1820s all adult white men could vote and hold office
Constant tension between states rights, federal powers
Rapid westward expansion after the revolution





Britain ceded lands east of Mississippi to US
1803, US purchased France's Louisiana Territory
By 1840s, coast-to-coast expansion was claimed as “manifest destiny”
The Mexican-American War, 1845-1848
Conflict with indigenous peoples followed





An Era of Compromise Avoided Conflict 1820-1854





North had the population, dominated House of Representatives
South wanted to preserve slavery but would lose a vote in House
Missouri Compromise in 1820 admitted one slave, one free state
South able to block abolition of slavery in Senate
Sectional conflict





1830, Indian Removal Act forced eastern Indians to move west of Mississippi
Thousands died on the "Trail of Tears" to Oklahoma
Stiff resistance to expansion: Battle of Little Big Horn, 1876, Sioux victory
U.S. massacre at Wounded Knee, 1890, ended Indian Wars
19th century cotton cultivation in south was dependent on slave labor
Northern states did not want slavery expanded into new territories
Expansion, new states, fugitive slave law made compromise impossible
Abraham Lincoln elected president, 1860; publicly opposed to slavery
The U.S. Civil War, 1861-1865

With Lincoln's election, eleven southern states seceded from the Union





Southerners believed their economy of cotton and slaves was self-sufficient
Northerners fought to preserve the Union as much as in opposition to slavery
In 1863, Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation made abolition goal of the war
By 1865, the industrial north defeated the agricultural south
The war ended slavery, enhanced authority of the federal government
USA IN MAPS
CANADIAN DOMINION

Independence came without war

Autonomy and division characterized Canadian history





French Quebec taken by Britain after the Seven Years' War





After 1781, many British loyalists fled United States to seek refuge in Canada
Anti-U.S. sentiments due to US invasions, pillaging
Created sense of unity among French and British Canadians
1830s





Increased Irish, English, Scottish, German immigration
Tensions between French, growing English population
Metis Rebellion: French Indians rebel in west
1840-1867, British granted home rule to Canadians
Dominion of Canada created in 1867

Federal constitutional monarchy




Quebec Act was a large cause of war with American colonies
British authorities made large concessions to French Canadians
The War of 1812 unified Canada against U.S. invaders


Distance from England, isolation in north and interior led to self-government, autonomy
Always a contest between English speaking, French speaking groups
Immigrants and Amerindians dominated in the interior
Eastern Canada (Quebec, Ontario, Maritime Provinces) dominate Canada
Government with a governor-general acting for British monarch
Canadian Parliament and Provincial governments share rule
Britain retained jurisdiction over foreign affairs until 1931
Prime Minister John Macdonald strengthens Canadian independence




Persuaded western and maritime provinces to join the Dominion, 1860s
Transcontinental railroad completed, 1885
Settlement of Western plains by Scandinavian, German, Ukrainian immigrants
Development of Canada as major exporter of grain, dairy products
CANADA IN IMAGES
EURASIAN SOCIETIES AT A CROSSROAD

Threatened Societies





Common problems







Military weakness, vulnerability to foreign threats
Internal weakness especially from disaffected groups
Economic problems, financial difficulties
Corruption and unresponsive elites
Issues of westernization vs. modernization
Western interests often dominate government, economy
Reform efforts




SW Asia: Ottoman Empire, Persia
Eastern Europe: Russia, Austria-Hungary
East Asia: China, Korea, and Japan
Southeast Asia: Vietnam, Thailand
Attempts at political and educational reform
Attempts at industrialization
Often turned to western models
Different results of reforms

Ottoman Empire, Austria, Russia, Iran, and China



Japan



Reforms unsuccessful
Societies on the verge of collapse
Reform in Japan was more thorough
Japan emerged as an industrial power
Korea, Vietnam, Thailand



Issues complicated by colonialism, imperialism
Korea annexed by Japan; Indochina annexed by France
Thailand maintains independence as a buffer between France, Great Britain
EURASIA IN 1871
OTTOMAN DECLINE
Military decline since the late seventeenth century

Ottoman forces behind European armies in strategy, tactics, weaponry, training



Russia made war on Ottomans to divert domestic problems
Austria, other European powers support local Christians independence







Egyptian general Muhammad Ali built a powerful, modern army
Ali's army threatened Ottomans, made Egypt an autonomous province
France annexes Muslim Algeria in 1830 and Tunisia in 1882
The State







Government was cumbersome, bureaucratized, medieval
State was multinational and not all Muslim
Power resided often with the provincial governors, elite
Unwilling to adopt modern European methods or reform infrastructure
Dominated by bureaucrats, landed elite unwilling to change
Sultan does not wish to change; Islam unwilling to admit it has fallen
Economic difficulties began in seventeenth century






Less trade through empire as Europeans shifted to the Atlantic Ocean basin
Exported raw materials, imported European manufactured goods
Heavily depended on foreign loans, half of the revenues paid to loan interest
Corruption, overtaxation of peasants further weakens Ottoman state
Foreigners began to administer the debts of the Ottoman state by 1882
The "capitulations": European domination of Ottoman economy





Lost Caucasus and central Asia to Russia
Western frontiers to Austria
Balkan provinces to Greece and Serbia
Egypt gained autonomy after Napoleon's failed campaign in 1798


Janissary corps politically corrupt, undisciplined, unable to fight
Provincial governors gained power, private armies
Extraterritoriality: Europeans exempt from Ottoman law within the empire
Could operate tax-free, levy their own duties in Ottoman ports
Deprived empire of desperately needed income
Similar problems in most Muslim states including Persia, Morocco
OTTOMAN REFORM, REORGANIZATION
Attempt to reform military

Led to violent Janissary revolt (1807-1808), suppression of Janissaries
Reformer Mahmud II (1808-1839) became sultan after revolt
Janissaries resisted, Mahmud had them killed; reforms followed
He built an European-style army, academies, schools, roads, and telegraph




Legal, educational reforms

Called Tanzimat ("reorganization") era (1839-1876)
Ruling class sought sweeping restructuring to strengthen state
Broad legal reforms, modeled after Napoleon's civic code
State reform of education (1846), free and compulsory primary education (1869)
Undermined authority of the ulama, enhanced the state authority





Opposition to Tanzimat reforms

Religious conservatives critical of attack on Islamic law and tradition
Legal equality for minorities resented by some, even a few minority leaders
Young Ottomans wanted more reform: freedom, autonomy, decentralization
High-level bureaucrats wanted more power, checks on the sultan's power




Cycles of reform and repression

1876, coup staged by bureaucrats who demanded a constitutional government
New sultan Abd al-Hamid II (1876-1909)




The Young Turks






Proved an autocrat: suspended constitution, dissolved parliament, and punished liberals
Reformed army and administration: became source of the new opposition
After 1889, an active body of opposition led by army, navy officers
Called for universal suffrage, equality, freedom, secularization, women's rights
Forced Abd al-Hamid to restore constitution, dethroned him (1909)
Nationalistic: favored Turkish dominance within empire, led to Arab resistance
The empire survived only because of distrust among European powers
MUSLIM RESISTANCE

Resistance

Muslim universities



Muslim Army Officers in Service of Europeans



Often educated in western style universities, learned western ideas
Become source of anti-Western activities even while supporting reform
Revolt in the Sudan

Egypt nominally ruled Sudan, attempted to enforce control








Egypt able to control Nile farmers; opposition comes from nomads, herders
Rule greatly resented as it was corrupt, overtaxed peasants
British pressure Egyptians to eradicate slavery, upsetting Muslims (Koran allows)
Muhammad Achmad “The Mahdi” (1870s)

Direct descendant of the Prophet Muhammad; proclaims jihad against Egyptians, British masters
Wahhabis Reformer: A very puritanical form of Islam, seeks to purify Islam
Purge Islam of problems; reform, modernize but not at expense to Islam
Overran all of Sudan, threatens Egypt, killed British commander at Khartoum
Khalifa Abdallahi and the Mahdist state



Frequently organized education around western model
Educated several generations of students
The Mahdi dies; his successor builds an Islamic state under rule of Koran
Threatens to overrun all of Middle East, drive out foreigners, westernizers; British intervene
Reality: Reformers Discredited



Religious revivalists who wanted a return to a pure Islam proved unsuccessful
Reformers willing to borrow some western ideas could not win over people
British (Europeans) will send in army to crush revolts, threats to Europeans
QING (MANCHU) CHINA

Qing China (1622 – 1911)

Nomadic dynasty from Manchuria




Retained much of Chinese political traditions, institutions



Retained examination system
Ruled through Confucian scholars
Qing Army



To rule, maintained strict separation of Chinese, Manchu
Chinese not allowed to settle in Manchuria
Manchurians not allowed to marry Chinese
Manchurian nomadic army based on cavalry
Unwilling to use modern weapons
Rot from Within begins in 18th century

Emperor isolated, ineffective




Bureaucracy






Public works (dikes, water management) reduced, river silted
Military in decline, fleet in trouble, armies unreliable
Peasants lot deteriorated



Too large and cumbersome, corrupt and conservative
Examination system riddled with favoritism, elitism, cheating
Wealthy buy positions in bureaucracy
Bureaucrats had no qualifications, training
Diversion of state funds to private families


Surrounded by eunuchs, advisors who kept him isolated
Lived in Forbidden City at center of Beijing
Extreme politics amongst bureaucrats, eunuchs, harem
Food shortages, landlord demands
Bandits on roads, beggars everywhere
Lack of innovation, reform or insight
CHINA UNDER PRESSURE

The Taiping rebellion

Internal turmoil in China in the later nineteenth century




The Taiping ("Great Peace") program proposed by Hong Xiuquan





Gentry sided with government; regional armies had European weapons
Taipings defeated in 1864; the war claimed twenty to thirty million lives
Reform frustrated

The Self-Strengthening Movement (1860-1895)





Blended Chinese cultural traditions with European industrial technology
Built shipyards, railroads, weapon industries, steel foundries, academies
Not enough industry to make a significant change
Powerful empress dowager Cixi opposed changes
The hundred-days reforms (1898)




Called for end of Qing dynasty; resented Manchu rule
Radical social change: no private property, footbinding, concubinage
Popular in southeast China; seized Nanjing (1853), moved on Beijing
Taiping defeat by combined Qing and foreign troops


Population grew by 50 percent; land and food more slowly; poverty strained resources
Other problems: official corruption, drug addiction
Four major rebellions in 1850s and 1860s; the most dangerous was the Taiping
Two Confucian scholars advised radical changes in imperial system
Young emperor Guangxu inspired to launch wide-range reforms
Movement crushed by Cixi; emperor imprisoned; reformers killed
The Boxer rebellion





Real name: the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists, 1899-1900
Local militia attacked foreigners, foreign legations, Chinese Christians
Crushed by European and Japanese troops
Chinese forced to sign humiliating treaties
Collapse of Qing dynasty in 1912
JAPAN: SHOGUN TO EMPEROR
Crisis and reform in early nineteenth century

Emperor isolated, secluded; shogun = military dictator




Centralized bureaucracy; alliances with feudal lords
Japan not unaware of what was going on in wider world
Dutch allowed to visit Japan at Nagasaki once a year
Crisis



Crop failure, high taxes on agriculture, rising rice prices
All led to protests and rebellions
Reforms and ideas conflict




Government: Neo-Confucian conservative reforms
Dutch Learning: Support western studies, reforms, working with west; anti-Chinese
National Studies: praised Japanese traditions, emperor, Shinto led to ultranationalism
Foreign pressure on Japan

European wanted her to reverse long-standing closed door policy



Europeans wanted to trade, wanted safe ports for whaling fleets
1844 requests by British, French, U.S. for the right of entry rebuffed
1853



U.S. Commodore Perry sailed U.S. fleet to Tokyo Bay, demanded entry
Japan forced to accept unequal treaties with U.S., other western countries
The end of Tokugawa rule





British, French, Russians demand, receive similar treaties to US
Widespread opposition to shogun rule, especially in provinces
Dissidents rallied around emperor in Kyoto, attack foreigners
Tosa-Satsuma Samurai Rebellion/Civil War breaks out in 1866
The Meiji restoration, 1868




Dissident Samurai militia loyal to emperor defeats Shogun’s troops
The boy emperor Mutsuhito, or Meiji, regained authority; Shogunate abolished
End of almost seven centuries of military rule in Japan
JAPAN: MEIJI ERA
Meiji government welcomed foreign expertise

Fukuzawa Yukichi studied western constitutions and education
Ito Hirobumi helped build Japanese constitutional government


Social Revolution: 1873 - 1876

Abolition of the feudal order essential to new government
Daimyo and samurai lost status, privileges; class abolished





Samurai issued bonds to pay for loss, but inflation led to impoverishment
Samurai rebelled but the new national conscript army put rebellion down
Some went into business, created western-style companies (Mitsubishi)
Districts reorganized to break up old feudal domains
Emperor created new nobility based on English style House of Peers


Revamping tax system

Converted grain taxes to a fixed money tax: more reliable income for state
Assessed taxes on potential productivity of arable land


Constitutional government, the emperor's "gift" to the people in 1889

Emperor remained supreme, limited the rights of the people
Less than 5 percent of adult males could vote
Legislature, the Diet, was an opportunity for debate and dissent but limited powers



Remodeling the economy and infrastructure

Transportation: railroads, telegraph, steamships
Education: universal primary and secondary; competitive universities
Industry: privately owned, government controlled arms industry
Zaibatsu: powerful financial combines merged banking, manufacturing, merchants




Costs of economic development borne by Japanese people

Land tax





Cost peasants 40 percent to 50 percent of crop yield
Provided 90 percent of state revenue
Peasant uprisings crushed; little done to alleviate suffering
Labor movement also crushed; Meiji law treated unions and strikes as criminal
Japan became an industrial power in a single generation



Ended unequal treaties in 1899
Defeated China in 1895 and Russia in 1904
AFRICA

Africa 1750 – 1850








North Africa nominally part of the Ottoman Empire
Sudan, Sahel Africa had most powerful, developed states
West Africa forest kingdoms part of the Atlantic slave trade
East Africa dominated by native kingdoms, Swahili trading states
South Africa: population dispersal, state building of the Ngoni
Few European possessions in Africa
Atlantic (not Islamic) slave trade ended in early 19th century
Age of Exploration leads to Imperialism


Europeans explore Africa, developed interest in Africa
Permitted by technology



Africa was the center, objective of imperialism



Transportation, weaponry made it easy
Medicines made it possible
Africa was partitioned between Europeans
Only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent
Infrastructures and Changes

Political




Colonial powers ignored indigenous peoples almost totally
Set boundaries to states, destroying tribes, unity
Ruled indirectly through local elites, who they could remove at will
Undermined traditional systems of rule





Economic

Exploitation is the key word







Chiefs derived authority from gods
Missionaries challenge traditional religion
Chiefs lost prestige associated with land as people earned money
Western educated locals challenge traditional ways
Minerals solely for benefit of mother country
Cash crops and agriculture dominated by European crops, interests
Europeans take best, richest lands for cattle, farming
Building of railroads, infrastructure especially ports
Breakdown of African barter system; replaced by monetary system
Africans forced to work on European farms, in European factories by tax, levies, force
Loss of African self-sufficiency
MAPPING AFRICA, 1830
AFRICA 1914
RUSSIA: EMPIRE UNDER PRESSURE
Post-1812

Great concern with defense, liberal ideas as threat to old order
Government introduced reforms to improve bureaucracy
Made an alliance with the conservative powers of Europe to maintain order



December Uprising 1825

Death of Alexander I prompted some western-oriented officers to rebel
Suppressed mercilessly by new tsar


Nicholas I

Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality
State became very repressive, secret police
Policeman of Europe: used army to suppress revolutions
Suppressed rebellion in Poland
Policy of foreign wars to divert domestic problems





Serfdom Issue

Russia needed work force in order to industrial



Serfdom not efficient
Lack of workers in cities an obstacle to economic development
Gap between western, eastern Europe economic systems
Emancipation of serfs by Alexander II begun in 1863






Due to loss in Crimean War
Serfs gained right to own land, got most of the land from nobles
Nobles kept best and gave worst to serfs
Serfs had no political rights; had to pay a redemption tax on land: kept them in permanent debt
Emancipation did not increase agricultural production
Tsar was careful to preserve aristocratic order; serfs received no political rights


Political and legal reforms followed

1864: creation of zemstvos






Local assemblies with representatives from all classes
Tended to only see local interests and not national concerns; legal reform more successful
A weak system: nobles dominated, tsar held veto power
Small middle class grew; improved corps of army officers; middle class politicians, bureaucrats
Literacy increased; readership spread; some women enter intellectual community
RUSSIAN REPRESSION & MARXISM
Cycles of protest and repression

Peasants





Often landless, no political power
Frustrated by lack of meaningful reform
Peasant uprisings become more common than serf as frustration heightened
Population increased as potato introduced, increasing pressures on society
Social Protest


Antigovernment protest and revolutionary activity increased in 1870s



Middle Class, some aristocrats advocated rights, political representation
Radical Intelligentsia advocated socialism and anarchism, recruited in countryside
Repression by tsarist authorities: secret police, censorship
Russification: sparked ethnic nationalism, attacks on Jews tolerated

Terrorism emerges as a tool of opposition

Radicals wanted solution to social issue from a Russian perspective





Young intellectuals went directly to the peasants
Most opposed westernization, autocracy, capitalism
Many became peasant anarchists
Alexander II, the reforming tsar, assassinated by a bomb in 1881
Nicholas II (1894-1917), more oppressive, conservative ruler

Marxism and the Reality of Russia

Marx foresaw a revolution by workers
Russia lacked lack worker base; society was largely peasant
Workers tended to be radical but misdirected
Russia lacked a middle class running society prior to revolution




The Bolsheviks (Russian Marxists) & Vladimir Ilyich Lenin

From middle class bureaucratic family, was an intellectual
Argued that proletariat was developing in advance of revolution





Felt Russia could have a revolution without a middle class phase
Organized an elite revolutionary party to lead workers, peasants
Organized the Bolsheviks
Party was secretive as Russian secret police everywhere



Infiltrated unions, workers organizations, peasant groups
Agitated against government, organized secret cells to lead revolution
MARXISM:
Workers
will stage a
revolution and
overthrow
capitalism, state
LENINISM:
Will only
succeed with
the leadership of
an elite
group of
revolutionaries
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905

Russian Revolution of 1905

Military defeat, humiliation in Russo-Japanese War was cause



Massive protests followed news of defeat







Workers tended towards non-Marxist socialists; Marxists marginalized
Sought to achieve ends without full scale revolution
A Fizzled Revolution

Tsar forced to accept elected legislature, the Duma







Many parties elected with conflicting interests
Unable, unwilling to cooperate
Rendered ineffective by tsar, bureaucracy
Stolypin Reforms


Poor workers of St. Petersburg march to palace to ask tsar for help
Unarmed workers shot down by government troops
Peasants seized landlords' property, killed landlords
Workers formed soviets (worker councils) in cities, factories


Workers mounted general strikes in St. Petersburg, Moscow
Peasant insurrections in countryside against landlords
Police repressions ineffective, just upset people
Bloody Sunday massacre


Russia always diverted domestic tension by short, successful wars
In 1870s, 1880s had expanded against Ottoman Empire
Reforms allowed peasants to buy land; end redemptive payments
Small group of very successful peasant landowners began to arise
Rights for workers gradually ignored, cancelled
Army failed to support revolution
For the Future



Nicholas II was weak, ill-advised, unwilling to end autocracy
Russian Marxists emboldened, reorganized, radicalized
Peasants, workers radicalized, unlikely to cooperate in future
A MULTINATIONAL EMPIRE

Austria 1750 – 1814




A collection of states ruled by the Hapsburg family who were also the Holy Roman Emperors
The Holy Roman Empire was neither holy, nor Roman nor an empire
No common government, few common institutions (save Catholicism)
Austria in 1815 – 1860


One of the victors against Napoleon: extremely conservative and reactionary
The weakest, most threatened of Europe’s great powers

Prime Minister Metternich dominated German Confederation, Italy







1848 Revolution nearly destroyed state
Russia intervened to suppress revolutions
Austria then intervened in Germany, Italy to suppress revolutions
Prussia fights to isolate Austria, unify Germany w/o Austria
Austria in 1866 – 1870

Defeated in 1858 by French-Sardinian Alliance; 1866 by Prussia




Driven from German Confederation, Italy
Sees nationalism, German unification triumph under rival Prussia
Sees Italy united under Sardinia; Papal states erased
1867 Ausgleich with Hungarians


Hungarians formed resistive group; 2nd largest nationality in empire
Agree to rule jointly with Hungarians; name changed to Austria-Hungary



Used force, coercion to prevent German, Italian nationalism
Opposed nationalism, liberalism, democracy
Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenians, Serbo-Croats, Poles, Ruthenians, Rumanians disenfranchised
Magyars insist upon assimilation of its peoples
Austria 1870 – 1914




Industrialization occurs in Czech area but remains largely agrarian
Many citizens immigrate due to hardships, repressive rule of Magyars
State unable to reform as it is blocked by aristocrats, Germans, Magyars
State threatened by Pan-Slavic nationalism



Russia became a permanent enemy in Balkans along with Serbia
Forms an alliance with Germany to protect state
Opposes any form of national independence for Balkan Slavs, own Slavs
MAP OF CONFUSION
NATIONALISM & IMPERIALISM

Nationalism heavily involved in imperialism


Source of national pride, strength to acquire colonies
Non-Westerners soon learned to be nationalist



India

Two types of state-structures in India






Educated Indians met, with British approval, to discuss public affairs
Congress aired grievances about colonial rule, sought Indian self-rule
1906, All-India Muslim League




Sought an Indian society based on European science and traditional Hinduism
Used press to mobilize educated Hindus and advance reform
The Indian National Congress, founded 1885


Princely States: States ruled by Indian princes, assisted by British officials
British possessions: States ruled directly by British
Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833), "father of modern India"

Formed to advance interests of Indian Muslims
Limited reform, 1909;
Wealthy Indians could elect representatives to local councils
Indian nationalism



Many studied in Western schools, learned western knowledge to get ahead
Many defined their sense of nation as response to imperialism
A powerful movement, achieved independence in 1947
India served as a model for anti-colonial campaigns in other lands
Other Examples






Sepoy Rebellion in India (1856)
Meiji Restoration in Japan
1898 Boxer Rebellion in China
Late 1800s Mahdist Rebellion and State in the Sudan
1898 Boer War in South Africa
1905 Iranian, 1910 Mexican, 1911 Chinese Revolutions
NATIONALIST RIVALRIES
Nationalism spread by the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars




Self-determination: each ethnic group had a right to a sovereign state
Concept was ignored or opposed by dynastic powers
Considerable nationalistic tensions in Ottoman, Hapsburg, and Russian empires
Slavic nationalism in the Balkans







Stressed kinship of all Slavic peoples
Pan-Slavism was a movement to unite all Slavs under the Russian tsar
Ottoman empire shrank as first Greece, then others, gained independence
Serbs of Austria-Hungary sought unification with independent Serbia
Russians promoted Pan-Slavism in Austria-Hungarian empire
Germany backed Austria-Hungary to fight ethnic nationalism
The naval race between Germany and Britain increased tensions



Germany's rapid industrialization threatened British economic predominance
Both states built huge iron battleships, called dreadnoughts
Colonial disputes of the late nineteenth century





Germany unified in 1871; came late to the colonial race
German resentment and antagonism toward both France and Britain
France and Germany nearly fought over Morocco in 1905
Balkan wars (1912-13) further strained European diplomatic relations
Public opinion supported national rivalries



Attitudes of aggressive patriotism among European citizens
Leaders under pressure to be aggressive, to take risks
IRANIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905-1911

Causes



Intellectuals feel that to save Iran they would have to limit Shah’s power
Encroachment by Russians, British on Iranian territory upset Iranians
Initiated by the Majilis or Iranian Parliament



1905: A year of demonstrations and strikes
Parliamentarians tended to be educated, merchants, clerics, young
Introduced the constitutional concept of government



1906




Constitutionalists failed to protect victory against domestic, international threats
Trade Russian influence for British control
Took at face value Mohammed Ali Shah's pledges to respect constitution
1907-1908




UK, Russia prepare to divide Iran into “spheres of influence”
Mohammed Ali Shah used opportunity to overthrow constitution
Shah attempts to kill constitutionalists, forced to abdicate, flees
Spheres of influence


Anglo-Russian convention signed on August 31, 1907
Divided Iran into three zones




People were sovereign and their representatives were delegated to enact the laws
Old Shah abdicates, new shah accepts constitutional limitations
1910


Russia took Northern part
British zone paralleled the Persian Gulf, Indian empire
Neutral zone across center of country open to both interests
Russia invades
Helps old Shah reestablish his rule in Iran
MEXICAN REVOLUTION 1911- 1920

The Revolution (1910-1920)


Middle class joins peasants, workers overthrow Diaz
Class Factions




1910-1914: all rebels vs. Diaz and Huerta
1914-20: Carranza, Obregon vs. Zapata, Villa
Regional Revolutions: North, South, Yucatan
Course of the Revolution

Liberal Middle Class Leaders

Francisco Madero rules at first





General Huerta, army side with landowners, kills Madero
Venustiano Carranza







Organizes coalition with Villa, Zapata, Obregon
US troops sent by Wilson support Carranza, Huerta resigns
Peasant, Common Rebels


Seeks middle class constitutional democracy
Opposes land reform; landless peasants attack large landowners
Peasant armies win pitched battles against government troops
Pancho Villa led northern rebels, especially landless peasants
Emiliano Zapata initiates land reform in the Southern areas he controls
US Intervenes in 1914 (Veracruz) and 1916 (Chasing Pancho Villa)
Civil War 1914 – 1917: Constitutionalists (Carranza) win, reestablish control
Women’s Roles: Soldaderas (camp followers), Soldiers, Political Activists
New Constitution of 1917 brought sweeping reform






Advanced nationalist, radical views
Universal male suffrage (hostile to women)
Power, property of Church restricted
Free, secular, obligatory primary education
Returned lands seized illegally; curbed foreign ownership
8 hour work day, Minimum wage, Strikes legal
CHINESE REVOLUTION

Reform Fails



Chinese elites unwilling, unable to reform
Boxer Rebellion shows weakness of state, humiliating to Chinese
Chinese leaders


Leaders educated abroad, especially Japan, US
Sun Yat-sen



Sun’s Three Principles of the People






Local army rebellion followed by many armies
Joined by United League members
2/3 of provinces join rebels
1912





Nationalism: Overthrow Manchus, end foreign hegemony
Democracy: Popularly elected republican form of government
People's Livelihood: help people, regulate means of production, land
1911 Revolution broke out in Hubei


Founds United League in Tokyo using Chinese foreign funds
Wins support of many military officers, foreign exiles
Last Emperor abdicates
Sun Yat-sen inaugurated as first president
General Yuanshikai in Beijing takes control
Sun resigns as president to unify the state
Results




Revolution did not establish a stable republic
China fell into warlords' rule
Through unequal treaties, foreign states still controlled economy of China
Growth of Chinese nationalism, radicalism