MODERN ERA:
1750 - 1914
SOCIAL AND GENDER
STRUCTURES
GENERALIZED EFFECTS OF
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
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Increased Population
Increased Urbanization
Increased migration, immigration
Increased wealth
Spread of wealth to middle class
New consumerism
New roles for women, poor, minorities
Change in child rearing, childhood
Rise of a technical, managerial class
Invention of leisure time, common culture
Increasing demand for social reform, worker rights
Increased life span, living standard; decreased death rate
Emancipation of slaves, serfs
WESTERN INDUSTRY & FAMILIES
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New social classes created by industrialization
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Captains of industry: a new aristocracy of wealth
Middle class: managers, accountants, new professionals
Working class: unskilled, poorly paid, vulnerable
Dramatic changes to the industrial family
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Sharp distinction between work and family life
Worked long hours outside home
Family members led increasingly separate lives
Fathers and Sons
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Gained increased stature, responsibility in industrial age
Middle- and upper-class men were sole providers
Valued self-improvement, discipline, and work ethic
Imposed these values on working-class men
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Workers often resisted work discipline
Working-class culture: bars, sports, gambling, outlets away from work
Mothers and daughters
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Opportunities narrowed by industrialization
Working women could not bring children to work in mines or factories
Middle-class women expected to care for home and children
Increased opportunities for women to work in domestic service
Children
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Many children forced to work in industry to contribute to family support
1840s, Parliament began to regulate child labor
1881, primary education became mandatory in England
LIMITS TO REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS
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Testing the limits of revolutionary ideals: women's rights
– Enlightenment call for equality not generally extended to women
• Women used logic of Locke to argue for women's rights
• Mary Astell attacked male dominance in the family
• Mary Wollstonecraft: women possessed same natural rights as men
– Women crucial to revolutionary activities
• French revolution granted women rights of education, property, no vote
• Olympe de Gouges's declaration of full citizenship for women too radical
• Women made no significant gains in other revolutions
– Gained ground in the nineteenth century in United States and Europe
• Seneca Falls Declaration of Women’s Rights
• Women became involved in abolitionist, temperance, reform movements
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Testing the limits of revolutionary ideals: slavery
– Movements to end slave trade
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Began in 1700s, gained momentum during revolutions
In 1807 British Parliament outlawed slave trade
US ended it in 1807; other states followed
Illegal slave trade to Brazil, in Africa, internal within US continued
– Movements to abolish slavery: difficult because of property rights
• In Haiti, much of South America, end of slavery came with independence
• In Western society, campaign against slave trade became abolish slavery
– Abolition
• In Britain in 1833, France in 1848, the United States in 1865, Brazil in 1888
• Last areas to abolish slavery were Africa and Muslim world
• Abolition brought legal freedom for slaves but not political equality
ABOLITION OF SLAVERY
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Process advocated with Enlightenment, Methodism
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Process expanded by Revolutions, Women’s Movements
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Many revolutionaries advocated ending slavery
Many revolutionary governments abolished slavery (France)
Haitian slave revolt scares American slave holders
Women advocated end to slavery as a corollary to gender equality
Process realized by the British and Americans
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Ideas of equality of men becomes widespread
Philosophes attacked slavery, slave trade
Methodism, spreading in 18th, 19th centuries condemned slavery
William Wilberforce campaigned to end slavery, slave trade all his life
British parliament outlawed slave trade; US ended slave trade in 1808 (had internal slave trade)
British, US navies enforce ban; hang slavers, freed slaves to Sierra Leone (Amistad Mutiny)
Latin American revolutions abolish slavery during revolutions
British emancipate slaves in 1833 throughout their empire
Civil Wars, Emancipations and Manumissions
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US abolished slavery through Force of Arms, Civil War
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Russia abolished serfdom in 1863
Brazil emancipated and manumitted its slaves in 1888
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Emancipation Proclamation 1863
14th, 15th, 16th Amendments of 1866
Princess Regent of Brazil abolished slavery in political fight with land owners
Brazilian elite abolish monarchy, paid slave holders for their lost slaves
Slavery trade still existed in Muslim world, Africa, East Africa (British suppress in 1870s)
Contract labor, share cropping, indentured servitude, tenant farming remained
Racial equality not included as part of abolition
CHANGES IN WESTERN
SOCIETY AFTER 1850
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Changes for workers
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Growth of white collar work force
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Better wages
Decrease of working hours
Rise of leisure time
Increased health, physical risks
Managerial
Entrepreneurial
Bureaucratic workers of government
Secretarial, office workers
Growth of blue collar work force
– Industrial
– Technical
– Miners
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Decrease in ratio of farmers to whole society
– Technology increased productivity
– Increased productivity lower prices, reduced need for farmers
– Farmers began to migrate to cities, industry; immigrate abroad
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Increased roles for women due to industrialization, education
AMERICAN MULTI-RACIAL SOCIETIES
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The United States
By late 19TH century
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Native peoples had been pushed onto reservations
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Dawes Act, 1887: encouraged natives to farm on marginal land
Slaughter of buffalo threatened plains Indians' survival
Children sent to boarding schools, lost native language, traditions
Freed slaves often denied civil rights
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Northern armies forced South to undergo Reconstruction
After Reconstruction, a violent backlash overturned reforms
South segregated; blacks denied opportunities, political rights
American women's movement had limited success
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"Declaration of Sentiments" issued by American feminists in 1848
Sought education, employment, and political rights
Migrants
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United States was a multicultural society
Dominated by white elites
25 million Europeans to America from 1840-1914
Hostile reaction to foreigners from "native-born" Americans
Newcomers concentrated in districts like Little Italy and Chinatown
Antagonism to Asians led to legal exclusion of Chinese and Japanese migrants
Brazil and the United States had many similarities
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Key difference was that Brazil had a higher percentage of blacks, mixed populations
Brazil avoided a civil war and emancipated peacefully
Interior of Brazil remained largely unsettled, unexploited; Indians mistreated
NEO-EUROPEAN CONTRASTS
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Neo-Europes
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Defined: Settler colonies which came to resemble European societies
In all practical purposes they were part of the Western World
Canada
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Ethnic diversity beyond dominant British and French populations
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Significant minority of indigenous people displaced by whites
Blacks
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Chinese migrants came to goldfields of British Columbia, worked on railroad
Late nineteenth and early twentieth century, waves of European migrants
Expansion into Northwest Territories increased British and French conflicts
Northwest Rebellion
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Led by the métis, descendents of French traders and native women
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Conflict between natives, métis, and white settlers in west, 1870s and 1880s
Louis Riel, leader of western métis and indigenous peoples
Riel organized a government and army to protect land and trading rights
Canadian authorities outlawed his government and exiled him, 1870s
In 1885
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Free after 1833 but not equal
Former slaves, some escaped from United States
Riel again led métis resistance against railroads and British settlements
Rebels were subdued and Riel was executed for treason
French Canadians suspicious of British elites after Northwest Rebellion
Australia, New Zealand (and to a lesser degree, South Africa) resemble Canada
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Aborigines, Maoris, Bantus all driven from lands, placed in reservations
Some examples of resistance by Zulu, Maoris to British settlement
In all except South Africa, large European immigration overwhelmed natives
LATIN AMERICAN SOCIETY
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Latin American societies
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Organized by ethnicity and color, legacy of colonialism
European descendants dominate all aspects of state, economic, social life
Europeanization of all aspects, classes, activities of society
Bipolar society
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Castes
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Small number of Chinese in Cuba assimilated through intermarriage
East Indians in Trinidad, Tobago preserved cultural traditions
European migrants made Buenos Aires "the Paris of the Americas“
Most cultural diverse society was Brazil with Europeans, Blacks, Indians, mixed
Male domination
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Legally abolished by revolutions but de jure is not de facto
Stigma of color and former status prevented much change
Liberal reforms, Positivism often sacrificed legal rights, color for economic wealth, profit
Large-scale migration in nineteenth century brought cultural diversity
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Male vs. Female
Elite vs. Masses
White vs. Colored
Urban vs. rural
Central feature of Latin American society in nineteenth century
Machismo: culture of male strength, aggression
Women’s Rights
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Women barred legally from any influence; remained under nearest male’s influence
No significant women's movement
Aristocratic women more constrained than lower classes
Poor women worked, often controlled local markets
Efforts to improve education girls increased opportunities for women (as teachers)
SOCIETY OUTSIDE OF THE WEST
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Westernization or Modernization?
– Reform often equated with loss of traditional rights
• Westernization supported only by small group, usually intellectuals
• Modernization often limited only to industrialization
– Imperialism
• Ethnic elites often imitated western society
• Nationalism equated with need to preserve tradition
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Social Groups
– Conservative Elites
• Europeans left traditional elites in power under colonial supervisors
• Older elites become status quo, often unwilling to reform
– Middle Class and Intellectual Elites
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Often a new group produced by exposure to westerners, industrialization, commerce
Many expressed their new found force in universities, bureaucracy, civil service, technocrats
Often worked with westerners, colonialists to become hope for future independence
Later would form the core of the leaders of the anti-colonial revolutions, revolts
– Industrial workers
• Small force outside of Japan but it did become influential in some countries
– Peasants and farmers
• Remained the bulk of most of the world’s population
• Very suspicious of reform, change unless it insured their property rights
• Tended to be hostile to technology, outside influences
– Outsiders or Foreigners
• Many colonial powers used outsiders to run their empires or brought in labor from elsewhere
• Groups formed isolated, often hated groups by most classes of older societies
EMPIRES AND SOCIETY
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Imperialism disrupted old social patterns
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Rearranged social hierarchy to suit occupiers’ needs, understandings
Europeans, Americans always on top of social hierarchy, lived in capitals, owned wealth
Used existing colonial differences to divide locals, control colonies
Colonial boundaries cut across ethnic, tribal boundaries further dividing peoples
Often used minorities including hated ones to administer colonies
Europeans often imported other colonial peoples to administer different colonies
Colonial conflict not uncommon in nineteenth century
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Glorious Little Wars were often rebellions, resistance to Western encroachment
Resistance included boycotts, political parties, anti-colonial publications
Conflict among different groups united under colonial rule
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Hawaii: Locals resented Japanese, Chinese immigrants as much as Americans
South Africa: Anti-Apartheid movement began amongst Hindu laborers
"Scientific racism" popular in nineteenth century
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Race became the measure of human potential
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Europeans considered superior
Non-White Europeans were considered inferior and needed civilization
Gobineau divided humanity into 4 main racial groups, each with traits
Social Darwinism: "survival of fittest" used to justify European domination
Colonial experience only reinforced popular racism
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Assumed moral superiority of Europeans = White Racial Supremacy
Racist views in U.S. treatment of Filipinos, Japanese treatment of Koreans
Colonizers kept themselves separate from locals, created segregated communities
Westerns strongly discouraged from any marriage, mixing with locals
WOMEN IN SOCIETY
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Active in Revolutions, Change but limited results 1750-1914
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Women served as auxiliaries to men
Would not press changes
Women tended to lack mass support
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Female revolutionaries
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Tended to put class interests above gender issues
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Favored social reform, economic relief
Initially very influential in French Revolution
Women belief that their place was at home, with children
Restoration of Conservative elite often limited any gains by women
Post-Revolutionary Era Women’s Rights
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Industrialization radically altered working women’s roles publicly and privately
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Women moved into the work force in great numbers
Women began to earn some money, independence, began to organize
Women often still held responsible for home, children, family too
Political activism, issues resurrected by middle class, upper class women
Learned to publish and to organize; promoted education
Political activism tended towards
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From legislators
From other women
Opposition to state supported prostitution
Aide to unwed mothers, orphans, widows with children
Temperance Leagues were largely dominated by women
Women became very active in abolitionism, peace movements
Suffrage Movement
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Women demanded right to vote; strongest in settler countries where women had major influence
Came slowly: 1 nation in 1900; 3 in 1910; 15 in 1920
CULT OF DOMESTICITY
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Gender and Social Changes produced Industrial, Agriculture Revolutions
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Decreased death rate from child birth
Women tend to have fewer children as more survive
Death of women in child birth raises live span of women over that of men
First time in history women began to live longer than men
19TH Century Social Ideal
– Common to West, similar traditions in non-Western cultures
– Women were expected to take care of family
• Children, home were more important
• Women expected to have children, look after the family
– Public roles of women limited
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Industrial Revolution changes, threatens ideal
– Women acquire a public role
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Women admitted to work force in great numbers
Acquired purchasing power, influence
Acquired increased independence from husbands
Extra income helped family, increased family health
– Reality Was
• Female workers not treated same as males
• Women with families still had to take care of families
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Child Rearing Changes
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Prior to 19th century: 1/3 children die in first year – not much attachment until one year old
More interest in children as they survive; fewer children in family; more quality time
Relationship between children, parents now much closer
Tendency to introduce earlier childhood education, compulsory primary education
WOMEN & IMPERIALISM
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European Women and Imperialism
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Non-Western Women and Their Rights
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Many Western missionaries were women; Chinese women often became active in missions
Many elite Chinese women educated abroad; married westernized husbands (Soong Sisters)
Japan
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British outlawed widow burning (sati)
Many upper class women acquired education, publicly visible if husbands were westernized
China
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Men often forced to work away from family: women took over male roles: Herding, Farming
Colonists often needed domestic labor and hired African women but little real change
India
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Emancipation often meant liberation from older traditions, husbands
Political emancipation, nationalism often took first place over women’s issues
Progress was slower abroad than in the west, if it came at all
Emancipation or change often considered too radical, western
Many western men had foreign mistresses, mixed families independent of European wife, family
African Women
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Much evidence that European women actively supported imperialism
Tended to encourage, support Western ideas of racism, morality, domesticity and violence
Meiji changes effected women: some entered work force, some acquired an education
Japanese women still largely uneffected by changes in Japanese society
Latin American Women
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Latin American elite became thoroughly westernized in its outlook
Women may have dressed, acted like their western sisters but far more restricted by tradition
Mexican Revolution saw increased roles, involvement of women in revolution, often as soldiers