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Role of AGOA/USAID Trade Hubs in Bringing Sub-Saharan
African Food and Consumer Products to the U.S. Marketplace
Dr. L. Lum Niba, LaSalle University, 1900 West Olney Ave, Philadelphia, PA 19141
ABSTRACT
Most American consumers do not expect to find processed food and consumer products in
their local Wal-Mart with a ‘made in Africa’ label. This is because other than for
oil/petroleum products, consumer exports from sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) to the West have
traditionally been raw, unprocessed food and agricultural products. In recent years however,
there has been a monumental shift. While downstream product exports from Africa are still
virtually a blip on the radar screen, the fact is that there is now a vehicle for the potential
growth and expansion of trade in SSA processed food and consumer products. This is
primarily due to the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA). Originally signed in 2000
(and amended in 2002 and 2004), AGOA has provided great competitive advantage for SSA
product-marketing in the United States. The greatest benefit of AGOA is that products traded
(including primarily processed products and apparel) under the agreement are duty-free (U.S.
International Trade Commission, 2005). In the short span of its existence, AGOA has spawned
success; with 2005 SSA exports to the U.S. under the Act totaling $38.1 billion. Some of the
most remarkable include frozen fruit sorbet from South Africa sold in Wal-Mart and Costco,
and packaged tuna from Senegal. The fundamental challenge in SSA is the appallingly
inadequate infrastructure and sore lack of capacity. Furthermore, policy and business
structures in most of SSA are rudimentary and largely outdated, rendering the region noncompetitive. The USAID regional trade hubs have provided technical assistance to greatly
facilitate production of quality products for a discerning, sophisticated American marketplace.
The Southern Africa Global Competitiveness Hub for instance, brokered the development of
the Trans Kalahari corridor to provide a lucrative trade route linking South Africa, Botswana
and the Namibian port of Walvis Bay. Implementation and realization of the full benefits of
AGOA in SSA still lags far behind potential, mainly because of a lack of awareness, but also
because of inadequate business networks. AGOA business partners in SSA cite the importance
of in-person and direct communication as a crucial ingredient in brokering deals and gaining
exposure. Trade shows, open meetings and networking events are therefore essential.
Effective execution and expansion of AGOA businesses in SSA and business partnerships in
the U.S., and collaboration with the indispensable USAID trade hubs is vital in ensuring that
U.S. consumers get more food and consumer products from SSA in their retail stores.
INTRODUCTION
Sub-Saharan African (SSA) exports to the West have historically been petroleum products, minerals
and non-processed agricultural and farm products such. In fact, for several countries in Central and West Africa,
petroleum products account for the largest proportion of exports to the United States (United States Census
Bureau, 2006). Even then, overall African trade and export is still a disproportionately minuscule fraction of
overall world production and trade.
The primary aim of the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) was to expand and enhance
African trade with the United States. Specifically, AGOA targets the production and export of processed
products from SSA countries to the United States. This provides access for the development and expansion of
new trade opportunities SSA countries, enabling potential growth in competitiveness.
Provisions of AGOA:
AGOA was originally signed into law on July 18th, 2000, and further expanded in 2002 and 2004. The
primary provision of AGOA is that it allows duty-free entry for various processed and manufactured products
from eligible Sub-Saharan African countries into the United States under the Generalized System of Preferences
(GSP), provided the U.S. trade Representative (USTR) and the U.S. International Trade Commission (USITC)
determine that these are not import sensitive. Duty-free access was a key incentive for SSA countries to build
their economies and adopt free market trade policies. With AGOA in place, duty-free access covers the 4,600
GSP line items as well as an additional 1,800 products from SSA AGOA-eligible countries, making allowance
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for over 6,400 items (African Growth and Opportunity Act, 2000). As of date, the AGOA provisions are in
place till September 30th, 2015.
For SSA countries to benefit from the AGOA duty-free access provisions, the eligibility criteria must
be fulfilled, most of which are predicated on economic, political and social reform. At the inception of AGOA,
34 SSA countries were declared eligible. Since the 2000 proclamation however, the following additional
countries have gained eligibility: Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cote D’Ivoire (which later lost eligibility), Democratic
Republic of Congo, The Gambia and Swaziland. Conversely, the following countries have lost their AGOA
eligibility: Central African Republic, Cote D’Ivoire, Eritrea and Mauritius. Of the 48 SSA countries, 37 are
currently AGOA-eligible.
General Overview of AGOA Provisions:
May 18, 2000
AGOA signed into law by President Clinton as Title I of the Trade and
Development Act of 2000 (AGOA I).
Provided incentives (duty-free access) for sub-Saharan African countries to
expand trade with the United States.
December 21, 2000
President Clinton extended duty-free access under GSP for over 1,800 tariff
line items (in addition to the standard list of 4600 items)
August 6, 2002
Amendments to AGOA I signed into law by President Bush as part of the
Trade Act of 2002 (AGOA II).
Expanded preferential access for imports from SSA countries by:
 Doubling the cap for apparel;
 Granting Botswana and Namibia lesser developed beneficiary country
status (producers could use third country fabric);
 Providing preferential treatment for knit-to-shape articles, with
components either from the U.S. or from other eligible SSA countries;
 Expanding preferences for hybrid apparel
July 13, 2004
AGOA Acceleration Act of 2004 signed into law by President Bush
(AGOA III).
 Extended preferential access for imports from SSA countries till
September 30, 2015 (originally 2008)
 Extended 3rd country fabric provision until September 2007.
 Included a Congressional policy statement that textile and apparel
provisions be regarded in a trade-expanding manner
 Included policy statements on AGOA benefits with regard to poverty
reduction, peace promotion, investment and trade reinforcement,
combating HIV/AIDS and trade liberalization.
 Promoted investment in projects that support development of
infrastructure such as roads, ports and information technology.
December 3, 2004
Miscellaneous trade and Technical Corrections Act of 2004 signed into law.
Amendment to AGOA III granting lesser-developed beneficiary status to
Mauritius, allowing them to use non-U.S. fabric and yarn in apparel.
(Sources: African Growth and Opportunity Act, 2000; United States International Trade Commission, 2005;
United States Trade Representative, 2005)
The U.S. market is protected in this AGOA framework by various safeguards. First, there is monitoring
of SSA partner countries for compliance with eligibility criteria. Secondly, the Commerce Secretary monitors
apparel imports to guard against surge, threats or damage to the U.S. apparel import (duty-free access could be
suspended for such products). Thirdly, a US-SSA Trade and Economic Forum is hosted by the Secretaries of
Commerce, State and Treasury, and the USTR. Finally, annual reports are made to Congress through 2008.
AGOA and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Trade Hubs:
The USAID is the primary player in facilitating SSA-US trade in AGOA-eligible SSA countries. The
USAID’s vehicles are the African Global Competitiveness Initiative (AGCI) and the regional trade hubs in SSA.
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The existing trade hubs are the West African Trade hub headquartered in Accra (Ghana), the Southern Africa
Trade Hub headquartered in Gaborone (Botswana) and the East and Central African Trade Hub, with head
quarters in Nairobi (Kenya). The USAID Trade Hubs in cooperation with regional trade groups such as the West
African International Business Linkages program, the Southern African Global Competitiveness Initiative and
the South Africa International Business Linkages program provide technical and logistical assistance such as
sponsoring travel to trade shows and technical guidance.
AGOA FOOD AND CONSUMER PRODUCTS IN THE U.S. MARKET-PLACE
A little more than five years after the inception of AGOA, consumer products imported into the United
States under its auspices are now available in the US market-place.
Some countries exporting non-petroleum products to the United States under the AGOA agreement are:
Table 1: Key AGOA Food and Consumer Products Exporting Countries:
Product
Apparel
Coffee, Tea, and Spices
Cotton
Fish (and fish products)
Exporting Countries
Lesotho, Madagascar, Mauritius
Ethiopia Kenya, Uganda
Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali
The Gambia, Mauritania, Namibia, Sao Tome and Principe,
Senegal, Tanzania
Other agricultural products (e.g. shea-butter)
Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Malawi, Swaziland
(Sources: United States International Trade Commission, 2005; United States Census Bureau, 2006)
There are notable successes in consumer products imported into the United States under the auspices of
AGOA. These include frozen fruit, various clothing and apparel items, gift baskets among others (AGOA 2005,
Chemengich and Gale, 2005; Dougherty, 2004). Specific success stories include the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Frozen fruit sorbet (Island Way Sorbet) imported from the South African company Dynamic
Commodities, which produces pineapples, apples, oranges, lemons; Dynamic Commodities has
contracts with 7-Eleven and its products are carried in Costco and Wal-Mart. Under AGOA, the
company reduced the 17 % tariff, and imports topped $1.8 million in 2004 (African Growth and
Opportunity Act, 2004).
Swimsuits, medical scrubs and polo shirts produced in Cameroon by the Brodwell Company (and Ken
Atlantic brand) for the U.S. market;
Socks finished, bleached and packaged by the company Overseas Knitwear in Ghana and exported in
partnership with Southeastern Yarn Sales (Charlotte, North Carolina);
Knit pants finished by the Kenyan (East Africa) company Chandu EPZ Limited, and imported for sale
in JC Penney and Wal-Mart;
Men and women’s garments produced by Shining Century in Lesotho for sale in the U.S.; such
factories contributed to the estimated $318 million of Lesotho’s exports to the United States in 2003;
Camouflage t-shirts produced by Belin Textiles in Ghana (West Africa) and imported for sale in WalMart;
Peace baskets (made of handicraft and gift items) assembled by the company Gahaya Links in Rwanda
and displayed in Macy’s; AGOA sales are estimated at $370,000.
Infant and children’s clothes produced by Bodo Voahangy in Madagascar; the company contracted
with Ralph Lauren and have reached sales of up to $100,000 per year.
Overall, SSA-US exports under AGOA increased by 88 % in 2004, and were estimated at $26.6 billion,
of which non-petroleum products were 3.5 billion (U.S. Dept of Commerce, 2005).
CONSTRAINTS IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF AGOA
Most SSA countries still lag far behind in utilizing and exploiting the benefits of AGOA. Perhaps this
is most clearly demonstrated by the fact that almost six years after the enactment of AGOA, raw materials for
most garment and apparel factories are still being sourced from Asia (Dougherty, 2004). Most apparel factories
and production in SSA, are sourced from Asia or other third countries.
The major challenges are:
Government Regulatory and Policy Hurdles:
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A common characteristic cited by foreign investors is the nature of the government economic, regulatory and
policy barriers that are prevalent in SSA. Topical areas of concern include the inconsistencies in the rule of law,
enforcement of contracts, lack of transparency in trade policy administration, high tariffs and taxes, and land
tenure practices that are counter productive (USTR, 2005). Furthermore, logistical policy issues such as
outdated income tax policies, bureaucracy in registration and administration of business licenses, inadequate
insurance and property protection deter the development of an entrepreneurial and free market approach by
potential producers. There is minimal government and institutional support for the production of AGOA eligible
products in many SSA countries. Little is being done in the way of government commitment to facilitation of
investment and promotion of the export trade. Intra-regional movement, communication trade within SubSaharan Africa is still highly limited. There are still considerable barriers that frustrate attempts and efforts to
build trade within SSA.
These hurdles make it extremely difficult and untenable for the development, growth and expansion of
the new markets being generated by AGOA. Eligibility in AGOA is strongly dependent on the economic and
political structures within the AGOA countries. Therefore progressive policies and commitment to reformare
intertwined in the implementation of AGOA.
Inadequate Trade and Export Infrastructure:
Most SSA countries lack substantial trade and market policy infrastructure to evolve from the
traditional one or two raw material export focus (such as crude oil or raw agricultural products), to a
processing/production-based end-use product orientation. The complementary policy structures for this new
emphasis, such as a free market economy, privatization and so on, have not been clearly established in SSA. In
many SSA countries, access to capital, financial markets, and trade is tightly controlled and regulated by a
central government. In many countries for instance, major businesses and production operations such as
agricultural farms and plantations etc, are state-run and state- controlled. This has somewhat greatly limited the
extent to which businesses can re-align to take advantage of the AGOA provisions. Only in recent years has
there been a move toward the free market and liberalization.
In most of the major commercial areas, there is availability of funds for loans, but these enterprises face
difficulties in resource management and lack of collateral (Tahsoh, 2001). Production and service costs are still
a major constraint in most areas. Services and supplies such as water, power, transport (roads, seaports) and
telecommunication are still prohibitive, and substantially raise production costs (USTR, 2005).
Inadequate capacity to fulfill demand:
There are numerous barriers and challenges to the smooth functioning of the value chain in SSA
countries. Specifically, there are supply-side constraints in meeting demand for production operations. Basic
processing industries are minimal or non-existent. The lack of capacity to source raw material is a major
challenge particularly for garment and apparel factories, which so far have had to rely on raw materials from
Asia (Dougherty, 2004). Central to the AGOA apparel provision however, is the fact that materials used for
apparel have to be either from the United States or from other AGOA eligible countries, or in special instances
for countries that have been granted lesser-developed beneficiary status, components can be obtained from a
third country. This is the case with Botswana and Namibia. This provision therefore puts the onus on SSA
countries to provide capacity and supply to meet the production of apparel. The development of raw material
sourcing is essential to sustain production.
Technical know-how, access to research findings, modern technology and international standards is a
major concern. USTR assessments indicate that there is still a lack of technical capacity in the area of
phytosanitary standards and in enforcing technical regulations (USTR, 2005).
Internal instability within SSA Countries:
With the lengthy tenure of most heads-of-state and political leaders in SSA, government change and
reform often leads to instability and simmering volatility. While there have been considerable efforts to control
corruption, embezzlement and looting of state resources, corruption and lack of penalties or restitution provide
for a tenuous business environment.
To be successful as trade partners and suppliers, stability and consistency is essential. Furthermore,
AGOA eligibility requires progress toward reform and evidence of stability. Policing the provisions of AGOA is
extremely difficult in tenuous or conflict situations. This has led to some countries being taken off the list of
AGOA-eligible countries. This uncertainty in turn makes buyers uneasy and limits business opportunities for
these countries.
US Buyer Issues: Gap in Trade Culture Between SSA Suppliers and US Market:
Buyers and customers in the U.S. are largely unfamiliar with the concept of SSA as suppliers for
consumer products, particularly since the paradigm of SSA trade has been in petroleum products and
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commodities, and to some extent, tourist services. Outsourcing and off-shoring by most U.S. companies have
been to other emerging markets, mainly Asia. This is largely understandable as these markets have developed
and built infrastructure to be effective and comprehensive suppliers and market partners.
STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING THE UTILIZATION OF AGOA
The AGOA provisions are set to expire in September 2015. They were extended (from the 2008 expiration date),
primarily because progress toward augmenting African trade and sustainability was relatively insufficient. Local capacity,
productivity, technical competency, supply and sourcing are still lagging far behind anticipated demand. While the growth in
non-petroleum exports has been steady since the enactment of AGOA, the pace has been slow and hesitant. Most SSA
countries have not actively engaged in systematic planning for the establishment and implementation of supporting
infrastructure to exploit the opportunities presented by AGOA. This can be attained by undertaking the following
strategic steps:
1. Strategic Planning By SSA Countries:
The starting point for SSA countries to explore the potential benefits of AGOA is to undertake
comprehensive strategic planning to develop AGOA-focused export trade, in addition to existing trade
structures. This involves not just the government, but all the stakeholders: private business, trade organizations,
cooperatives, policy institutions, and foreign investors. This should be geared at first identifying core
competency production, trade and export areas, (which dovetail with existing sources and capacity), followed by
infrastructure development and support, and finally, a reduction in the economic, trade, and regulatory policy
barriers.
Reform is a criterion for AGOA eligibility. An establishment and maintenance of the rule of law and a
guarantee of trade and property protection for investors, suppliers and buyers is crucial. The African Global
Competitiveness Initiative of the USAID has as one of its strategic objectives to improve policy, regulatory and
an enforcement environment. Stakeholders in SSA have to be genuinely committed to financial accountability,
and to combating corruption to ensure macro-economic stability. A vital step in combating corruption and
enforcing the rule of law is the reduction of capital flight. Wealthy Africans hold up to 39 % of their assets in
foreign countries (Collier, Hoeffler and Patillo, 2000), with an estimated $700 - $800 billion held abroad in
2005 (Mistry, 2005). Capital flight from 25 SSA countries between 1970 and 1996 was estimated at $285 billion
(Boyce and Ndikumana, 2001), and current annual capital flight is $20 billion per year (Ayittey, 2005).
Retention of capital in efficient local financial institutions will greatly increase financial capacity.
2. Modernization of Market and Economic Policies to Liberalize Trade and Build Competitiveness:
An evolution from the centrally-controlled market systems in many SSA countries toward a free market
and trade liberalization is imperative to the success of AGOA. In most areas, there are constraints to
entrepreneurial and private capital investment. Open trade has been shown to generally result in richer nations
(Tupy, 2005). Trade expansion and market-based incentives could improve per capita income and hence growth
(Asafu-Adjaye, 2004). This will also facilitate participation into international marketing networks.
The private sector has to be strengthened to increase investment and trade. This can be achieved by
improving the financing and investment structures, and fostering an investment-friendly financial climate.
Progress has been made in establishing stock exchanges in countries such as Ghana, Kenya, Namibia, Botswana
and Nigeria (Kleiman, 2006). Lowering investment and trade barriers in production of end-use consumer goods
could further enhance foreign investment. Since the inception of AGOA, for instance, the U.S. has increased its
investment in Africa by about 12 %, reaching a total of $9 billion (Arinaitwe, Andrew and Kamasaul, 2005).
3. Promotion of SSA Intra-regional Trade:
While there are regional economic blocks and unions to facilitate trade, SSA has the smallest
proportion of intra-regional trade in the world.
It is possible to build on the existing country blocs and regional trade associations to facilitate supply and
transportation networks.
Cultivating and facilitating intra-regional trade between SSA countries will increase their trade capacity and
overall competitiveness. It has been suggested that liberalizing trade within SSA could increase intra-regional
trade by up to 54 % (Tupy, 2005).
Tariffs in developing countries are extremely high. The average tariffs among developing countries are
15.2 % for agricultural products and 12.1 % for manufactured goods, compared with 2.8 % and 3.5 %
respectively for developed countries (World Bank, 2000).
The advantage of intra-regional SSA trade networks would likely be the establishment of trade-enhancing tariff
scales and a reduction in protectionism. Improved intra-regional trade could enhance the capacity and growth of
producers and hence their competitiveness (USTR, 2005).
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4. Development of Production and Technical Capacity:
Low and inadequate capacity and productivity for supply to export markets is a major concern in SSA.
SSA countries absolutely have to commit to building capacity and raising productivity to be competitive. A
pivotal component required for the effective functioning of the value chain for AGOA-eligible SSA countries
are the small and medium size enterprises for growing, processing and production of needed raw materials and
sourcing.
To fit into the AGOA framework, there is no doubt that technical assistance is crucial. The United
States has provided considerable support for capacity building to SSA countries. In 2004 for instance, the U.S.
provided a total of $179.5 million for capacity building for AGOA eligible SSA countries (USTR, July 2005).
Furthermore, the USAID has pledged funds ($5 million) for enhancing plant health inspection services for SSA
fruits and vegetables to be traded in the global marketplace (USAID, 2006).
There have been some steps in SSA toward capacity building for trade and development. The New
Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) for instance has as part of its priority, building and improving
infrastructure, improving Africa’s share in global trade, attracting foreign direct investment among others
(NEPAD, 2005).
5. Market and Trade Education and Training:
There is need for basic education on the provisions and potential benefits of AGOA. Education and
instruction for policy makers, entrepreneurs, suppliers and marketers will contribute to improving an
understanding and familiarity with AGOA. One of the objectives of the African Global Competitiveness
Initiative is to improve market knowledge and skills among private sector enterprises.
It is important to note that there is indeed a gap in marketing and management skills in SSA
(concomitant with the lower rates of formal education among producers and suppliers in the region). Market
education and training is therefore an important aspect of developing and enhancing trade infrastructure.
Furthermore, more specific technical training and in international standards is essential.
6. Improved Collaboration Networks:
Trade shows, networking and media exposure opportunities are an integral part of developing business
opportunities and meeting trade partners. Collaborations and links with firms outside of SSA will could be
useful in enabling small and medium size enterprises improve their financing (Tahsoh, 2001). The USAID
Trade hubs have been the primary means for liaison between SSA producers/suppliers and trade partners.
Sustainable collaboration networks, as well as promotional and marketing opportunities need to be further
developed.
CONCLUSION
Progress assessments of AGOA so far highlight potential areas for growth in exports from SSA, mainly
in value-added horticultural products, agro-processing (including products such as fruit juices, cocoa-butter),
service industries (including tourism and transportation), energy-related products, forestry, fisheries and light
manufacturing (USTR, 2005). While the challenges of implementing and maximizing the benefits of AGOA so
far still outweigh the strides that have been made, it is important to be cognizant of the fact that AGOA has only
been in existence for little over six years. The majority of the stakeholders - producers in SSA, policy makers,
trade experts - have yet to fully adapt to AGOA. Its implementation and application requires a prolonged,
sustained, long-term effort. While there has not been an explosion in trade as anticipated, there have been small
but significant steps. AGOA’s provisions were extended to 2015, in the hope that productivity, change, progress
in SSA/US end-use products trade would be realized. For food and consumer products in particular, there have
been notable successes. As the ‘pioneer’ successful SSA-AGOA businesses establish and their products become
competitive, it is anticipated that this will further spur growth and expansion, and SSA end-use processed food
and consumer products will constitute a component of the US market place.
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Collier, P., Hoeffler, A., and Patillo, C. (2000). Flight Capital as a Portfolio Choice. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper Series, no.
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